Industrialised construction: key moments in housing from past to present

11 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER Indus ialised Cons uc ion: Key Momen s in Housing F om Pas o P esen anne e Da is Abs ac Indus ialised Cons uc ion (IC), known as Mode n Me hods o Cons uc ion (MMC) in he UK, is a b oad e m encompassing he sys ema ic and con olled p o- duc ion o buildings. Indus ialised solu ions da e back cen u ies and ha e been used o mee u gen housing needs; ypically ollowing pe iods o wa , economic un- ce ain y, p o ound demog aphic change, and echno- logical ad ancemen s. Today, in addi ion o using IC o p o ide a o dable housing h ough economies o scale, he clima e c isis has pu inc easing p essu e on he cons uc ion indus y o u ilise hese inno a i e solu ions mo e han e e be o e. IC is inc easingly associa ed wi h indus y 4.0 and me ging wi h ICTs such as BIM, o suppo an in eg a ed p ojec eam and documen in o - ma ion o all building li e-cycle s ages. IC is inhe en ly di icul o de ine and has expanded in esponse o echnological de elopmen s and changes in socie y. This has con ibu ed o he cu en lack o a common unde s anding o he e m wi hin he academ- ic li e a u e, amongs indus y s akeholde s in ol ed in he deli e y o housing, and a he go e nmen al le el. 12 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS Ad ancemen s in echnology - and in pa icula ICTs - wi hin he las decade mean ha IC is de eloping a an inc easing a e. To p o ide solu ions o he cu en hous- ing challenges and ealise he ull po en ial o IC, i is impe a i e o cla i y he meaning o he e m. Wi hin his pape he mul i- ace ed concep o IC will be unpicked h ough he lens o h ee de ining cha ac e is ics: con- s uc ion me hods, s a egies, and suppo ing echnolo- gies. The mul iple associa ed meanings will be in es i- ga ed h ough key momen s in housing h oughou his o y o p esen day. In pa allel, his pape gi es an o e iew on he socie al con ex , o p o ide he eade wi h an unde s anding o he mo i a ion behind he use o IC h oughou di e en ime pe iods. IC is he e o e a dynamic e m which needs o be con- inuously upda ed in a apidly changing wo ld. Whils he cons uc ion indus y has been slow o digi alise, and nega i e pe cep ions owa ds IC pe sis , he e ha e been ecen p o ound changes in i s applica ion o en i- onmen ally sus ainable and a o dable housing. In his a ea, IC is gi ing ise o a pa adigm shi in he planning o building s ages beyond comple ion and owa ds ci - cula i y. Key wo ds: Indus ialised Cons uc ion, Housing, A - o dabili y, Sus ainabili y, Building li ecycle 13 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER 1.0 In oduc ion Indus ialised Cons uc ion (IC) is a b oad e m encom- passing he sys ema ic and con olled p oduc ion o buildings. Indus ialised solu ions da e back cen u ies and ha e been used o mee u gen housing needs; ypically ollowing pe iods o wa , economic unce ain y, p o ound demog aphic change, and echnological ad- ancemen s. Today, in addi ion o using IC o p o ide a o dable housing h ough economies o scale, he cli- ma e c isis has pu inc easing p essu e on he cons uc- ion indus y o u ilise hese inno a i e solu ions mo e han e e be o e. IC, and in pa icula o -si e me hods, ha e been com- monly associa ed wi h poo -quali y housing om he pos -wa yea s. This has con ibu ed o he la gely neg- a i e pe cep ions o IC held by he public and indus y p o essionals alike, un il ecen yea s. IC has he e o e needed o o e come a damaged epu a ion du ing li - ing memo y, o be once again conside ed an e ec i e al e na i e o con en ional cons uc ion me hods o p o- ide housing. IC is also inhe en ly di icul o de ine and has expanded in esponse o echnological de elopmen s and chang- es in socie y. This has con ibu ed o a lack o common unde s anding o he e m wi hin he academic li e a u e and amongs he s akeholde s in ol ed in he deli e y o housing. Ad ancemen s in echnology - and in pa icu- la ICTs - wi hin he las decade mean ha IC is de el- oping a an inc easing a e. To p o ide solu ions o he cu en housing challenges and ealise he ull po en ial o IC, i is impe a i e o cla i y he meaning o he e m. This combina ion o enewed us in IC and ecen ech- nological de elopmen s ha e esul ed in signi ican in- es men a he academic, indus y, and go e nmen 14 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS le els in nume ous coun ies o add ess oday’s clima e and housing challenges. Wi hin his pape , he mul i- ace ed concep o IC will be unpicked h ough he lens o h ee de ining cha ac e is- ics: cons uc ion me hods, s a egies, and suppo ing echnologies. Commen a y on socie al con ex will also p o ide he eade wi h a holis ic o e iew o he de el- opmen s in IC h oughou his o y. This pape seeks o examine how IC has e ol ed o e ime o p o ide hous- ing solu ions om i s ea ly o igins o p esen day, which will be discussed h ough six cha ac e ising ime pe i- ods. 2.0 De ining Indus ialised Cons uc ion Indus ialised Cons uc ion (IC) is an umb ella e m which applies indus ialisa ion and manu ac u ing p inciples o deli e buildings mo e e ec i ely, wi h he abili y o im- p o e he p edic abili y o p ojec s o e he building li e- cycle. The concep o IC cen es a ound s a egies, cons uc ion me hods, and suppo ing echnologies (Gann, 1996; Gibb, 2001; Ande sson and Lessing, 2017). IC s a egies, he i s o hese h ee cha ac e is- ics, e e s o he unde lying design and business p inci- ples ha suppo he e-use o expe ience o con inu- ous imp o emen (Lessing, 2015). The second cha ac e is ic o IC is cons uc ion me hods , which p e- dominan ly cen e a ound o -si e cons uc ion, also known as p e ab ica ion. Today inno a i e cons uc ion me hods such as 3D p in ing ha e also made on-si e ab ica ion possible - a signi ican new de elopmen in IC. (ARUP, 2016). The hi d key elemen o IC is suppo - ing echnologies , his includes In o ma ion Communi- ca ions Technologies (ICT) and obo ics, which a e used o op imise and au oma e he building p ocess (Bock and Linne , 2015). Conside ing hese h ee aspec s, Lessing and Ande sson (2017) p o ide he ollowing 15 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER de ini ion ha encompasses bo h o -si e and newe on- si e me hods: “Today, indus ialised cons uc ion cons i u es a sys e- ma ic, con olled and s anda dised p oduc ion p ocess o well-de ined building sys ems, which makes i possi- ble o moni o and ga he expe iences om he design, p oduc ion and assembly o he building sys em as a basis o con inuous imp o emen . Indus ialised cons- uc ion is no limi ed o p e ab ica ion and ac o y p o- duc ion, bu includes all sys ema ic, con olled and s anda dised p oduc ion o well-de ined building sys- ems, ega dless o whe he he building p oduc s a e manu ac u ed o -si e o manually p oduced on si e. ” (Ande sson and Lessing, 2017). The concep o IC has e ol ed signi ican ly o e ime; i is he e o e a dynamic e m which needs o be con inu- ously upda ed and a an inc easing a e in a apidly changing wo ld. Today IC is used o deli e a o dable cus ome o ien a ed housing h ough mass cus omisa- ion in pa allel wi h a cu en ocus on en i onmen al sus ainabili y, which will be discussed in mo e de ail in he subsequen sec ions. 3.0 The o igins o IC: S anda disa ion & P e ab ica ion | P e-1910 (1/6) 3.1 Theo ies on he ea ly o igins o IC Wi hin academia, a ious heo ies pos ula e he o igins o IC, all which cen e on ei he s anda disa ion o p e- ab ica ion, o a hyb id. Gann (1996) and Gibb (2001) a gue ha b icks, which can be da ed back o he neo- li hic pe iod, and a e a s anda d p e-buil building com- ponen , a e an example o IC me hods being used in housing cons uc ion. Howe e , his line o a gumen can be p oblema ic, as con en ional cons uc ion 16 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS equi es he use o many p oduc s which a e no p o- duced on-si e. O he s conside he o igins o IC o da e back o he ea ly yea s o B i ish colonialisa ion, whe e un amilia i y wi h local ma e ials o he new colonies, led o he shipping o p e ab ica ed elemen s on a global scale (Smi h, 2010). The ea lies applica ion o p e ab i- ca ion in housing om his pe iod is imbe homes, he i s o which was cons uc ed in England and hen shipped o, and assembled in, Cape Anne in 1624, which is mode n day Massachuse s in he USA. The B i ish con inued p e ab ica ing housing in hand wi h colonisa ion e o s in o he 1800s, p oducing homes ha could be easily bol ed oge he such as he ‘Man- ning Po able Colonial Co age o Emig an s’ shown in Figu e 1. 3.2 IC du ing he 1s and 2nd Indus ial Re olu ions The i s indus ial e olu ion, da ing om he mid-18 h cen u y o mid-19 h, is cha ac e ised by mechanisa ion, s eam powe , and wa e powe . This c ea ed a shi in manu ac u ing p ocesses; om making p oduc s man- ually by hand o he use o machine y, shaking up many indus ies and housing was no excep ion. The second indus ial e olu ion, also known as he echnological e olu ion, u he emb aced he concep o s anda di- sa ion and is cha ac e ised by mechanisa ion powe ed by elec ici y, and he in oduc ion o he assembly line a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y. Du ing his pe iod, cons uc ion was also e olu ionised by he in en ion o new ma e ials and p oduc s such as cas i on, p ecas conc e e, and he indus ial p oduc ion o Po land ce- men and s eel, which would li e ally become he build- ing blocks o housing. C ys al Palace, which was buil o he G ea Exhibi ion in 1851, is he alded as a land- ma k p ojec ha pushed he bounda ies o inno a ion and was buil om many s anda dised pa s. This e- duced he numbe o di e en building elemen s, Figu e 1. Manning Po able Colonial Co age o Emig an s (Smi h, 2010, p.6) 17 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER making indus ial o -si e p e ab ica ion and se ial p o- duc ion iable (Bock and Langenbe g, 2014). In he ea ly 1900s imbe balloon amed houses such as Aladdin Homes and Sea s Roebuck & Co became comme cially a ailable in he USA, aiding he expan- sion o owns and ci ies (Smi h, 2010). Though i wasn’ un il he adop ion o Fo dism and mass p oduc ion ha IC began o ha e a g ea e impac on housing on a global scale. A he beginning o he 20 h cen u y one can al eady obse e he dispa i y in mo i a ions behind u ilising IC; om go e nmen s and mona chy e ec i ely building se lemen s ab oad, o inno a ion and ga ne - ing na ional p ide wi hin he in e na ional communi y wi h p ojec s such as C ys al Palace, o enabling he a - e age Ame ican o build hei own single- amily home a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y. In he wake o ap- idly g owing de elopmen s in indus ialisa ion, a chi- ec s and designe s we e p esen ed wi h new ma e ials and challenges. I was only a ma e o ime be o e he housing sec o was ans o med. 4.0 Mass P oduc ion | 1910-1945 (2/6) In he ea ly 20 h cen u y, Hen y Fo d and o he s in he au omobile indus y led g ound-b eaking de elopmen s in he mass p oduc ion o ca s using he assembly line. This business model s anda dised ac o y p oduc ion in conjunc ion wi h economies o scale o educe p oduc- ion cos s, imp o e quali y s anda ds, and consequen ly yield highe p o i s. This had a p o ound e ec on he indus ies ha adop ed his model, including he hous- ing sec o . In he ollowing yea s he Mode n Mo emen aspi ed o ans o m housing om an expensi e capi al in es men o an easily a ailable p oduc . These expec- a ions we e o be ul illed h ough a combina ion o he mo emen ’s associa ed dogmas based a ound p ac i- cal design, wi h ad anced echnologies such as he 18 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS ac o y-based mechanised assembly line. Ideologies in a chi ec u e a he ime cen ed on unc ionalism and he p oduc ion o simple, easily eplicable elemen s, p omo ing a loss o o namen a ion in housing (Smi h, 2010). Leading up o he Second Wo ld Wa , mass p o- duc ion in housing would begin as a concep and so- cialis ideology ounded by he ea ly mode nis a chi- ec s. This was implemen ed on a la ge scale by go e nmen s and sp ead o se e al coun ies du ing he pos -wa yea s. 4.1 Mass p oduc ion o s anda dised componen s The machine age o e ed he hope ha like many o he goods, housing could be mass p oduced om s and- a dised componen s in a ac o y. Renowned designe s o he ea ly and mid-20 h cen u y ully emb aced mass p oduc ion. The ea ly mode nis a chi ec s we e p opo- nen s o he manu ac u e o housing h ough mechani- sa ion, and di ec ly opposed he a s and c a s mo e- men (Gann, 2000). Le Co busie ’s 1914 Dom-ino House was an in luen ial example o s anda disa ion and he use o machine y and would amously go on o w i e “Une maison es une machine-à-habi e ” (“A house is a machine o li ing in”) in his 1923 book ‘Towa d an A chi ec u e’. Leading a chi ec s du ing his pe iod we e able o showcase he mo emen ’s design p in- ciples on p o o ype single amily homes. Co busie ’s Ci ohan House and Fulle ’s Dymaxion House (Figu e 2), bo h concei ed in he 1920s, emain highly in luen ial examples o indus ially cons uc ed homes. Howe e , such p ojec s we e la gely o e - ambi ious a he ime o be ealised on a mass- scale. 19 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER 4.2 Volume ic p e-assembly “pods” In he ea ly 20 h cen u y, new and expensi e ma e ials such as p e ab ica ed conc e e, plas ic and aluminium we e used in cu ing-edge homes o he ime and would be inc easingly used wi hou ega d o hei de imen al en i onmen al impac , due o a lack o knowledge and awa eness a he ime. In addi ion o new ma e ials, a new me hod o indus ialised cons uc ion eme ged, olume ic p e-assembly. Gibb (2001, p.309) de ines olume ic p esassembly as “uni s ha enclose usable space, bu do no o hemsel es cons i u e he whole building” and goes on o desc ibe ha his me hod is used o spaces such as ba h ooms and se ice ooms. This was i s seen in he 1920s on a small scale wi h he de elopmen o modula ki chen and ba h oom pods in Scandina ian coun ies. Inco po a ing p e ab ica ed el- emen s acili a ed sho e build imes o coun e a lack o sunligh in he win e mon hs (Bock and Linne , 2015); oday Sweden emains a leading coun y in p e ab ica - ed housing. This was a signi ican s ep in he de elop- men o s anda disa ion on a la ge scale, and owa ds s anda d housing uni s, which would be seen in he ol- lowing yea s. 5.0 Pos -wa Mass P oduc ion & Sys ems Thinking | 1946-1969 (3/6) The second Wo ld Wa had a de as ing e ec on hous- ing, wi h a signi ican amoun o s ock des oyed on a global scale. The pos -wa e a also saw a global shi in he O e on Window and he ushe ing in o new social and economic policies, including subsidised social housing in se e al EU coun ies. Mass p oduc ion was well sui ed o p o iding u gen ly needed social housing o he masses. Du ing his pe iod, sca ci y o labou and ma e ials such as b ick, combined wi h he exis ing edundan wa ime a mamen s ac o ies c ea ed he Figu e 2. Dymaxion House, 1927 by Buckmins e Fulle h ps://www. esea chga e.ne / igu e/ Dymaxion- House-by-Buckmins e - Fulle _ ig5_320405093 26 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS sys ems” in addi ion o p omo ing lean p ocesses. Two yea s la e , he Swedish go e nmen also publicly sup- po ed “Indus iell Byggande” (Indus ial Cons uc ion) and lexible modula me hods in a public epo on con- s uc ion (F i zes O en liga Publika ione , 2000). In 2005, he UK go e nmen published a epo on Mode n Me h- ods o Cons uc ion (MMC), which pu e en g ea e im- po ance on modula building as he u u e o housing cons uc ion (UK Na ional Audi O ice, 2005). In he Ne he lands, be ween 1999-2006, he Du ch go e n- men se up a subsidised p og amme o de elop new housing using inno a i e p oduc s and me hods, called “Indus ieel Flexibel Demon abel bouwen” (IFD), mean- ing “Indus ial, Flexible and Demoun able cons uc ion” (IFD) (Ge aed s, Cupe us and Shing, 2011). The p omo- ion o modula cons uc ion encou aged expe ien ial housing p ojec s using e-pu posed shipping con ain- e s, such as Kee wonen in Ams e dam, comple ed in 2006. Acco ding o Bock and Linne (2013), du ing his pe iod in Japan he o -si e ac o y mo ed o he build- ing si e i sel , wi h a new end in e ical ac o ies wi h suppo om “ obo ic-co wo ke s”. These we e used o build high- ise apa men s and showed p og ession o- wa ds on-si e ab ica ion me hods ha would eme ge in he coming yea s. 8.0 On-si e ab ica ion & Sma Manu ac u ing | 2014-p esen (6/6) Recen ad ancemen s wi h he in e ne and ICTs led o de elopmen s in Sma Manu ac u ing (SM) and o he esea ch linked o he ou h indus ial e olu ion, known as Indus y 4.0. Meanwhile, he 2008 inancial c ash sig- nalled an age o c isis: wi h he housing c isis beginning in 2008, he e ugee c isis in 2015, and mo e ecen ly he clima e c isis. Consequen ly, go e nmen s and businesses ha e pu a enewed ocus on indus ialised me hods o p o ide solu ions. Recen p ojec s include 27 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER modula social housing op-ups and ex ensions, ship- ping con aine s o empo a y and social housing, and modula en s o e ugee camps such as Be e Shel- e ’s (2015) pop-up ‘homes’ in collabo a ion wi h IKEA and UNHCR. 2014 was a pi o al yea whe e in addi ion o p e ab ica ion, indus ialised on-si e ab ica ion be- came possible, due o p og ess in suppo ing echnolo- gies and 3D p in ing. No only was i he yea ha e- sea ch in SM accele a ed (Wang e al., 2021); i was he same yea he pionee ing 3D p in ed Canal House, by DUS a chi ec s in Ams e dam, i s opened o he public. 8.1 Digi al ab ica ion and on-si e ab ica ion The e ha e been signi ican new ad ancemen s in he ield o au oma ion and obo ics, which a e now mo e commonly e e ed o unde he e m Digi al Fab ica- ion. Digi al Fab ica ion includes addi i e echnologies such as 3D p in ing, also known as Addi i e Manu ac u - ing (AM) o apid p o o yping and is suppo ed by obo - ics, in addi ion o sub ac i e manu ac u ing me hods such as CNC machining. This building me hod is based on s anda dised p ocesses o p oduce p e-p o- g ammed designs and has been used o p in s uc- u es wi h a ious ma e ials such as glass, conc e e, and clay o name a ew. G ound-b eaking 3D p in ed p ojec s, such as he Tecla House (Figu e 6) by 3D p in - ing specialis s WASP (2021) using clay, inc easingly suppo sus ainable housing using na u al ma e ials. 8.2 BIM and Sma Manu ac u ing (SM) owa ds au oma ed and p edic i e design Sma Manu ac u ing (SM) enables p edic i e design and elies on new echnologies associa ed wi h indus y 4.0 such as cloud compu ing, In e ne o Things (IoT), Big Da a, and A i icial In elligence (AI). Acco ding o Tao Figu e 6. Tecla House, 3D p in ed on- si e using clay by WASP (2021) 28 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS and Qi (2019), hese can be ega ded as he new gen- e a ion o ICTs. Today BIM suppo s he en i onmen al agenda, whils ein o cing Pe o mance-Based Design and encou aging he mo e owa ds p edic i e building analysis using machine lea ning (Hollbe g, Geno a and Habe , 2019). In ecen yea s, BIM is used o suppo li- ecycle hinking and he planning o building p ocesses beyond he p ac ical comple ion s age. BIM can acili- a e he au oma ion o Li e Cycle Assessmen s (LCA) and Li e Cycle Cos ing Assessmen s (LCCA) using so - wa e and plug-ins such as OneClick LCA and Tally. Mo e ecen ly, he e ha e been in es iga ions in o coupling hese de elopmen s wi h 3D pa ame ic modelling o c ea e digi al wins ha use eal- ime da a. 8.3 Indus ialised Cons uc ion and en i onmen al sus ainabili y Wi hin he las ew yea s, g ea e impo ance is being gi en o sus ainable de elopmen han e e be o e, and i is now a key d i e o he implemen a ion o IC. I is de ined by he UN 3 Pilla s (2002) h ough economic, social, and en i onmen al ac o s, also known as he T iple Bo om Line. IC in combina ion wi h Ci cula Econ- omy (CE) holds g ea po en ial in p o iding esou ce e i- cien housing (Kedi and Hall, 2021) and he conside a- ion o all building li ecycle s ages. IC and CE a e bo h la gely based on sys ems app oaches and sha e com- monali y wi h cha ac e ising p ocesses such as Lean Thinking, in eg a ed supply chains, and longe planning phases. In addi ion o 3D p in ing using na u al ma e i- als, eme ging esea ch connec ing hese wo ap- p oaches includes Design o Disassembly (D D), which is e e sible cons uc ion ha suppo s he closing o ma e ial loops, based on he 3R’s p inciple o “Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle”. D D is being ad oca ed by go - e nmen s and G een Building Councils in Eu ope as he u u e o cons uc ion - including house building – in he 29 ARQUITECTONICS DOSSIER ansi ion o a ci cula economy (Mayo o London, 2019; DGBC, 2021). 9.0 Conclusions This pape summa ised he his o y o IC in housing h ough six key momen s om he pas h ough o p es- en day and spanning ou indus ial e olu ions. In pa - allel, a unning discou se on he socie al con ex has sough o p o ide he eade wi h a wide unde s anding o he ac o s con ibu ing o he de elopmen o IC o e ime. Though IC should be conside ed a dynamic e m, he meaning o i was examined h ough he lens o h ee de ining cha ac e is ics: s a egies, cons uc ion me hods, and suppo ing echnologies. Whils he con- s uc ion indus y emains slow o digi alise, and nega- i e pe cep ions owa ds s ill IC pe sis , he e ha e been ecen p o ound change in he applica ion o IC o p o- ide inno a i e solu ions o oday’s housing challenges in en i onmen al sus ainabili y in addi ion o a o dabili y. Going o wa d IC will play a c ucial ole in he ans o - ma ion o he cons uc ion indus y and o sus aining a ci cula buil en i onmen . Acknowledgmen s The wo k p esen ed in his publica ion has been ca ied ou wi hin he RE-DWELL Inno a i e T aining Ne wo k, unded by he Eu opean Union’s Ho izon 2020 esea ch and inno a ion p og amme unde he Ma ie Skłodows- ka-Cu ie g an ag eemen no. 956082. Thank you o P o esso Leand o Mad azo o you suppo in w i ing his pape . 30 ARQUITECTONICS ARQUITECTONICS Re e ences ACSA (2012) ‘Ame ican Wa ime D eam: The Packaged House Sys em o Kon ad Wachsmann and Wal e G opius’, in ACSA Fall Con e ence , pp. 39–43. Allen, J. and Kouppas, P. 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