Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights on green façades design in hot climates as one of crucial strategies for low-carbon development

Vol.:(0123456789) Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-024-02957-1 REVIEW Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates asone ofcrucial strategies forlow‑carbon development KatarzynaChojnacka1· BarbaraWidera2· MarcelMacarulla3· AnastasiosDrougkas4· AndreuBalastegui5· ElsVandemoortel6· CansuIrazSeyrekŞık2· KajetanSadowski2· JoanaFernandes7· RicardoGomes7· PauloFerrão7 Received: 31 January 2024 / Accepted: 7 July 2024 © The Author(s) 2024 Abstract The purpose of this study is to present interdisciplinary insights on vertical green systems (VGS) design in hot climate zones. The approach to the VGS design proposed in this article combines architectural design, structural systems, green building and township development with sustainable urban farming, circularity, waste and water management. On the basis of in-depth study on green façade performance in hot climates, the authors identified methods derived from various fields of science which, when correctly combined, enable effective protection of plants against excessive solar radiation. The main finding of the research is the identification of the most effective combination of methods supporting healthy growth of the VGS. This set of solutions includes orientation of the façade to cardinal directions correlated with appropriate plants selection, shading strategies, such as passive and kinetic shields and organic fertilizers supporting plants’ resilience. The authors presented key challenges and opportunities of VGS application and discussed their role in the decarbonization process of the building sector. The multidisciplinary analysis of the state of knowledge highlighted areas that require further investigation, such as the practical implementation of proposed strategies and their effectiveness in real-world scenarios. Graphical abstract Keywords Vertical green systems· Green façade· Hot climate· Renovation· Passive shields· Kinetic shields· Organic fertilizers Marcel Macarulla, Anastasios Drougkas, Andreu Balastegui, Els Van de moortel, Cansu Iraz Seyrek Şık, Kajetan Sadowski, Joana Fernandes, Ricardo Gomes and Paulo Ferrão have contributed equally to this work. Extended author information available on the last page of the article K.Chojnacka et al. Introduction In the context of climate change recognized as one of the main threats to the safety of the planet and its inhabitants (Ramanathan and Braun 2023), developing adaptation strategies and strengthening resilience to climate change is one of the key research tasks. This applies largely to the built environment, which is responsible for approximately 40% of emissions and energy consumption at a similar level (IPCC 2022). To minimize the environmental impact of buildings and cities, a green urban transformation is necessary. Its key element is the renovation of existing buildings to improve energy efficiency. In 2021 the European Commission announced the New European Bauhaus—an initiative encouraging all actors related to the built environment to support sustainable development. At the same time, inclusiveness and a high level of social acceptance for the proposed solutions are highlighted, with particular emphasis on their aesthetic values. Considering the above requirements, the authors of the paper point out the importance of interdisciplinary research aimed at development of holistic solutions that respond to the needs of society and ecosystems. In the article, we focus on green façades allowing us to combine the values of sustainability, beauty and inclusiveness in coherent, effective and pro-ecological living systems. We analyse the relevance of vertical green systems (VGS) and their role in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies. A preliminary analysis of the state of knowledge has shown that green façades are most beneficial in hot climate zones because they contribute to the natural cooling of buildings and public areas. Hot climates in Europe can be exemplified with hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa), hot desert climate (Bwh), hot semi-arid climate (Bsh) according to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification. Currently southern Europe such as Italy, Spain, Greece, Southern Portugal and Southern France are hot climatic zones (Beck etal. 2023). By hot climate, the authors understand several groups and subgroups according to the Koppen–Geiger classification, covering in particular part of Europe, for which, as well as for the rest of Europe, the requirements set by the European Union, including the New European Bauhaus, apply. Within this geographical area, regions with warm or hot summers in the dry (B), temperate (C) or continental (D) climate groups are particularly susceptible to excessive solar radiation. The entire southern part of Europe is located in the groups: Bsh, Bsk, Bwh, Csa, Cwa, which means the dry (B) or temperate (C) climate groups with the subgroups arid-desert (w), semi-arid (s), hot ( h) with hot summer and cold winter (k). The central part of Europe is located to the greatest extent in the Dfb and Dfa groups, which means the Continental climate group (D) with the subgroups no dry season (f) but with hot summer (a) or warm summer (b). According to future estimation for 2041–2070 published by Beck etal. (2023), temperate climate (Cfb—temperate oceanic climate) in some parts of Central Europe such as France will also change, and temperature observed in summer periods will be much higher. Moreover, the effect of humid continental climate (Dfb) will decrease in Poland and Germany and oceanic climate (Cfb) will be commonly effective. All this indicates that the prevailing climates in Europe will change and temperatures will increase. Therefore, it is necessary to consider precautions to protect VGS against too intense solar radiation that show high level of sensitivity to overheating (Seyrek Şık etal. 2022). Appropriate selection of species depending on the façade exposure to the cardinal directions is critical (Pan etal. 2018). The interdisciplinary approach to the VGS design proposed in this article combines knowledge from the field of architectural design, structural systems, green building and township development with sustainable urban farming, circularity, waste and water management. In this paper we present main findings from in-depth study on green façade performance in hot climates, including methods to protect plants against excessive solar radiation, such as passive and kinetic shields. We will also discuss how the appropriate selection of organic fertilizers can support plants’ resistance to overheating and solar radiation. This multidisciplinary analysis of the state of knowledge will highlighting areas that require further investigation, such as the practical implementation of proposed strategies and their effectiveness in real-world scenarios. Given the complexity of this subject, this paper addresses the interdisciplinary perspectives to be considered in green façade design in hot climates as one of crucial strategies for low-carbon development. Methodology To address the interdisciplinary perspectives of VGS, a scoping study was conducted (Arksey and O’Malley 2005) to find the evidence and explore the main concepts and theories, their interrelation and identify research gaps. Methods Eligibility criteria The eligibility criteria for the review included peer-reviewed articles, conference articles, technical reports, project repositories, books and patents published in English within the last 15years, focusing on green façades in hot climates and their role in urban sustainability. Studies not pertinent to Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… hot climates or those not directly addressing green façades were excluded. The criteria were grouped into environmental, architectural, technical, and social aspects. Information sources The databases, registers, websites, and other sources consulted include: • Scopus (Last searched: June 4, 2024) • Web of Science (Last searched: June 4, 2024) • Google Scholar (Last searched: June 4, 2024) • Reference lists from relevant articles Search strategy The search strategy involved the following keywords: • Environmental “Sustainable Urban Farming, ” “Hot Climate, ” “Life Cycle Assessment”, “LCA”, “Biodiversity”, “Circularity”, “Climate Adaptation”, “Urban Heat Island”, “Urban Resilience”, “Sustainability”, “Environmental impact”, “Impact modelling”, “Ecosystem” • Architectural and Urban Design “Adaptive Façades”, “Green Façades”, “Vertical Systems”, "Vertical Green Systems”, “Green Façade,” “Sustainable Urban Development”, “Township Development, “Urban Landscape”, “Urban Resilience”, “Sustainable Urban Farming”, “Urban agriculture”, “Food”, “Plants”, “Organic vegetable” • Technical “Irrigation Regimes”, “Circularity”, “Functionality”, “Energy Performance”, “Fog Water Harvesting”, “Waste Water”, “Water Management”, “Prefabricated Building Modules”, “Kinetic Green Facades”, “Hybrid Kinetic Facade”, “Responsive Kinetic Facades”, “Irrigation”, “Organic wastes”, “Drainage”, “Supporting structure”, “Shading”, “Fabrication”, “Energy modelling”, “Controlled-Environment Agriculture”, “Fertilizers”, “Hydroponics”, “Vertical farming innovation” • Social “Thermal Comfort” and “Noise Reduction”, “Noise measurements”, “Noise Prediction” and “Noise Annoyance” combined with “Construction Sites”, “Cooling”, “Human health”, “Pollution” Selection process Each record and report retrieved was screened by two independent reviewers. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion, and consensus was achieved on all included studies. No automation tools were used in the selection process. Data collection process Data were collected independently by two reviewers from each report. Any disagreements were resolved by discussion and consensus. Data included study objectives, methodologies, findings, and implications. Data items Outcomes sought included thermal comfort, energy performance, energy production, climate adaptation, food production, emission reduction and urban resilience. Variables included participant characteristics, funding sources, and study design. Assumptions made about missing or unclear information were noted and described. The literature review followed a systematic approach to encompass a comprehensive exploration of green façades in hot climates and their significance for sustainable urban development. The review process began with defining the scope and objectives, focusing on interdisciplinary insights into the design of green façades and their role in urban sustainability. Four groups of keywords were considered in the scientific literature review addressing architectural, urban, technical, environmental, economic and social aspects of VGS: Environmental: “Sustainable Urban Farming”, “Hot Climate,” “Life Cycle Assessment”, “LCA”, “Biodiversity”, “Circularity”, “Climate Adaptation”, “Urban Heat Island”, “Urban Resilience”; Architectural and urban design: “Adaptative Façades”, “Green Façades”, “Vertical Systems”, “Vertical Green Systems”, “Green Façade,” “Sustainable Urban Development”, “Township development”, “Urban landscape”, “Urban Resilience”, “Sustainable Urban Farming”; Technical: “Irrigation Regimes”, “Circularity”, “Functionality”, “Energy Performance”, “Fog Water Harvesting”, “Waste Water”, “Water Management”, “Prefabricated Building Modules”; Social: “Thermal Comfort” and “Noise Reduction”, “Noise measurements”, “Noise Prediction” and “Noise Annoyance” combined with “Construction Sites”. These keywords guided the search across several academic databases including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The inclusion criteria were set to consider peer-reviewed articles and authoritative reports published in English within the last 15years, specifically addressing the role of green façades in urban sustainability. Exclusions were made for non-peer-reviewed articles, studies not pertinent to hot climates, or those not addressing green façades directly. Initial screening of titles and abstracts for relevance was followed by a full-text review to ensure alignment with the research objectives. Key information was extracted from each selected article, focusing on objectives, methodologies, findings, and implications. This facilitated a narrative synthesis of the field, K.Chojnacka et al. highlighting significant trends, challenges, and opportunities. The quality of included studies was evaluated based on the clarity of objectives, appropriateness of methodology, and robustness of conclusions. Review ofthestate‑of‑the‑art As per the findings presented in the report by Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S), the most recent eight years have recorded the highest temperatures, with an escalation in the intensity, frequency, and duration of heat globally. The assessment outlined in the OPCC report 6 (AR6) indicates a further amplification of these trends in the face of escalating climate change. Consequently, the occurrence of exceptionally high temperatures and associated heatwave events is anticipated to significantly rise in the near future. Additionally, the Mediterranean basin is expected to experience drought of unprecedented intensities, surpassing those observed over the past ten millennia. The resilience of buildings against climate impacts is intricately tied to their design, construction, and operation. Unfortunately, a majority of existing buildings lack adaptations for anticipated extreme temperatures, leading to a heightened risk of indoor overheating, particularly during heatwaves. This phenomenon can pose significant health risks, amplifying morbidity and mortality, especially among vulnerable populations such as the elderly or low-income communities. Moreover, the increased reliance on air-conditioning to counteract these temperature issues contributes to elevated energy consumption, escalating energy costs, and indirectly fuelling the climate change cycle. In the European context, the building sector is the main contributor to energy consumption, accounting for 40% of the EU’s final energy consumption and 36% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (European Commission 2020b). Consequently, forecasting the influence of climate change on building performance and formulating adaptation strategies to address climaterelated challenges has emerged as a critical focus in building research. However, considering buildings embodied carbon in VGS is also critical, as greater material efficiency could save up to 80% of total national buildings’ embodied GHG emissions (European Commission 2020a) and reduce the contribution of construction sector to 35% of the EU's total waste generation and 50% of extracted materials (European Commission 2020a). Particularly, nature-based solutions can mitigate the impact of the building sector. Green façades have been studied over the past years as a specific strategy to improve buildings external envelope performance. Although the majority of current research considers the effect on thermal comfort and energy performance of buildings (Widiastuti etal. 2020; Convertino etal. 2023a, 2023b; Ramadhan and Mahmoud 2023; Cuce etal. 2021; Jiang etal. 2023) and climate mitigation and adaptation (Kotremba & Ahrens 2023; Widiastuti etal. 2018; Nagdeve 2024), only few articles focus on environmental assessment of green façades. Environmental aspects To assess the environmental impact of building and building materials, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely used (CEN 2011) EN 15978, EN15804:2012+A2:2019). LCA considers all stages in the life cycle starting from the extraction of raw materials over the production and installation of building materials, the use phase of a building where water and energy use is considered, up to the dismantling of the building and the end-of-life treatment of the building materials. LCA is described in international standards (ISO 14040:2006 & ISO 14044:2006) and consists of four steps. In the first step, the goal and scope of the LCA is defined: what is studied and for what reason and what is included in the assessment. The goal and scope section includes the definition of the functional unit where it is described which function is provided (what), the extent of the function (how much), the expected level of quality (how well) and the duration (how long). In the second step, the life cycle inventory (LCI), all relevant data are collected. In step three the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is done. This is the actual calculation of the impact. In the final step, the results of the LCIA are assessed. Over the past years, the environmental impact of green façades has been studied from different perspectives. The majority of current research considers the effect on thermal comfort and energy performance of buildings (Widiastuti etal. 2020; Convertino etal. 2023a, 2023b; Ramadhan and Mahmoud 2023; Cuce etal. 2021; Jiang etal. 2023) and climate mitigation and adaptation (Kotremba & Ahrens 2023; Widiastuti etal. 2018; Nagdeve 2024). Only few articles focus on environmental assessment of green façades. Chàfer etal. (2021) use the ReCiPe LCA method to assess the environmental impact of green walls, while Oquendo-Di Cosola etal. (2020) refer to the ILCD method. Although two different methods were used, a multicriteria approach is used on both papers. As suggested by Habert etal. (2020) this multicriteria approach is important since merely focusing on the reduction of one indicator such as for example GHG emissions could result in an increase in impacts on other topics of environmental concern such as biodiversity loss, land use and water scarcity, the so-called risk of burden shifting. The importance of including a variety of impact categories is shown in the work of Oquendo-Di Cosola etal. and in the work of Mouton etal. (2022) where, besides an important impact on climate change, additional impacts on fossil and renewable resource depletion, freshwater ecotoxicity, human Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… toxicity cancer effects, particulate matter and land use were found, especially for bio-based materials. To date, the European standards EN 15978 and EN15804:2012+A2:2019 are commonly used to assess the environmental impact of buildings in EU. This method is based in the ILCD used in the work of Oquendo-Di Cosola etal. However, there is no clear indicator to assess biodiversity as there is in the ReCiPe method used by Chàfer etal. The current lack of comprehensive methods to assess biodiversity with LCA is described by Damiani etal. (2023). They argue that currently there is no LCA method available that considers simultaneously the variety of pressures on biodiversity, ecosystems, taxonomic groups, essential biodiversity variables classes besides the fundamental aspect that should be considered for biodiversity assessment. Current LCA methods can give insight in the global impact of the green façade on biodiversity by considering different LCA impact categories during the whole life cycle of the green façade (e.g. by assessing the effect of harvesting wood on land use or the effect of the production of fertilizers on ecotoxicity). However, LCA cannot be used to assess the local effects on biodiversity, such as an increased number of species, nesting or foraging opportunities. Architectural design urban andtechnical aspects Directly linked to the choice of plant, growing medium and desired architectural form is the selection and design of the structural system for supporting the VGS (Pacini etal. 2022). Since the late twentieth century, research and practice have mostly moved away from direct growth solutions (plant growth on the underlying wall itself) towards indirect green façades and living walls. In the former of the more contemporary approaches, an external load-bearing structure is employed in a double skin configuration supporting modular planting containers, whereas in the latter the supporting structure is used for the mounting of continuous growth panels and geotextile felts (Ogut etal. 2022; Perez etal. 2014). Materials typically used for the construction of the supporting structure include coated stainless or galvanized steel, aluminium and plastics. Novel material solutions, with only limited use as of today, include specially designed concrete panels (Riley etal. 2019). The choice of material affects the overall functional properties of the structure, primarily its weight, the thickness of the profiles or panels, physical durability, load-bearing capacity, structural stiffness and cost (Baran and Gültekin 2018; Ogut etal. 2022). The structure itself is shaped as a system of grids and wire-rope nets (post-tensioned), modular trellis panels or perforated sheets, to name the most widespread solutions. Regardless of the material and structural typology chosen, the system needs to be adequately anchored to the underlying wall and, potentially, to the ground, for stability. In addition to supporting the planting medium, the structural system is vital for mounting additional functional components, such as night-lighting equipment (possibly also required for ensuring plant growth), temperature and moisture sensors and all required wiring (Baran and Gültekin 2018; Ogut etal. 2022). Although it has not received the required attention in research and practice, proper structural assessment and maintenance of the load-bearing system is essential for ensuring longevity and accomplishment of LCA objectives (Ottelé etal. 2011). Overall, the available research literature lacks a systematic comparative study of the relative advantages and disadvantages of the available solutions for VGS as well as of the interaction of the supporting structure with the existing structural substrate. There are only a few studies about the adaptability and ease of VGS to promote resource efficiency and longevity. In the context of Circular Economy (CE), the ability to easily remove or relocate VGS without causing permanent damage to the building structure provides opportunities for recycling and reusing the components, reducing waste and environmental impact. Jimenez etal. (2023) are exploring early-stage design options to low costs and embodied carbon in VGS. Kinetic green facades, which are a combination of green façades and kinetic façades, can play a significant role in climate change mitigation. Although currently mainly vertical static systems are used, in recent years there has been an intensive development of kinetic systems, equipped with movable elements that respond to external dynamic conditions and combine the advantages of both types of façades (Seyrek etal. 2021). In particular, the responsive and adaptive properties of kinetic facades, such as decrease energy consumption, improvement in lighting and energy generation, glare reduction or food production, have already been well described in the literature (Globa etal. 2022) and bring a new quality to green façades. In hot-dry climates, kinetic façades have a particularly important impact on reducing energy consumption for cooling the building (Bacha and Bourbia 2026). As for kinetic movement, there are façades with rotating, sliding, folding, scalable, deformable, scissor or hybrid elements (Globa etal. 2022; Waseef and Nashaat 2017), most often made of durable, lightweight materials with structural properties. As shown by Globa etal. (2022), rotational movement is the most popular as confirmed by currently implemented kinetic façades prototypes. The façade with panels filled with algae in the BIQ building in Hamburg enables dynamic shading of the interior while producing biomass and heat. The Green Pixel project allows for the placement of containers with plants in rotating modules and their potential control and maintenance by water hydroponic systems (Globa etal. 2022). In the Kinetic Green Facade project, the structural frame rotates around its own axis K.Chojnacka et al. moved by a non-electric actuator filled with wax (Sanchez 2017). Other variants of the facade elements movement were used in the by Kiss and Cathard (2010) involving the vertical movement of pots with plants inside a double facade or in the scissors system acting like an origami model, proposed by Trombadore etal. (2017) using flexible ETFE panels with algae-filled tubes embedded inside. An important aspect of kinetic green façades design is the potential of responsiveness and adaptability to specific environmental conditions in the context of the intended result. Growing technological possibilities have enabled the development of multiple kinetic façade technologies with various function, location and technology. Korniyenko (2021) lists eight dominant technologies, including: climate adaptive building skins (CABS), biomimetic adaptive building skins (Bio-ABS), vertical greenery systems (VGS) or facade augmented HVAC and electrical systems. Significant differences in the kinetic facades typology occur at the level of the physical domain and they serve as part of adaptation to environmental conditions. Korniyenko (2021) indicated five domains (thermal, air and moisture flows, optical, acoustic, electrical). Waseef and EL-Mowafy (2017) focus also on five but from a different perspective (aesthetic, energy generation, environmental control, noise control, humidity control). A system equipped with control, detection and actuation technologies is responsible for detecting, interpreting and processing the signal from the environment. Actuators are used in the movement process, which change the energy embodied in the form of a signal into action based on mechanical, electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic and material actuator technologies. The latter type of actuators operate based on molecular changes in bulk structures when stimulated by external signals such as light photons, temperature changes, chemicals, magnetic field strengths and electrical energy flows. Material movements are created by changes in volume, shape, colour, fluidity, and electrical currents (Matin etal. 2017). Kinetic Green Facade is an example of a green kinetic façade based on material actuators (Sanchez 2017). Thermal actuators operate thanks to the wax contained in them, having the ability to expand. When the actuator and its surroundings are warm, the wax within the system slowly melts causing it to expand, releasing the force that rotates the panels. In this way, thanks to the passive use of the natural properties of the material, energy savings are achieved. Social aspects High noise levels generated in construction sites, as other air pollutants, impact negatively on the health and behaviour of workers and neighbours. Exposure to high noise levels leads to cardiovascular diseases and causes sleep disturbance, annoyance, stress and cognitive problems, significantly reducing the disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) according to the WHO (2011). Noise mitigation in construction sites can be achieved by acting on the source, on the receiver and on the transmission path (Sohrabi etal. 2020). For the present topic of modular renovation processes, the mitigation actions regarding the receiver and the transmission path are no different than those applied to other traditional construction sites. Acting directly on the noise source leads to the best results, since this effect is beneficial for any receiver in any direction and distance from the construction site. Mainly, reducing the total construction time directly reduces the noise exposition by the same percentage. Modular renovation significantly reduces the exposure to noise by removing some of the noisier stages of construction, such as demolition, foundation and earthwork (Lee etal. 2019). This leads to further reduction of exposure to noise for neighbours and on-site construction workers. Other noise mitigation techniques involve synchronization of the use of machines with construction stages in order to mask some noises or combining activities without increasing the total annoyance (Lee etal. 2015). The noise levels in construction sites can either be determined by measurements (Ballesteros etal. 2010) or be predicted by numerical models (Gilchrist etal. 2003; Zhang etal. 2014). The magnitude of these noise levels, together with their source (equipment or activity), has been related to annoyance through survey studies (Lee etal. 2015). The indoor noise comfort of the renovated dwellings can be improved with the modular renovation process which allows to easily adapt the transmission loss of the different materials that conform the façade to the areas of each constructive element. Final values of the transmission loss, and an estimation of the interior noise based on the local noise map, can be measured at the test sites following ISO 16283-3:2016. In‑depth study ongreen façade design inhot climates Climate, façade orientation, function, background, surroundings in urban environment, system detail parameters and plant related parameters effect the design of climate resilient and energy-efficient vertical green façades suitable to the urban context (Seyrek Şık etal. 2022; Gamal etal. 2023; Perini etal. 2012). The role of green façades in urban water management extends beyond mere aesthetics. These systems are instrumental in improving urban runoff quality, contributing to a healthier urban environment (Marín etal. 2023; Cortês etal. 2019). The implementation of indoor vertical greenery systems, particularly in urban tropical environments (Wang etal. 2016), demonstrates their potential in improving indoor air quality and building aesthetics. Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… Integrating vertical green systems (VGS) with existing HVAC systems helps manage indoor humidity and temperature levels, enhancing thermal comfort and air quality within buildings (Korniyenko 2021). Implementing kinetic shading devices that adjust based on solar exposure reduces heat gain and improves indoor comfort (Globa etal. 2022). Designing VGS for hot climates requires careful consideration to ensure their effectiveness and sustainability. If requirements of hot climate and environmental conditions will not be considered, plant losses due to drought, excessive water loss, and decrease in product quality and quantity in types used for food production are observed. In addition, the environmental benefits of these systems, such as their contribution to increasing thermal performance in buildings, are strongly depended on their features designed according to the climatic conditions. Practical suggestions forVGS design inhot climates Features of the VGS related to plant species, structural system and substrate, irrigation and fertilization impact the environmental benefits of these systems such as providing better thermal performance and air quality and their longevity, cost and maintenance needs. The following practical suggestions and guidance are based on interdisciplinary insights from our study: 1. Selecting suitable plants species The environmental benefits and survival of vertical green façades are directly related to appropriate plant selection. A methodology for suitable plant selection is presented by Carlucci etal. (2023). The process includes 5 main stages. The first stage is problem statement (climatic conditions, environmental stresses, wind patterns, sunlight exposures, visual aspects, plant physiological parameters such as canopy structure and foliage density, sensitivity to pollution, nutrient needs, and plant growth rate, watering and maintenance needs, etc.). Taxonomy is identified as result of this stage. The following stages are identification of suitable plant species, screening (examination of candidate species according to preferred system design characteristics of VGS), eligibility and final selection with the consideration of external factors like the plantation period, market availability and plant cost. Presented methodology is used for modular living wall in The Cyprus Institute in Mediterranean semi-arid climate and species such as Gazania rigens var. leucolaena, Lavandula angustifolia, Mentha spicata, Origanum vulgare, Portulaca grandiflora, Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus vulgaris are chosen for droughtand heattolerance, lower maintenance, diversity in aesthetics and contribution to biodiversity as much as possible. Using drought-resistant and heat-tolerant plant species ensures survival under high temperatures. Native plants or those which are well adapted to the local climate are preferable (Dunnett and Kingsbury 2008; Manso and CastroGomes 2015). Drought tolerant vines (Dunnet and Kingsbury 2008) for green façades and succulent plants for living walls (Manso and Castro-Gomes 2015) are better options for hot-dry climates. But in the humid or wet conditions the drought tolerant species such as succulents are not suitable (Charoenkit and Yiemwattana 2021). Moreover, selecting plants based on the façade’s orientation optimizes sunlight exposure (Pan etal. 2018). The effect of shading by surrounding structures on plant survival should also be considered. Plants with higher leaf area index (LAI) provides better shading (Convertino etal. 2022). Small or medium size of leaves can increase air circulation within the canopy (Charoenkit and Yiemwattana 2017). Finally, in order to predict the thermal performance of vertical green façades, all physiological properties of the plant, such as leaf transmissivity, absorptivity, foliage thickness, stomatal resistance, and typical leaf dimension (Seyrek Şık etal. 2022) should be evaluated together with other factors that are identified in the first stage of methodology presented by Carlucci etal. (2023) such as climatic conditions, environmental stresses, wind patterns and sunlight exposures. 2. Taking precautions to increase climate resilience in structural and substrate design Shading strategies can be incorporated into vertical green façades design to increase climate resilience by protecting plants from excessive heat and solar radiation, strong winds, and to prevent increase in water demand of the system. Shading devices can be designed as passive or kinetic. Passive shading devices can be integrated in the vertical green façades structure or as secondary layer in front of the greenery. These shading devices are easy to integrate, inexpensive and do not require extra energy to perform. But their response to changing climatic conditions is always the same. In the VertiKKA project (2024), photovoltaic modules are integrated with vertical greenery. These modules aim to produce electricity while protecting the façade greenery from extreme weather conditions. Kinetic shading can be achieved in two ways, either by self-shading of the kinetic façade modules or by the integration of kinetic shading elements into the system. The self-shading movement of the vertical green façade modules changes the angle of incidence of solar radiation on the modules, protecting plants from excessive solar radiation. The design considerations of self-shading systems are the modules’ weight, the amount and source of energy required for the movement, irrigation and drainage mechanisms, K.Chojnacka et al. structural system and movable joints durability. Another shading option is to use kinetic shading elements. The invention described by Wu etal. (2018) contains sunscreen glass pane installed on a movable frame to protect the plants from solar radiation at noon. The system has cold air pipes fixed to the lower surface of the movable frame to provide cooler air for plants. Kinetic shading elements can also be positioned in front of the greenery as a second layer. Such a shading strategy offers several design alternatives in terms of selection of materials, geometry, movement, and control mechanism. In addition, the potential of responds variety of kinetic shading layer to different climatic and environmental stimuli can provide better protection to system and plants. Designing robust structural systems can support the weight of the green façade and withstand environmental stresses. Materials like coated stainless steel, aluminium, or specially designed concrete panels are effective (Baran and Gültekin 2018; Riley etal. 2019). Incorporating modular design elements facilitates easy maintenance and replacement of plants or structural components, enhancing the system’s longevity and adaptability (Solera Jimenez etal. 2023). Mahrous etal. (2022) also underlined that in hot humid climates such as in Northern Egypt bio receptive concrete panels which contain moss, are alternative to common VGS types. Air gap between vegetation and wall surface is an important parameter for thermal performance of vertical green façades (Seyrek Şık etal. 2022). Depth of air gap or whether it is sealed or open changes the cooling performance dependently to system type, climate and orientation. 3. Providing efficient irrigation and implementation of alternative water resources In hot climatic regions, all decisions regarding the irrigation, plant species selection and design of the system details are important for the vertical green façade to be long-lasting and sustainable. Irrigation amount and regime effects cooling via evapotranspiration with plants and substrate (Bakhshoodeh etal. 2022; Gräf etal. 2021). Correct irrigation estimations ensure the plants’ survival (Riley 2017). Furthermore, greywater or rainwater can be used for irrigation of vertical green façades to reduce dependency to potable water. However, disinfection of wastewater or greywater after the treatment unit is necessary to reduce the risk of direct effect of pathogens to the human health. Greywater can also be filtered by the vertical green façades. Greywater treatment capacity of vertical green façades depends on the selection of plant species and substrate components (Pradhan etal. 2019). Lakho etal. (2021a; b) demonstrated sustainable use of a green wall for treating greywater and reusing the effluent for toilet flushing. Alternative water source is fog harvesting. Pirouz etal. (2020) analysed new living wall with fog harvesting mesh installed to provide supplementary water for system, increase the efficiency and advantages of green walls without consuming extra energy, particularly in summer with lower precipitation. Summer fog harvesting in Mediterranean climate yields 1.4–4.6L/ m2/day while water consumption of a green wall is 4–8L/m2/day. If green walls increase relative humidity, the potential of atmospheric water harvesting increases. Bitonto etal. (2023) mentioned that building façades with fog harvesting mesh in Mediterranean climate can provide water supplement in winter and shading in summer. Air purification is also achieved via plants and mesh. Fog phenomenon depends on the environmental and climatic characteristics of the region. More detailed research on the fog harvesting capacity of vertical green systems is required to increase the accuracy of estimations for fog harvesting as sustainable water resource. Automated sensor-based irrigation systems can reduce or increase irrigation according to wind, air temperature, rainfall and the moisture level in substrate. Computers can be connected to the weather station or weather forecast to improve irrigation during drought seasons in hot climate. Substrate materials’ water retention capacity and its duration are important for decreasing water loses. But water retention capacity is not enough to guarantee the efficient irrigation and well-being of plants. The choice of a suitable irrigation schedule (number of irrigation events and their duration) impacts sustainability of VGS. Kaltsidi etal. (2020) mentioned that short irrigation events and higher frequencies are expected to help to provide water use efficiency for VGS. 4. Applying organic fertilizers and nanofertilizers Applying organic fertilizers and nanofertilizers enhances plant growth and soil health. These fertilizers improve nutrient uptake efficiency and reduce environmental impact (Seleiman etal. 2021; Ammar etal. 2022). Choosing substrates that provide adequate drainage, aeration, and nutrient retention supports healthy plant growth (Jim 2015). Fertilizers forgreen facades Fertilizers contribute to the growth and ecological benefits of urban vegetation, contributing to environmental sustainability, climate change mitigation, and resource efficiency in urban areas. Recent advancements in fertilizer technology, specifically their role in enhancing both the functionality and environmental aspects of green façade systems in the context of sustainable urban development are discussed. A Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… foundation for a comprehensive exploration of various types of fertilizers and technological solutions of their application, together with their contributions to sustainable urban development, is provided. Innovative fertilizers forgreen façades Urban agriculture is witnessing a transformative shift through the adoption of innovative fertilization methods and advanced farming techniques. The developments, characterized by eco-friendly and efficient practices, are important in aligning urban agricultural initiatives with sustainability objectives. The introduction of novel approaches, such as biofertilizers and nanotechnology-based solutions, is an important step towards enhancing the ecological health and productivity of urban green spaces. Technological advancements in urban green walls fertilization have led to the development of precision fertilizer applicators, which significantly improve the fertilizer application process in urban green spaces (Chen etal. 2018). The economic aspects of urban plant systems using advanced fertilization methods have been explored, with the consideration of their viability and sustainability (Liaros etal. 2016; Li etal. 2020). Studies have also emphasized the ecological benefits of green facades, comparing them to un-vegetated walls, thus reinforcing the significance of innovative fertilization in urban environments (Blanco etal. 2021). The precision in water and nutrient delivery for urban green facades has been highlighted by research on the effects of drip flow rate in irrigation systems, which is crucial for optimizing fertigation methods (Wamser etal. 2015). The effectiveness of vertical flow constructed wetlands in greywater treatment for urban green façades and gardens showcases its applicability and environmental benefits (Stefanatou etal. 2024). Nano-fertilization, recognized for its potential to sustainably enhance plant growth, can be used in green facade fertilization practice (Benis etal. 2017; Benis and Ferrão 2018). Nanofertilizers mark a significant advancement in practices for green walls, promoting plant growth while minimizing environmental impact, thus steering towards more sustainable fertilization methods (Nongbet etal. 2022; Villalba etal. 2023). Organic fertilizers are useful in urban farming for their capacity to mitigate soil N2O emissions, an important environmental aspect (Hei etal. 2023). Algae are recognized as promising biofertilizers, enhancing soil fertility and aiding plant growth in urban agriculture settings (Ammar etal. 2022). The integration of microalgae-based biofertilizers in urban agricultural practices has demonstrated their effectiveness in increasing plant growth by enhancing soil and plant health (Cao etal. 2023). The Phyto-P-Mining technique, which recovers phosphorus from urban waste, exemplifies innovative urban agricultural practices (Nehls etal. 2015). Black soldier fly frass, as an eco-friendly fertilizer, is gaining attention for its environmental benefits in urban agriculture (Abiya etal. 2022). The innovative use of Fertilizer Drawn Forward Osmosis (FDFO) in tandem with pressure-assisted osmosis represents an innovative approach in sustainable urban water management for green facades. This method is essential in understanding the interaction of organic fertilizers with soil microbiomes and assessing their environmental implications, especially relevant for vertical green structures (Meng etal. 2022). The FDFO technique, known for its water conservation and efficient fertilizer utilization, emerges as a significant innovation, enhancing the effectiveness and sustainability of fertilizers used in urban green walls (Kim etal. 2019). Integration ofsustainable practices ingreen façades Integrating sustainable agricultural methods into urban landscapes enhances the development of efficient green facades. In urban contexts, green walls provide primary photosynthetic production but also educate the public about sustainable plants cultivation (Benis etal. 2017; Benis and Ferrão 2018). Soilless cultivation contributes to urban biodiversity and ecosystem services. By increasing green cover on buildings, these systems help mitigate the urban heat island effect and can reduce energy consumption (Jim 2015; Blanco etal. 2021). They support air purification and carbon sequestration, enhancing urban ecological health (Corcelli etal. 2019). Vertical farming, crucial in dense urban areas, effectively utilizes vertical space and contributes to reducing the carbon footprint (Despommier 2011). Studies have shown that vertical hydroponic farming systems are resource-efficient and suitable for integration with green facades and rooftop gardens in urban planning (Martin etal. 2019, 2022; SanjuanDelmás etal. 2018). No-till farming practices, frequently used in green walls, focus on minimizing soil disturbance and preserving soil integrity. This approach is beneficial in urban settings, reducing soil erosion and maintaining soil health (Dang etal. 2020). The environmental impact of soilless plant cultivation, particularly in terms of N2O emissions, highlights its significance in sustainable urban green facade practices, offering solutions beyond traditional soil-based agriculture (LlorachMassana etal. 2017). Soilless cultivation in urban green facades is an effective solution to the environmental challenges of traditional soil-based agriculture in urban settings. This approach, particularly in reducing nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, is a key element in sustainable urban agriculture. K.Chojnacka et al. be performed during the design phase of the solution. This is especially crucial in the case of heritage structures with limited structural capacity. Secondly, regarding the assessment of the structural performance of the system and its interaction with the existing underlying skin, non-destructive inspection and long-term monitoring operations registering the development of deformations, anchorage pull-out and possible cracks need to be more systematically performed post-installation. Thirdly, the geometry of the profiles to be used and the design of the connections can be enhanced to facilitate the disassembly of distinct building elements, ensuring technical reversibility, a prerequisite for achieving CE. Fourthly, multifunctional solutions for the load-bearing system, allowing to double as a stabilizing or strengthening intervention for the underlying structure can be explored in the case of structurally vulnerable buildings. This can be accomplished through the use of heavier profiles for the lattice structure and more resistant anchorage means. Finally, the use of innovative and nature-based materials must be more confidently investigated and pursued. Smart cementitious materials open up options for deformation and temperature self-sensing capabilities, while the use of timber can result in drastically different aesthetic results. Green facades in hot climates present unique challenges that must be addressed to ensure their sustainability and effectiveness. While the benefits of VGS in hot climates are well documented, such as natural cooling and reduced urban heat island effects, there are significant challenges that need to be managed. These include plant survival, water resource management, and thermal comfort issues in varying hot climate zones. Plant survival In hot climates, particularly arid zones, plants used in VGS need to be drought-resistant and capable of withstanding high temperatures. The selection of plant species is critical; using native or well-adapted species can enhance the survival rates and resilience of the green facade (Dunnet & Kingsbury 2008; Seyrek Şık etal. 2022). Additionally, incorporating shading strategies, such as passive and kinetic shading devices, can protect plants from excessive solar radiation, reducing the risk of overheating and desiccation (Pirouz etal. 2020). Little evidence and research has been found in the literature on the influence of kinetic elements in VGS on plant resistance to demanding climatic conditions and high temperatures. Due to the small number of existing and still prototype VGS installations containing kinetic elements (Sanchez 2017; Trombadore etal. 2017), this is still an area studied in a small number of studies (Seyrek Şık etal. 2022; Globa etal. 2022), although the impact of kinetic facades themselves on thermal comfort and energy performance of buildings is already well researched and has been analysed in many studies (Globa etal. 2022; Korniyenko 2021; Waseef and EL-Mowafy 2017). Too few practical applications do not yet allow for general conclusions to be drawn as to the advisability of using kinetic elements, e.g. in the context of using a wider group of plant species, extending the growing season, increasing crop yield, etc., due to the possibility of providing them with more acceptable conditions using kinetic VGS. Water resource management Water scarcity is a significant issue in hot, arid climates, making efficient irrigation systems essential for the sustainability of green facades. Greywater recycling and fog harvesting are innovative solutions that can provide supplemental water sources without relying on potable water (Pradhan etal. 2019; Pirouz etal. 2020). Automated sensor-based irrigation systems can optimize water usage by adjusting irrigation based on real-time environmental conditions, thus ensuring that plants receive adequate water without wastage. Thermal comfort andhumidity control In hot, humid climates, managing humidity and ensuring thermal comfort can be challenging. Vertical green systems can improve indoor thermal comfort by reducing indoor temperatures and enhancing air quality. However, it is crucial to design these systems to prevent excessive humidity, which can lead to discomfort and potential structural issues. Integrating green facades with existing HVAC systems can help maintain optimal humidity levels and enhance overall thermal comfort (Manso & Castro-Gomes 2015). Conclusions This study highlights the transformative potential of green façades as a crucial strategy for low-carbon development in hot climates. The interdisciplinary approach underscores the importance of combining architectural, structural, and environmental considerations to optimize the design and functionality of VGS. Future research should focus on developing comprehensive LCA methods that assess both global and local impacts on biodiversity and other environmental indicators, conducting long-term studies to evaluate the resilience and adaptability of VGS under changing climatic conditions, implementing and monitoring practical demonstrators to validate Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… the scalability and replicability of proposed solutions, and enhancing building energy modelling techniques to include green infrastructure and its effects on building performance. Moreover, the challenge of implementing VGS in buildings emphasizes the importance of prioritizing accessibility during the design phase. An inclusive design approach not only ensures effective maintenance but transforms these structures into inclusive focal points for recreation, education, and social interaction, thereby enhancing the overall quality of life for diverse community members. The selection of plant species emerges as a critical factor influencing the success and sustainability of VGS. A strategic approach to plant selection goes beyond horticulture, impacting the system’s functionality, aesthetics, and contribution to environmental well-being. The careful consideration of plant species enhances the system’s resilience, longevity, and ecological benefits. Future research should concentrate on refining bio-based technologies, including bio-based fertilizers for urban green façades, assessing their long-term effects, and integrating them into urban designs. Ongoing efforts are essential to develop sustainable and adaptable fertilization strategies that respond to the changing needs of urban landscapes. Collaboration across disciplines such as science, urban planning, and policy-making is necessary to establish comprehensive and effective strategies for the sustainable development of urban green facades. Addressing the weight and structural integration of VGS within existing buildings is another essential aspect. The research gaps identified in this area underscore the necessity for dedicated numerical analysis during the design phase, non-destructive inspection and long-term monitoring postinstallation, and exploration of multifunctional load-bearing systems using innovative and nature-based materials. The significance of intelligent and sustainable fertilization practices, crucial for maintaining and developing urban green facades, is also demonstrated. The study showcases diversity and innovation in fertilization practices available for green facades fertilizers, from organic fertilizers and microalgae-based biofertilizers to advanced nanofertilizers. To support growth and overall health of VGS, it is necessary to provide primary macro-nutrients— nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, followed by essential micro-nutrients like copper, manganese, zinc, and iron, and completed with growth-supporting substances, including biostimulants and bioregulators, which improve nutrient efficiency and plant resilience. Addressing these research gaps requires a multidisciplinary and forward-looking approach, encompassing aspects of engineering, ecology, accessibility, and sustainable design. The potential of VGS lies not only in their immediate environmental benefits but also in their capacity to shape resilient, inclusive, and sustainable urban landscapes for the future. This comprehensive understanding will pave the way for the effective integration of VGS into the built environment, contributing to the goal of creating healthier, more livable cities. Acknowledgements Joana Fernandes research was financed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), with funds from Portugal 2020 under MIT Portugal Program, doctoral Grant number SFRH/BD/151363/2021. The authors acknowledge C3 project funding grant C3/22/029 of KU Leuven “Development of a holistic assessment and selection tool to reduce the energy poverty and the environmental impact of the residential building stock” Author contributions KC and BW were involved in the conceptualization. JF, EVDM, MM, and CS curated the data. KC, BW, and MM contributed to the formal analysis. BW acquired the funding. KC, BW, MM, AD, AB, EVDM, CS, KS, JF, RG, and PF contributed to the investigation. KC, BW, and MM contributed to the methodology. KC and CS were involved in the validation. KC and KS were involved in the visualization. KC, BW, MM, AD, AB, EVDM, CS, KS, JF, RG, and PF performed writing—original draft. KC, BW, MM, AD, AB, EVDM, CS, KS, JF, RG and PF assisted in writing—review and editing. Funding This study was funded by UNITE! Seed Fund. Availability of data and materials Data are available on request. Code availability Not applicable. Declarations Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest/competing interests. Ethical approval Not applicable. Consent to participate Consent to participate is granted by all authors. Consent for publication Consent for publication is granted by all authors. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. References Abiya AA, Kupesa DM, Beesigamukama D etal (2022) Agronomic performance of Kale (Brassica oleracea) and Swiss Chard (Beta vulgaris) Grown on soil amended with black soldier fly frass fertilizer under wonder multistorey gardening system. Agronomy. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ agron omy12 092211 K.Chojnacka et al. Ahn TI, Park JE, Jung JH etal (2021) Nutrient dosing framework for an emission-free urban hydroponic production. Front Plant Sci. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3389/ fpls. 2021. 768717 Ammar EE, Aioub AAA, Elesawy AE etal (2022) Algae as bio-fertilizers: between current situation and future prospective: the role of algae as a bio-fertilizer in serving of ecosystem. Saudi J Biol Sci 29:3083–3096 Arksey H, O’Malley L (2005) Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol Theory Pract 8:19–32. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 13645 57032 00011 9616 Bacha ChB, Bourbia F (2026) Effect of kinetic facades on energy efficiency in office buildings hot dry climates. In: 11th conference on advanced building skins. Bern, Switzerland, pp 458–468 Bakhshoudeh R, Ocampo C, Oldham C (2022) Evapotranspiration rates and evapotranspiration cooling of green façades under different irrigation scenarios. Energy Build 270:112223. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. enbui ld. 2022. 112223 Ballesteros MJ, Fernandez MD, Quintana S, Ballesteros JA, González I (2010) Noise emission evolution on construction sites. Measurement for controlling and assessing its impact on the people and on the environment. Build Environ 45:711–717 Baran Y, Gültekin AB (2018) Green wall systems: a literature review. In: Fırat S, Kinuthia J, Abu-Tair A (eds) Proceesings of 3rd international sustainable buildings symposium. Springer International Publishing (Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering), pp 82–96. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 978-331964349-6_8 Barbieri F, Barbi S, Bertacchini A, Montorsi M (2023) Combined effects of different LED light recipes and slow-release fertilizers on baby leaf lettuce growth for vertical farming: modeling through DoE. Appl Sci (switzerland). https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ app13 158687 Beck HE, McVicar TR, Vergopolan N, Berg A, Lutsko NJ, Dufour A, Zeng Z, Jiang X, van Dijk AIJM, Miralles DG (2023) Highresolution (1 km) Köppen-Geiger maps for 1901–2099 based on constrained CMIP6 projections. Sci Data 10:724. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1038/ s41597023025496 Benis K, Ferrão P (2018) Commercial farming within the urban built environment—taking stock of an evolving field in northern countries. Glob Food Sec 17:30–37 Benis K, Reinhart C, Ferrão P (2017) Development of a simulationbased decision support workflow for the implementation of Building-Integrated Agriculture (BIA) in urban contexts. J Clean Prod 147:589–602. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1016/j. jclep ro. 2017. 01. 130 Blanco I, Vox G, Schettini E, Russo G (2021) Assessment of the environmental loads of green façades in buildings: a comparison with un-vegetated exterior walls. J Environ Manag. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jenvm an. 2021. 112927 Cao TND, Mukhtar H, Le LT etal (2023) Roles of microalgae-based biofertilizer in sustainability of green agriculture and food-waterenergy security nexus. Sci Total Environ 870:161927 Carlucci S, Charalambous M, Tzortzi JN (2023) Monitoring and performance evaluation of a green wall in a semi-arid Mediterranean climate. J Build Eng 77:107421. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jobe. 2023. 107421 CEN (2011) EN15978: sustainability of construction works—assessment of environmental performance of buildings—calculation method. Int Stand. European Committee for Standardization Chàfer NM, Perez G, Coma J, Cabeza LF (2021) A comparative life cycle assessment between green walls and green facades in the Mediterranean continental climate. Energy Build. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1016/j. enbui ld. 2021. 111236 Charoenkit S, Yiemwattana S (2017) Role of specific plant characteristics on thermal and carbon sequestration properties of living walls in tropical climate. Build Environ 115:67–79. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. build env. 2017. 01. 017 Charoenkit S, Yiemwattana S (2021) The performance of outdoor plants in living walls under hot and humid conditions. Landsc Ecol Eng 17:55–73 Chen C, He P, Zhang J etal (2018) A fixed-amount and variable-rate fertilizer applicator based on pulse width modulation. Comput Electron Agric 148:330–336. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. compag. 2018. 03. 033 Convertino F, Schettini E, Blanco I, Bibbiani C, Vox G (2022) Effect of leaf area index on green facade thermal performance in buildings. Sustainability 14:2966. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su140 52966 Convertino F, Kavga A, Blanco I (2023a) Energy performance of green façades. Rivista Di Studi Sulla Sostenibilita. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3280/ RISS2 022002003 Convertino F, Blanco I, Vox G, Schettini E (2023b) Green façade to improve building energy performance in summer and winter. In V. Ferro, G. Giordano, S. Orlando, M. Vallone (Eds.), AIIA 2022: biosystems engineering towards the green deal (pp. 195–211). Springer, Cham Corcelli F, Fiorentino G, Petit-Boix A etal (2019) Transforming rooftops into productive urban spaces in the Mediterranean. An LCA comparison of agri-urban production and photovoltaic energy generation. Resour Conserv Recycl 144:321–336. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. resco nrec. 2019. 01. 040 Cortês A, Almeida J, de Brito J, Tadeu A (2019) Water retention and drainage capability of expanded cork agglomerate boards intended for application in green vertical systems. Constr Build Mater 224:439–446. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. conbu ildmat. 2019. 07. 030 Cuce PM, Cuce E, Guclu T, Demirci V (2021) Energy saving aspects of green facades: current applications and challenges. Green Build Constr Economics. https:// doi. org/ 10. 37256/ gbce. 22202 11007 Damiani M, Sinkko T, Caldeira C, Tosches D, Robuchon M, Sala S (2023) Critical review of methods and models for biodiversity impact assessment and their applicability in the LCA context. Environ Impact Assess Rev 101:107134 Dang YP, Dalal RC, Menzies NW (2020) No-till farming systems for sustainable agriculture: challenges and opportunities. Springer International Publishing, Cham Despommier D (2011) The vertical farm: controlled environment agriculture carried out in tall buildings would create greater food safety and security for large urban populations. J Verbraucherschutz Lebensmittelsicherh 6:233–236. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s000030100654-3 Di Bitonto MG, Kutlu A, Zanelli A (2023) Fog water harvesting through smart Façade for a climate resilient built environment. In: Arbizzani E etal (eds) Technological imagination in the green and digital transition. CONF. ITECH 2022. The urban book series. Springer, Cham. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 978-303129515-7_ 65 Duffaut C, Brondeau F, Gasparini J (2023) An original and efficient fertilizer for cherry tomato plants grown in urban agriculture: Feral pigeon guano. Urban Agric Reg Food Syst. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1002/ uar2. 20046 Dunnet N, Kingsbury N (2008) Planting green roofs and living walls, 2nd edn. Timber Press, London, UK Engler N, Krarti M (2021) Review of energy efficiency in controlled environment agriculture. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 141:110786 European Commission (2020a) A new circular economy action plan for a cleaner and more competitive Europe. Available online: https:// ec. europa. eu/ envir onment/ circu larecono my/ pdf/ new_ circu lar_ econo my_ action_ plan_ annex. pdf European Commission (2020b) A Renovation wave for europe—greening our buildings, creating jobs, improving lives. Available online: https:// eurlex. europa. eu/ legalconte nt/ EN/ TXT/? qid= 16031 22220 757& uri= CELEX: 52020 DC0662 Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… Gamal A, Eleinen OA, Eltarabily S, Elgheznawy D (2023) Enhancing urban resilience in hot humid climates: a conceptual framework for exploring the environmental performance of vertical greening systems (VGS). Front Archit Res 12(6):1260–1284. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. foar. 2023. 09. 003 Gilchrist A, Allouche EN, Cowan D (2003) Prediction and mitigation of construction noise in an urban environment. Can J Civ Eng 30:659–672 Globa A, Costin G, Tokede O, Wang R, Khoo ChK, Moloney J (2022) Hybrid kinetic facade: fabrication and feasibility evaluation of full-scale prototypes. Archit Eng Des Manag 18(6):791–811. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 17452 007. 2021. 19417 39 Gräf M, Immitzer M, Hietz P, Stangl R (2021) Water-stressed plants do not cool: leaf surface temperature of living wall plants under drought stress. Sustainability 13(7):3910. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su130 73910 Habert G, Röck M, Steininger K, Lupísek A, Birgisdottir H, Design H, Chandrakumar C, Pittau F, Passer A, Rovers R, Slavkovic K, Lützkendorf T (2020) Carbon budgets for buildings: harmonising temporal, spatial and sectoral dimensions. Build Cities 1(1):429–452 Hei Z, Peng Y, Hao S etal (2023) Full substitution of chemical fertilizer by organic manure decreases soil N2O emissions driven by ammonia oxidizers and gross nitrogen transformations. Glob Chang Biol. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1111/ gcb. 16957 Hsieh YH, Li SP, Lee TI (2018) The application of organic hydroponics on homegrown urban agriculture in Taiwan. WIT Trans Ecol Environ 217:987–995. https:// doi. org/ 10. 2495/ SDP18 0831 IPCC (2022) Climate Change 2022: impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. In: H-O Pörtner, DC Roberts, M Tignor, ES Poloczanska, K Mintenbeck, A Alegría, M Craig, S Langsdorf, S Löschke, V Möller, A Okem, B Rama (eds) Cambridge University Press, p 3056. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1017/ 97810 09325 844 Jiang C, Zhou Y, Li K, Wie D (2023) Impact of green roof and green facade on building thermal performance and carbon sequestration in subtropical climate of China. J Build Phy. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 17442 59122 11455 14 Jim CY (2015) Assessing growth performance and deficiency of climber species on tropical greenwalls. Landsc Urban Plan 137:107–121. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. landu rbplan. 2015. 01. 001 Jimenez S, Maricruz JC, Lenzholzer S, Walker R (2023) Early-stage design of a low-embodied carbon and cost-effective green facade system. J Build Eng 72:106588. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jobe. 2023. 106588 Kaltsidi MP, Fernández-Cañero R, Franco-Salas A, Pérez-Urrestarazu L (2020) Improving the performance of felt-based living wall systems in terms of irrigation management. Urban for Urban Green 54:126782. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ufug. 2020. 126782 Kim JE, Kuntz J, Jang A etal (2019) Techno-economic assessment of fertiliser drawn forward osmosis process for greenwall plants from urban wastewater. Process Saf Environ Prot 127:180–188. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. psep. 2019. 05. 014 Kiss, Cathard (2010) Kiss & Cathcard, project portfolio. Available at https:// kissc athca rt. com/ pdf/K+ C_ proje cts_ letter_ March 2010. pdf. Accessed 24 Jan 2024 Korniyenko S (2021) Progressive trend in adaptive façade system technology. A review. AlfaBuild 19:1902. https:// doi. org/ 10. 57728/ ALF. 19.2 Kotremba C, Ahrens F (2023) Green roofs and facades in Darmstadt: from potential to implementation. Proc World Green Infrastruct Congr. https:// doi. org/ 10. 13140/ RG.2. 2. 21823. 69285 Kullu P, Majeedullah S, Pranay PVS, Yakub B (2020) Smart urban farming (entrepreneurship through Epics). Proc Comput Sci 172:452–459 Lakho FH, Vergote J, Ihsan-Ul-Haq Khan H etal (2021a) Total value wall: Full scale demonstration of a green wall for greywater treatment and recycling. J Environ Manag. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jenvm an. 2021. 113489 Lakho FH, Vergote J, Khan HI, Depuydt V, Depuydt T, Van Hulle SWH, Rousseau DPL (2021b) Total value wall: full scale demonstration of a green wall for greywater treatment and recycling. J Environ Manag 298:113489. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jenvm an. 2021. 113489 Lee SC, Hong JY, Jeon JY (2015) Effects of acoustic characteristics of combined construction noise on annoyance. Build Environ 92:657–667 Lee SC, Kim JH, Hong JY (2019) Characterizing perceived aspects of adverse impact of noise on construction managers on construction sites. Build Environ 152:17–27 Li L, Li X, Chong C etal (2020) A decision support framework for the design and operation of sustainable urban farming systems. J Clean Prod. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jclep ro. 2020. 121928 Liaros S, Botsis K, Xydis G (2016) Technoeconomic evaluation of urban plant factories: the case of basil (Ocimum basilicum). Sci Total Environ 554–555:218–227. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. scito tenv. 2016. 02. 174 Llorach-Massana P, Muñoz P, Riera MR etal (2017) N2O emissions from protected soilless crops for more precise food and urban agriculture life cycle assessments. J Clean Prod 149:1118–1126. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jclep ro. 2017. 02. 191 Mahrous R, Giancola E, Osman A, Asawa T, Mahmoud H (2022) Review of key factors that affect the implementation of bioreceptive façades in a hot arid climate: case study north Egypt. Build Environ 214:108920. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. build env. 2022. 108920 Manso M, Castro-Gomes J (2015) Green wall systems: a review of their characteristics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 41:863–871. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2014. 07. 203 Marín C, El Bachawati M, Pérez G (2023) The impact of green roofs on urban runoff quality: a review. Urban for Urban Green 90:128138. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. ufug. 2023. 128138 Martin M, Poulikidou S, Molin E (2019) Exploring the environmental performance of urban symbiosis for vertical hydroponic farming. Sustainability (switzerland). https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su112 36724 Martin M, Weidner T, Gullström C (2022) Estimating the potential of building integration and regional synergies to improve the environmental performance of urban vertical farming. Front Sustain Food Syst. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3389/ fsufs. 2022. 849304 Matin N, Eydgahi A, Shyu S (2017) Comparative analysis of technologies used in responsive building facades. In: 2017 ASEE annual conference & exposition.https:// doi. org/ 10. 18260/12-- 28052 Meng X, Ma C, Petersen SO (2022) Sensitive control of N2O emissions and microbial community dynamics by organic fertilizer and soil interactions. Biol Fertil Soils 58:771–788. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s0037402201662-9 Mouton L, Allacker K, Röck M (2022) Bio-based building material solutions for environmental benefits over conventional construction products—life cycle assessment of regenerative design strategies (1/2). Energy Build. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. enbui ld. 2022. 112767 Nadal A, Alamús R, Pipia L etal (2017) Urban planning and agriculture. Methodology for assessing rooftop greenhouse potential of non-residential areas using airborne sensors. Sci Total Environ 601–602:493–507. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1016/j. scito tenv. 2017. 03. 214 Nadal A, Pons O, Cuerva E etal (2018) Rooftop greenhouses in educational centers: a sustainability assessment of urban K.Chojnacka et al. agriculture in compact cities. Sci Total Environ 626:1319– 1331. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. scito tenv. 2018. 01. 191 Nagdeve S (2024) Performance assessment of an indirect green facade building for thermal comfort: case of Hyderabad in design for climate adaptation. World Congr Archit. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 978-303136320-7_ 42 Nehls T, Schwartz C, Kim KHJ etal (2015) Letter to the editors: Phyto-P-mining—secondary urban green recycles phosphorus from soils constructed of urban wastes. J Soils Sedim 15:1667– 1674. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s113680141023-0 Nongbet A, Mishra AK, Mohanta YK etal (2022) Nanofertilizers: a smart and sustainable attribute to modern agriculture. Plants 11:85–94 Ogut O, Tzortzi NJ, Bertolin C (2022) Vertical green structures to establish sustainable built environment: a systematic market review. Sustainability 14(19):12349. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su141 912349 Oquendo-Di Cosola V, Olivieri F, Ruiz-García L, Bacenetti J (2020) An environmental Life cycle assessment of living wall systems. J Environ Manag 254:109743 Ottelé M etal (2011) Comparative life cycle analysis for green façades and living wall systems. Energy Build 43(12):3419– 3429. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. enbui ld. 2011. 09. 010 Pacini A etal (2022) A literature review on facade greening: how research findings may be used to promote sustainability and climate literacy in school. Sustainability 14(8):4596. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su140 84596 Palliwal A, Song S, Tan HTW, Biljecki F (2021) 3D city models for urban farming site identification in buildings. Comput Environ Urban Syst. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. compe nvurb sys. 2020. 101584 Pan L, Wei S, Chu LM (2018) Orientation effect on thermal and energy performance of vertical greenery systems. Energy Build 175:102–112. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. enbui ld. 2018. 07. 024 Pérez G etal (2014) Vertical greenery systems (VGS) for energy saving in buildings: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 39:139–165. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. rser. 2014. 07. 055 Perini K, Ottelé M, Haas E, Raiteri R (2012) Vertical greening systems, a process tree for green façades and living walls. Urban Ecosyst 2013(16):265–277. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s112520120262-3 Pirouz B, Turco M, Palermo SA (2020) A novel idea for improving the efficiency of green walls in urban environment (an innovative design and technique). Water 12:3524. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ w1212 3524 Podder AK, Al BA, Islam S etal (2021) IoT based smart agrotech system for verification of urban farming parameters. Microprocess Microsyst. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. micpro. 2021. 104025 Pradhan S, Al-Ghamdi SG, Mackey HR (2019) Greywater recycling in buildings using living walls and green roofs: a review of the applicability and challenges. Sci Total Environ 652:330–344. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. scito tenv. 2018. 10. 226 Ramadhan AM, Mahmoud AH (2023) Evaluating the efficiency of a living wall facade as a sustainable energy-saving alternative in hot arid regions. J Eng Appl Sci. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s4414702300259-9 Ramanathan V, von Braun J (2023) Resilience of people and ecosystems under climate stress. In: Proceedings of the conference held at Casina Pio IV, Vatican City, 13–14 July 2022. The Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Vatican City Riley B (2017) The state of the art of living walls: lessons learned. Build Environ 117:219–232. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. build env. 2016. 12. 016 Riley B, de Larrard F, Malécot V etal (2019) Living concrete: democratizing living walls. Sci Total Environ 673:281–295. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. scito tenv. 2019. 04. 065 Sanchez MM (2017) Kinetic green wall system applications on reducing carbon emissions in hot-arid climates. The University of Arizona, Tucson Sanjuan-Delmás D, Llorach-Massana P, Nadal A etal (2018) Environmental assessment of an integrated rooftop greenhouse for food production in cities. J Clean Prod 177:326–337. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jclep ro. 2017. 12. 147 Seleiman MF, Almutairi KF, Alotaibi M etal (2021) Nano-fertilization as an emerging fertilization technique: Why can modern agriculture benefit from its use? Plants 10:1–27 Seyrek CI, Widera B, Woźniczka A (2021) Sustainability-related parameters and decision support tools for kinetic green façades. Sustainability 13:10313. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ su131 810313 Seyrek Şık C, Woźniczka A, Widera B (2022) A conceptual framework for the design of energy-efficient vertical green façades. Energies. 15(21), 8069, 1–19. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ en152 18069 Sohrabi S, Pàmies Gómez T, Romeu GJ (2020) Suitability of active noise barriers for construction sites. Appl Sci 10(18):6160 Specht K, Sanyé-Mengual E (2017) Risks in urban rooftop agriculture: assessing stakeholders’ perceptions to ensure efficient policymaking. Environ Sci Policy 69:13–21. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. envsci. 2016. 12. 001 Stefanatou A, Lagkadas M, Petousi I etal (2024) Vertical flow constructed wetlands as green facades and gardens for on-site greywater treatment in buildings: two-year mesocosm study on removal performance. Sci Total Environ. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. scito tenv. 2023. 167362 Suárez-Cáceres GP, Recena R, García-López AM etal (2023) Nutrients’ distribution during fertigation of a felt-based living wall. Landsc Ecol Eng 19:161–168. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s1135502200529-3 Trombadore A, Paludi B, Dostuni M (2017) The energy of the green: green facades and vertical farm as dynamic envelope for resilient building. J Phys Conf Series 1343(1):012172. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 17426596/ 1343/1/ 012172 Urrestarazu M, Burés S (2012) Sustainable green walls in architecture. J Food Agric Environ 10(1):792–794 Urrestarazu M, Carrasco G, Álvaro JE (2017) Design of a modular vegetative unit and fertigation management for noise-abatement walls in a semiarid climate. J Irrig Drain Eng. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1061/ (asce) ir. 19434774. 00011 47 VertikKA (2024) VertiKKA’s components, mode of operation and synergy effects. Available at https:// verti kka. de/ en/ verti kka/ funct ion. Accessed 26 Jan 2024 Villalba MR, Cervera R, Sánchez J (2023) Green Solutions for urban sustainability: photobioreactors for algae cultivation on façades and artificial trees. Buildings. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 3390/ build ings1 30615 41 Wamser AF, Morales I, Álvaro JE, Urrestarazu M (2015) Effect of the drip flow rate with multiple manifolds on the homogeneity of the delivered volume. J Irrig Drain Eng. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1061/ (asce) ir. 19434774. 00007 80 Wang C, Er SS, Abdul-Rahman H (2016) Indoor vertical greenery system in urban tropics. Indoor Built Environ 25:340–356. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 14203 26X14 55050 810. 1007/ 978-3031295157_ 65 Waseef A, EL-Mowafy BN (2017) Towards a new classification for responsive kinetic facades. In: Proceedings of the international conference MIC, Vol 2017 WHO Regional Office for Europe (2011) European Commission Joint Research Centre. Burden of disease from environmental noisequantification of healthy life years lost in Europe. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland Widiastuti R, Bramiana C, Harsritanto B, Prabowo P, Ramandhika M (2018) Vertical Greenery system as the passive design strategy for mitigating urban heat island in tropical area: a comparative Green urban transition: interdisciplinary insights ongreen façades design inhot climates… field measurement between green facade and green wall. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1088/ 17551315/ 213/1/ 012037 Widiastuti R, Zaini J, Caesarendra W (2020) Field measurement on the model of green facade systems and its effect to building indoor thermal comfort. Measurement. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. measu rement. 2020. 108212 Wu C, Cao L, Wu M, Wang Z, Chen Y (2018) Building vertical greening system. CN108934564A. https:// world wide. espac enet. com/ patent/ search/ family/ 06448 4569/ publi cation/ CN108 93456 4A?q= CN108 93456 4A. Accessed 26 Jan 2024 Zhang H, Zhai D, Yang YN (2014) Simulation-based estimation of environmental pollutions from construction processes. J Clean Prod 76:85 Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Authors and Affiliations KatarzynaChojnacka1· BarbaraWidera2· MarcelMacarulla3· AnastasiosDrougkas4· AndreuBalastegui5· ElsVandemoortel6· CansuIrazSeyrekŞık2· KajetanSadowski2· JoanaFernandes7· RicardoGomes7· PauloFerrão7 * Katarzyna Chojnacka [email protected] * Barbara Widera [email protected] Marcel Macarulla marcel.macar[email protected] Anastasios Drougkas [email protected] Andreu Balastegui [email protected] Els Vande moortel [email protected] Cansu Iraz Seyrek Şık [email protected] Kajetan Sadowski [email protected] Joana Fernandes joanabf[email protected] Ricardo Gomes [email protected] Paulo Ferrão fer[email protected] 1 Faculty ofChemistry, Wrocław University ofScience andTechnology, M. Smoluchowskiego 25, Wrocław, Poland 2 Faculty ofArchitecture, Wrocław University ofScience andTechnology, ul. Prusa 53/55, Wrocław, Poland 3 Department ofProject andConstruction Engineering, Group ofResearch andInnovation (GRIC), Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), C/ Colom 11, Ed. TR5, 08222Terrassa, Spain 4 Serra Húnter Fellow Department ofCivil andEnvironmental Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Jordi Girona 1-3, 08034Barcelona, Spain 5 Department ofMechanical Engineering, Acoustical andMechanical Engineering Laboratory (LEAM), Universidad Politècnica de Catalunya, Colom 11, 08222Terrassa, Spain 6 Department ofArchitecture, Faculty ofEngineering Science, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 1 Bus 2431, 3001Leuven, Belgium 7 Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, IN+, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001Lisbon, Portugal