The Role of Renewable Energy and Storage in Electrifying Transportation: A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure

Treball de Fi de Màster Màster en Sistemes i Accionaments Elèctrics The Role of Renewable Energy and Storage in Electrifying Transportation: A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure REPORT Author: Hussein Mazeh Supervisor: Francisco Diaz Gonzalez Call: January 2025 Escola Tècnica Superior d’Enginyeria Industrial de Barcelona Pàg. 2 Report Resum L'adopció accelerada de vehicles elèctrics (VE) requereix el desenvolupament d'una infraestructura d'estacions de càrrega de vehicles elèctrics (EVCS) eficient i sostenible. Aquesta tesi aborda els desafiaments que planteja la integració de les EVCS als sistemes elèctrics, centrant-se en els impactes sobre la xarxa i les estratègies de mitigació. Els mètodes principals inclouen l'ús de sistemes fotovoltaics (PV), sistemes d'emmagatzematge d'energia amb bateries (BESS) i filtres actius de potència per reduir l'estrès a la xarxa i millorar l'estabilitat del sistema. Es presenta un manual tècnic exhaustiu que guia el disseny de sistemes PV, la selecció i muntatge de bateries i la seva integració a les EVCS. Un estudi de cas avalua sis escenaris operatius, tenint en compte incerteses com la variabilitat de la demanda, les hores d'operació, la disponibilitat de terreny i la força de la xarxa en el punt de connexió comuna. Aquests escenaris analitzen la viabilitat de diferents nivells de penetració energètica dels sistemes PV, BESS i la xarxa. Les anàlisis econòmiques i ambientals destaquen la rendibilitat de cada escenari i quantifiquen els beneficis en termes de sostenibilitat, com la reducció d'emissions de carboni i els guanys en eficiència energètica. Els resultats demostren que integrar tecnologies d'energia renovable i emmagatzematge pot millorar significativament la viabilitat de les EVCS alhora que es redueix la dependència de la xarxa. L'estudi conclou amb recomanacions per prolongar la vida útil de les bateries i millorar el rendiment del sistema a llarg termini. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 3 Resumen La acelerada adopción de vehículos eléctricos (VE) requiere el desarrollo de una infraestructura de estaciones de carga de vehículos eléctricos (EVCS) eficiente y sostenible. Esta tesis aborda los desafíos planteados por la integración de las EVCS en los sistemas eléctricos, centrándose en los impactos sobre la red y las estrategias de mitigación. Los métodos clave incluyen el uso de sistemas fotovoltaicos (PV), sistemas de almacenamiento de energía con baterías (BESS) y filtros activos de potencia para reducir el estrés en la red y mejorar la estabilidad del sistema. Se presenta un manual técnico completo que guía el diseño de sistemas PV, la selección y ensamblaje de baterías, y su integración en las EVCS. Un estudio de caso evalúa seis escenarios operativos, teniendo en cuenta incertidumbres como la variabilidad de la demanda, las horas de operación, la disponibilidad de terreno y la fortaleza de la red en el punto de conexión común. Estos escenarios analizan la viabilidad de diferentes niveles de penetración energética de los sistemas PV, BESS y la red. Los análisis económicos y medioambientales destacan la rentabilidad de cada escenario y cuantifican los beneficios en términos de sostenibilidad, como la reducción de emisiones de carbono y las mejoras en la eficiencia energética. Los resultados demuestran que la integración de tecnologías de energía renovable y almacenamiento puede mejorar significativamente la viabilidad de las EVCS mientras se reduce la dependencia de la red. El estudio concluye con recomendaciones para extender la vida útil de las baterías y mejorar el rendimiento del sistema a largo plazo. Pàg. 4 Report Abstract The accelerating adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) necessitates the development of efficient and sustainable electric vehicle charging station (EVCS) infrastructure. This thesis addresses the challenges posed by EVCS integration into power systems, focusing on grid impacts and mitigation strategies. Key methods include the use of photovoltaic (PV) systems, battery energy storage systems (BESS), and active power filters to reduce grid stress and improve system stability. A comprehensive technical handbook is presented, guiding the design of PV systems, the selection and assembly of battery packs, and their integration into EVCS. A case study evaluates six operational scenarios, accounting for uncertainties such as demand variability, operating hours, land availability, and grid strength at the point of common coupling. These scenarios assess the feasibility of different energy penetration levels from PV, BESS, and the grid. Economic and environmental analyses highlight the profitability of each scenario and quantify the sustainability benefits, including carbon emission reductions and energy efficiency gains. The findings demonstrate that integrating renewable energy and storage technologies can significantly enhance EVCS viability while reducing grid dependence. The study concludes with recommendations for extending battery pack lifespan to improve long-term system performance. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 5 Contents RESUM _____________________________________________________ 2 RESUMEN __________________________________________________ 3 ABSTRACT _________________________________________________ 4 CONTENTS _________________________________________________ 5 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS ______________________________ 8 LIST OF FIGURES ____________________________________________ 9 LIST OF TABLES ___________________________________________ 11 1. PREFACE _____________________________________________ 12 2. INTRODUCTION ________________________________________ 13 2.1. Motivation ..................................................................................................... 13 2.2. Prerequisites ................................................................................................ 13 2.3. Objectives .................................................................................................... 13 2.3.1. General Objective ...........................................................................................13 2.3.2. Specific Objectives ..........................................................................................14 3. SECTION I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND _________________ 15 3.1. Global Energy Mix and GHG Emissions .................................................... 15 3.1.1. Key initiatives aimed at achieving 2030 targets .............................................16 3.1.2. Key initiatives aimed at achieving 2050 targets .............................................16 3.2. Transportation and EV Adoption ................................................................ 17 3.2.2. EU measures ..................................................................................................17 3.2.3. EV Adoption Worldwide [10] ...........................................................................18 3.2.4. Challenges facing EV adoption in Europe .....................................................19 3.3. Description of Electric Vehicle Charging Station (EVCS) .......................... 23 3.3.1. Description of EVCS categories .....................................................................23 3.3.2. EVCS Infrastructure ........................................................................................25 3.3.3. Power Flow Direction: .....................................................................................26 3.3.4. Challenges in EVCS Planning ........................................................................26 3.4. Thesis Description ....................................................................................... 26 3.5. Previous Work ............................................................................................. 27 4. SECTION II: IMPACT OF EVCS ON GRID ____________________ 29 4.1. Load Impact On Active Power (P) .............................................................. 29 4.2. Impact On Reactive Power (Q) In The Grid ............................................... 30 4.3. Voltage Sags (Undervoltage) ...................................................................... 30 Pàg. 6 Report 4.4. Harmonics Distortions ................................................................................. 31 5. SECTION III: MITIGATION STRATEGIES ____________________ 34 5.1. Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) .............................................................. 34 5.1.1. Synchronous Reference Frame (SRF) Theory ..............................................34 5.2. Photovoltaic Energy Integration .................................................................. 36 5.2.1. Advantages .....................................................................................................37 5.2.2. Challenges Of Integrating PV into the Grid and EVCS .................................37 5.2.3. Impact of Temperature on The Performance of PV Modules .......................37 5.3. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) .................................................... 38 5.3.1. Advantages of Integrating BESS with PV Into The Grid ...............................38 6. SECTION IV: TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS ____________________ 40 6.1. Hybrid Photovoltaic System Handbook ...................................................... 40 6.1.1. Determining Power Consumption Demands .................................................40 6.1.2. Sizing PV Modules ..........................................................................................40 6.1.3. Inverter Sizing .................................................................................................41 6.1.4. Battery Pack Sizing .........................................................................................42 6.2. Battery Energy System Handbook ............................................................. 42 6.2.1. Understanding Battery Specifications ............................................................42 6.2.2. Comparison of Battery Technologies .............................................................44 6.3. Battery Assembly Handbook ...................................................................... 48 6.3.1. Defining the Battery Pack Requirements .......................................................48 6.3.2. Cell Configuration ...........................................................................................49 6.3.3. Thermal Design ...............................................................................................50 6.3.4. Battery Management System (BMS) .............................................................50 6.3.5. Electrical Connections ....................................................................................51 6.3.6. Enclosure Design ............................................................................................52 7. SECTION V: CASE STUDY _______________________________ 53 7.1. Category A ................................................................................................... 55 7.2. Category B ................................................................................................... 57 7.3. Hybrid PV System Design........................................................................... 60 7.4. BESS Design ............................................................................................... 63 8. SECTION VI: ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS __ 66 8.1. Cost Analysis for EVCS Across the Six Scenarios .................................... 66 8.1.1. PV System ......................................................................................................66 8.1.2. Grid Infrastructure ...........................................................................................67 8.1.3. BESS ...............................................................................................................68 8.2. Comparisons and Conclusions ................................................................... 71 9. SECTION VII: FUTURE WORK AND ENHANCEMENTS ________ 75 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 7 9.1. Recommendations For Optimal Bess Performance .................................. 75 9.2. Relating to EVCS Scalability ....................................................................... 76 10. SECTION VIII: PLANNING AND GENDER EQUALITY ASSESSMENT __________________________________________ 77 10.1. Planning Assessment .................................................................................. 77 10.2. Gender Perspective..................................................................................... 77 11. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS __________________________________ 78 12. BIBLIOGRAPHY ________________________________________ 79 Pàg. 8 Report Abbreviations and Symbols EVCS - Electric Vehicle Charging Station. BESS - Battery Energy Storage System. PV – Photovoltaic Energy DC: Direct Current AC: Alternating Current V2G: Vehicle-to-Grid ROCOF: Rate of Change of Frequency VoC: Open Circuit Voltage ISC: Short Circuit Current SoC: State of Charge DoD: Depth of Discharge PCC: Point of Common Coupling EU: European Union ICE: Internal Combustion Engine BEV: Batttery Electric Vehicle A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 9 List of Figures Figure 1 illustrates Global Primary Energy Consumption in 2023. [2] ............................... 15 Figure 2 shows GHG Emissions by Sector in the EU [3] ................................................... 16 Figure 3 shows the Growth of EV Sales in the EU. [8] ....................................................... 17 Figure 4 Expansion of EV Charging Point in the EU. [9] .................................................... 18 Figure 5 Worldwide Growth in the Number of EVs [11] ...................................................... 19 Figure 6 Comparison of BEV Growth vs Charging Infrastructure [12] ............................... 20 Figure 7 Distribution of EV Charging Points Across the EU ............................................... 20 Figure 8 Cost Comparison of ICE and BEV Components [14] .......................................... 21 Figure 9 Impact of Speed and Temperature on EV Range [16]......................................... 22 Figure 10 EV Sales in the First Half of 2023 and 2024 [18] ............................................... 23 Figure 11 EVCS Categories ................................................................................................ 24 Figure 12 Frequency Containment Measures .................................................................... 29 Figure 13 Voltage Sag and Voltage Swell Phenomena ..................................................... 31 Figure 14 Fundamental Sine Wave and Associated Harmonics ....................................... 32 Figure 15 SRF Controller ..................................................................................................... 36 Figure 16 PV Power Output on Sunny vs Cloudy Day ....................................................... 37 Figure 17 Peak Shaving Theory .......................................................................................... 39 Figure 18 Electrical Specifications of EVESCO Charger ................................................... 54 Figure 19 Electrical Specifications of Longi PV Panel ........................................................ 61 Figure 20 Technical Specifications of Huawei Inverter [41] ............................................... 62 Figure 21 Electrical Specifications of CALB Battery Cell .................................................... 63 Figure 22 Technical Specifications of KACO Inverter ........................................................ 64 Figure 23 Technical Specifications of NUVG5 BMS........................................................... 65 Pàg. 16 Report Figure 2 shows GHG Emissions by Sector in the EU [3] To reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2030 and 2050, Europe has outlined several key measures under the European Green Deal and related climate policies. These include: [4] 3.1.1. Key initiatives aimed at achieving 2030 targets  Carbon pricing: Following the 2023 revision of the ETS Directive , the EU ETS cap is set to bring emissions down by 62% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. To achieve this, the reduction factor has been increased to 4.3% per year over the period 2024-2027 and to 4.4% per year from 2028.  Renewable Energy Expansion: Setting a target for renewable energy to account for at least 42.5% of the energy mix, with ambitious goals for solar, wind, and green hydrogen deployment.  Zero-Emission Vehicles: Phasing out internal combustion engine vehicles by 2035 and promoting electric vehicles (EVs) through incentives and infrastructure expansion.  Energy Efficiency: Mandating energy efficiency improvements in buildings, appliances, and industries to cut overall energy consumption by 13% compared to 2020 levels. 3.1.2. Key initiatives aimed at achieving 2050 targets  Climate Neutrality: Achieving net-zero GHG emissions by balancing residual emissions with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.  Energy Transition: Phasing out fossil fuels entirely and replacing them with renewable and low-carbon energy sources, including significant investment in hydrogen technologies.  Digital and Smart Solutions: Leveraging AI, IoT, and smart grids to optimize energy use and improve efficiencies in transport and urban planning. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 17 3.2. Transportation and EV Adoption 3.2.2. EU measures The EU has mandated that all new cars and vans sold in the EU must be zero-emission by 2035. This is aligned with the European Green Deal and the “Fit for 55” package, [5], which aims for a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2030 and full climate neutrality by 2050. Also, Significant investments are being made to expand the EV charging infrastructure. The EU funded over €424 million for projects deploying EV charging points and hydrogen refueling stations as part of the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Facility (AFIF). By 2023, the EU had installed over 630,000 public charging stations, with a mandate for stations every 60 km along major transport routes by 2025. [6] In addition, Member states are offering subsidies, tax benefits, and incentives for purchasing EVs and installing private charging infrastructure. For example, Spain under the MOVES III program, [7], provides grants of up to €9,000 for the purchase of a car or commercial vehicle with an ECO or ZERO emissions label. Additionally, it subsidizes up to 80% of the cost of installing a linked charging point for electric vehicles. The EU supports advancements in battery technology and sustainable sourcing of raw materials. New rules promote recycling and the development of batteries with reduced environmental impact. Following such incentives and people’s growing awareness about clean energy, global sales of EVs have continued to rise significantly. Figure 3 shows the Growth of EV Sales in the EU. [8] Pàg. 18 Report Figure 4 Expansion of EV Charging Point in the EU. [9] 3.2.3. EV Adoption Worldwide [10] China: Leads global adoption with an EV share of around 45% in 2024, propelled by extensive domestic manufacturing, lower costs, and incentives. This represents the largest EV market globally, contributing to over 60% of all EV sales. United States (US): EV adoption has reached 11% in 2024, boosted by incentives from the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) and growing market competition. Despite this growth, the US lags behind Europe and China in terms of EV market share. Emerging Markets: Adoption rates in countries like India, Brazil, and Southeast Asia remain low but are improving due to local manufacturing incentives and the availability of affordable EV models. For example, India’s EV market share stands at 2%, while Brazil’s is 3%. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 19 Figure 5 Worldwide Growth in the Number of EVs [11] 3.2.4. Challenges facing EV adoption in Europe  Insufficient Charging Infrastructure While Europe has made significant progress, rural and remote areas still lack adequate charging stations. The ratio of chargers to EVs is below the EU's targets in many countries. Over the past seven years, EV sales in Europe grew three times faster than charging point installation. Pàg. 20 Report Figure 6 Comparison of BEV Growth vs Charging Infrastructure [12] On top of that, 75% of all charging points are located in just 4 European countries. [13] Figure 7 Distribution of EV Charging Points Across the EU  High Upfront Costs EVs, particularly those with longer ranges, remain more expensive than conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles despite subsidies. Battery costs, although declining, still contribute to higher vehicle prices. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 21 Figure 8 Cost Comparison of ICE and BEV Components [14]  Grid Capacity and Reliability The rise in EV usage demands significant upgrades to electricity grids. Countries face challenges ensuring grid stability and accommodating peak loads from charging stations. Charging an increasing number of EVs globally will require more electricity, and the share of EVs in total electricity consumption is expected to increase significantly as a result. In 2023, the global EV fleet consumed about 130 TWh of electricity – roughly the same as Norway’s total electricity demand in the same year. [15] Deployment of EV chargers should be coordinated with power grid developments to ensure that new connections are consistent with the wider grid-planning horizon. When not managed appropriately, it may present challenges for the electricity grid, like fluctuations in power quality or supply-demand imbalances.  Range Anxiety Concerns about the limited range of EVs and the availability of fast-charging stations deter potential buyers, especially those in colder climates where battery performance declines. Pàg. 22 Report Figure 9 Impact of Speed and Temperature on EV Range [16] From a technical perspective, as the temperature decreases, the electrochemical reactions within a battery slow down, reducing its ability to deliver current efficiently. Additionally, higher speeds increase the aerodynamic drag force acting against the motion of the vehicle, thereby consuming more energy. As illustrated in the referenced figure, an electric sedan achieves an optimal range of approximately 400 miles at an ambient temperature of 20°C. However, at lower temperatures, such as 0°C, this range significantly drops to around 250 miles. Furthermore, operating the vehicle at high speeds, such as the legal maximum of 120 km/h, reduces the range further to approximately 200 miles due to increased energy demand.  Phase-Out of Incentives The phase-out of purchase incentives for EVs in Europe presents an additional challenge to adoption. Although subsidies have played a crucial role in boosting EV sales, some countries are gradually reducing or eliminating these benefits. [17] A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 23 Figure 10 EV Sales in the First Half of 2023 and 2024 [18] 3.3. Description of Electric Vehicle Charging Station (EVCS) 3.3.1. Description of EVCS categories EVCSs can be classified into broad categories based on power levels and transfer protocols, physical appearance and infrastructure, mobility, and power flow direction. Fig. 2 provides an overview of EVCS categories. Pàg. 24 Report Figure 11 EVCS Categories Depending on the power transfer protocol, EV chargers can be of two types: conductive or plug-in; and inductive or wireless. [19] 1) CONDUCTIVE OR PLUG-IN CHARGERS:  The term conductive or plug-in charger generally refers to a device that facilitates power transfer and charges the vehicle’s battery by plugging it into an electrical outlet.  They have the highest share in the EV market.  Can be classified as alternating current (AC) charging and direct current (DC) charging.  EV chargers can also be classified as slow chargers (Level I), medium chargers (Level II), and ultra-fast chargers (Level III).  A slow charger takes around 10 to 20 hours, medium chargers may take around 3 to 4 hours, and super-fast chargers may take 20 to 30 minutes to charge a battery from 20 to 80% based on the battery capacity.  The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Charge de Move (CHAdeMO), Tesla Inc., and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) have established standards for EV chargers. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 25 Table 1 Power Levels Based on Different Standards 2) INDUCTIVE OR WIRELESS CHARGERS:  Based on inductive charging, which is basically two entities with the same frequency exchange energy using resonance, which operates in the near-field area of the antenna that is non-radiative.  There are 3.3 kW and 7.2 kW versions of wireless EV charger.  Faces challenges, such as power transfer rate, charging time, and loss of energy. 3.3.2. EVCS Infrastructure We can broadly categorize EVCS infrastructure into three groups: distributed charging stations, networked fast charging stations, and battery swapping stations. 1) Distributed charging stations:  Are charging stations dispersed across homes, malls, airports, bus/train stations, taxi stands, business centers, and so on.  Level-I or level-II chargers are mainly used in these stations. 2) Network fast charging station:  Operated by the government, private companies, or a network of operators.  Provide fast and convenient charging services for EVs. 3) Battery swapping station (BSS):  The underlying principle of BSS is that EVs will arrive at the BSS, replace their exhausted battery with a fully charged one, and depart the station in a matter of minutes.  In 2021, Shanghai, China installed 1,000 BSS, enabling more than 100,000 vehicles to exchange their depleted batteries. [20] Pàg. 32 Report Figure 14 Fundamental Sine Wave and Associated Harmonics Each harmonic has:  Its own frequency (higher than the fundamental).  A specific amplitude (smaller than the fundamental for most practical cases).  A phase shift relative to the fundamental wave. Harmonics in AC power systems result from nonlinear loads that distort the sinusoidal waveform. In practice, odd harmonics are much more dominant, while even harmonics are often negligible or absent due to the following reason:  In a balanced three-phase system, the even harmonics cancel each other out due to the phase relationship between the three phases. 𝐅(𝐭)= −𝐅(𝐭+𝐓 𝟐) Eq 1 (where T is the fundamental period), even harmonics are zero, leaving only odd harmonics. However, even harmonics (2nd, 4th, 6th, etc.) can occur in faulty systems or due to asymmetrical distortions, such as unbalanced loads, unsymmetrical rectifiers, or damaged transformers. The presence of significant even harmonics often signals a problem, such as:  Voltage imbalance.  Asymmetry in load current. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 33  Saturation of magnetic cores in transformers. In a power system, impedance increases with frequency. Higher harmonics face higher impedance, which naturally limits their amplitudes. The lower-order harmonics (3rd) has higher amplitudes, while higher-order harmonics (5th, 7th, etc.) tend to have progressively smaller amplitudes. The resultant waveform is formed by point-by-point summation of the instantaneous values of the fundamental wave and its harmonic components at each time step. Mathematically, if we consider the sine wave illustrated in Fig. 14 with harmonics up to the 7th order: 𝐯(𝐭)=𝐀𝟏𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛚𝐭+𝐀𝟑𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝛚𝐭+𝛟𝟑)+ 𝐀𝟓𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟓𝛚𝐭+𝛟𝟓) +𝐀𝟕𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟕𝛚𝐭+𝛟𝟕) Eq 2 Where:  A1, A3, A5, A7: Amplitudes of the fundamental, 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonics.  Omega ω: Angular frequency of the fundamental wave (ω=2πf).  ϕ3, ϕ5 and ϕ7 : Phase angles of the 3rd, 5th and 7th harmonics. Harmonic distortions are quantified using Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), a key parameter for assessing power quality. Grid standards typically limit THD to ensure stable operation. According to the IEEE standard 519 stated that to maintain power quality, total harmonics distortion (THD) value should be below 5% for up to 69 kV power network. [32] 𝐓𝐇𝐃=√ (𝐕𝟑)𝟐+(𝐕𝟓)𝟐+⋯+(𝐕𝐧)𝟐 𝐕𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 Eq 3 Where:  V1 is the RMS value of the fundamental frequency component (1st harmonic).  Vn are the RMS values of the harmonic components (e.g., 3rd, 5th, …. , nth).  n represents the order of the harmonic (e.g., 3rd, 5th, 7th). Pàg. 34 Report 5. Section III: Mitigation Strategies In this section, I will discuss the effective strategies to overcome the challenges associated with EV charging infrastructure. I aim to offer insights into optimizing EVCS deployment for enhanced accessibility and efficiency. 5.1. Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) A Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) is a power electronic device used to mitigate power quality issues in electrical systems, such as:  Harmonics  Reactive Power.  Unbalanced Currents SAPFs act as dynamic compensators by injecting compensating currents into the grid, effectively cancelling out unwanted harmonics and reactive currents. Basic operation of SAPF: 1. The SAPF measures the load currents from a nonlinear load. 2. Using a control algorithm, it extracts the harmonic and reactive components of the current. 3. A Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) generates compensating currents equal in magnitude but opposite in phase to these unwanted components. 4. These compensating currents are injected back into the system at the PCC, ensuring the source current becomes sinusoidal and balanced. 5.1.1. Synchronous Reference Frame (SRF) Theory The Synchronous Reference Frame (SRF) theory is a widely used control method for SAPFs. It transforms three-phase currents into a rotating reference frame, where the analysis and filtering of harmonics and reactive power become simpler. Steps in SRF: 1. Transformation to Stationary α-β Frame (Clarke Transformation): The three-phase currents (Ia,Ib,Ic) are first converted to two-phase currents (iα,iβ) in the stationary reference frame. Mathematically: [𝐈𝛂 𝐈𝛃]= [ 𝟏 −(𝟏 𝟐) (𝟏 𝟐) 𝟎 (√𝟑 𝟐) −(√𝟑 𝟐) ] [𝐈𝐚 𝐈𝐛 𝐈𝐜] Eq 4 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 35 2. Transformation to Rotating D-Q Frame (Park Transformation): The iα and iβ components are transformed into the D-Q rotating frame. The rotating frame rotates synchronously with the system voltage (using a PhaseLocked Loop (PLL), to extract the phase angle theta θ). Mathematically: [𝐈𝐝 𝐈𝐪]=[𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉][𝐈𝛂 𝐈𝛃] Eq 5 3. Filtering Harmonics: In the D-Q frame:  A Low-Pass Filter (LPF) is applied to id and iq to isolate the DC components (fundamental active and reactive currents).  The AC components represent the harmonics. After filtering, the compensating currents are calculated as: 𝐈𝐝=𝐈𝐝𝐃𝐂+𝐈𝐝𝐀𝐂 Eq 6 𝐈𝐪=𝐈𝐪𝐃𝐂+𝐈𝐪𝐀𝐂 Eq 7 4. Transformation Back to Stationary and a-b-c Frames: The filtered harmonic components are transformed back to the stationary α-β frame using the inverse Park transformation. Mathematically: [𝐈𝛂 𝐈𝛃]=[𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉][𝐈𝐝 𝐈𝐪] Eq 8 Pàg. 36 Report Finally, the currents are converted back to the original three-phase system using the inverse Clarke transformation: Mathematically: [𝐈𝐚∗ 𝐈𝐛∗ 𝐈𝐜∗]=√𝟐 𝟑 [ 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐√𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐√𝟑 𝟐 ] [𝐈𝛂 𝐈𝛃] Eq 9 5. Generation of Compensating Currents: The extracted currents (Ia∗,Ib∗,Ic∗) are used to generate switching signals for the Voltage Source Inverter (VSI). The VSI injects compensating currents into the grid at the PCC to cancel out harmonics and reactive power, ensuring sinusoidal source currents. Figure 15 SRF Controller 5.2. Photovoltaic Energy Integration Electric Vehicles (EVs) are often regarded as “green” energy vehicles; however, their environmental benefits are diminished when the electricity used for charging comes from fossil fuel-based power generation. By incorporating photovoltaic (PV) systems, alongside the power grid, the carbon footprint of EVs can be significantly reduced. PV systems, in particular, provide a clean and sustainable energy source for EVCSs, offering several advantages. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 37 5.2.1. Advantages  Reducing Grid Dependency: Solar power coincides well with daytime charging demand, providing cheap and clean energy to offset peak loads.  Peak Shaving: By providing power when demand increases, stress on the grid is reduced.  Energy cost saving: Charging costs are reduced for end users. 5.2.2. Challenges Of Integrating PV into the Grid and EVCS Despite its benefits, integrating PV energy into the grid and EVCSs poses significant challenges due to its intermittent nature and heavy reliance on weather conditions. Solar power generation fluctuates based on sunlight availability, which creates supply instability during periods of cloud cover, nighttime, or seasonal variations. This intermittency can lead to grid imbalance and power quality issues if not properly managed. Furthermore, voltage regulation and frequency stability become more complex with high PV penetration, as PV inverters must coordinate with the grid to provide reactive power support. Figure 16 PV Power Output on Sunny vs Cloudy Day 5.2.3. Impact of Temperature on The Performance of PV Modules The table illustrates how ambient and cell temperatures influence the VoC, IsC and power output of PV modules, expressed as percentages of their nominal values. As temperatures rise, voltage and power decrease, while current slightly increases due to the respective temperature coefficients. Pàg. 38 Report Table 2 Temperature Impact on Voltage, Current and Power 5.3. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) The most promising approach for sustainable transportation and energy systems is incorporation of BESS and PV together with EVCSs. These two together can help with the grid’s stability and reliability by storing energy during off-peak hours and charging EVs during peak hours. These systems can also store additional energy generated by solar power when the conditions are more favorable. They can supply surplus energy to the grid at the time of energy shortage or power outage. 5.3.1. Advantages of Integrating BESS with PV Into The Grid  Ensures grid stability despite fluctuations in solar irradiance and PV energy generation.  Flattens demand curve by discharging stored energy during peak hours.  Provides Reactive power (Q) to mitigate voltage fluctuations.  Reduces harmonics.  Improves the economic feasibility of PV plants and reduces energy costs for end users by applying Energy Arbitrage Method. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 39 Figure 17 Peak Shaving Theory Pàg. 40 Report 6. Section IV: Technical Handbooks 6.1. Hybrid Photovoltaic System Handbook A hybrid photovoltaic (PV) system integrates renewable energy generation with energy storage and grid connectivity to provide reliable power for various applications. The design process of a hybrid PV system involves four main steps:  Determining power consumption demands.  Sizing the PV modules.  Sizing inverter  Sizing battery. This guide will explain each step in detail. 6.1.1. Determining Power Consumption Demands The first step in designing a hybrid PV system is to calculate the total power and energy consumption of all the loads that the system needs to supply. 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝= ∑𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐥𝐥 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐬 Eq 10 The total energy consumption per day can be estimated by multiplying the power requirement by the hours of operation, with an additional factor to account for system losses (typically 1.3): 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐲 =∑𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 × 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐧𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐝𝐚𝐲 ×𝟏.𝟑 Eq 11 6.1.2. Sizing PV Modules The next step is to determine the size of the PV system required to meet the daily energy needs. To do this, divide the total energy consumption by the average number of sun hours at the station's location. For instance, if the system is installed in Barcelona, where the A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 41 average number of sun hours is 5 hours per day, the total PV capacity required (in terms of power peak) can be calculated as: 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 =𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐲 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐧 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐝𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 Eq 12 The next step is to determine the number of PV panels needed. 𝐌𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥𝐬 =𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐩𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥 Eq 13 6.1.3. Inverter Sizing Inverter sizing is crucial for ensuring that the PV system can efficiently convert DC power from the PV panels to usable AC power for the chargers. The input rating of the inverter must match or exceed the total power demand of the appliances. 𝐏𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥 =𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐌𝐏𝐏𝐓 ×𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐌𝐏𝐏𝐓 Eq 14 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 𝐌𝐏𝐏𝐓 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥≤𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐈𝐦𝐩 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥 Eq 15 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬≤ 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐕𝐨𝐜 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥 ×𝟏.𝟏 Eq 16 Temperature Factor = 1.1 to account for voltage rise when temperature drop to -20 degrees. 𝐋𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭 𝐌𝐩𝐩𝐭 𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 ≤𝐕𝐦𝐩 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥×𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 ≤ 𝐔𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭 𝐌𝐩𝐩𝐭 𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 Eq 17 Pàg. 48 Report effect issues. Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) batteries provide high energy density and good overall performance but fall short in cycle life, safety and cost compared to LiFePO₄. Therefore, LiFePO₄ batteries are the most adequate choice for modern EVCS designs, offering an optimal balance of safety, performance, and durability. 6.3. Battery Assembly Handbook Building a battery pack independently can be 30% to 45% more cost-effective compared to purchasing a pre-assembled battery pack. This cost advantage stems from several factors:  Avoidance of Manufacturer Markups  Custom Sourcing of Components  Scalability of Design  Exclusion of Unnecessary Features  Labor and Assembly Costs Here’s a technical design handbook for building a battery pack. It includes essential concepts, formulas, and steps to ensure a safe and functional design. 6.3.1. Defining the Battery Pack Requirements 1. Determine Battery Pack Voltage (V) and Capacity (Ah): Battery pack total energy (Epack) is already determined. Battery pack voltage (Vpack) depends on your application's requirements (e.g., 12V, 24V, or 48V systems). Battery pack Capacity (Cpack) depends on the energy needed: 𝐂𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐤 (𝐀𝐡)= 𝐄𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐤 (𝐖𝐡) 𝐕𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐤 (𝐕) Eq 20 2. Estimate Continuous Current (I cont.) of Battery pack Capacity. 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭.(𝐀)=𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 (𝐖) 𝐕𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐤 (𝐕) Eq 21 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 49 3. Choose Cell Type: Choose cell based on technology, capacity, and C-rating. 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐤 =𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬 𝐂𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 ×𝐂𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 Eq 22 6.3.2. Cell Configuration 1. Series Configuration (ns): Number of cells in series is determined by the inverter DC input voltage range. 𝐌𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 ≥ 𝐌𝐢𝐧 𝐃𝐂 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐝 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐂𝐞𝐥𝐥 Eq 23 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 ≤ 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐃𝐂 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐇𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐂𝐞𝐥𝐥×𝟏.𝟏 Eq 24 Where: Temperature Factor = 1.1 to account for voltage rise when temperature drop to -20 degrees. 2. Parallel Configuration (np): Number of cells in parallel is determined by the inverter max input current. 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬≤𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐃𝐂 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐂𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 Eq 25 Pàg. 50 Report 6.3.3. Thermal Design Heat Generation (Q): 𝐐(𝐤𝐖𝐡)=𝐈𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭.×𝐑𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥×𝐍×𝐭÷𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 Eq 26 Where:  Rcell is the internal resistance of the cell (Ω).  t is the discharge time (sec) Heat Coef: 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐞𝐟=𝟏+ 𝐈𝟐𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭.×𝐑𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐂𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥×𝐕𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 Eq 27 Cooling Requirements: 𝐐(𝐤𝐖𝐡)=𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐦˙(𝐤𝐠 𝐬)×𝐂𝐩 ( 𝐊𝐉 𝐊𝐠.𝐊)×𝚫𝐓 (𝐊) Eq 28 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 (𝐦³ 𝐬)= 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐦˙ 𝐂𝐨𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐤𝐠 𝐦³) Eq 29 If the coolant is air, select an exhaust fan with the calculated capacity (m³/s). If the coolant is liquid, select a pump that supports the calculated capacity, along with an exhaust fan to serve as a radiator. The fan should have a capacity approximately 25% of the exhaust fan that would be required if the coolant were air. 6.3.4. Battery Management System (BMS)  Ensure the cell voltage is within the BMS allowed range.  Verify the battery pack voltage range is within the BMS input voltage range. 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐁𝐌𝐒 >𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠×𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐜𝐮𝐭𝐨𝐟𝐟×𝟏.𝟏 Eq 30 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 51  Ensure the cell capacity is within the BMS specified limits.  Check that the battery pack capacity is within the BMS allowed capacity range. 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐁𝐌𝐒>𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬 ×𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 Eq 31  Confirm the number of cells in series and parallel complies with the BMS limitations. 6.3.5. Electrical Connections Wire Sizing: 1. Select Wire Size Based on Current-Carrying Capacity 2. Calculate voltage drop for this wire size. 𝐕𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐩=𝐈𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭.×𝛒×𝐋 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 Eq 32 Where:  ρ is the resistivity of the wire material (Ω·m).  L is the one-way length of the wire (m).  Area is the cross-sectional area of the wire (m²). 3. Check if Voltage Drop is Within Limits:  The allowable voltage drop for DC circuits is typically 2% of the battery voltage.  For AC circuits, the allowable voltage drop is generally 1%. Fuse Sizing: The fuse sizing is typically calculated as: 𝐈𝐟𝐮𝐬𝐞=𝐈𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭.×𝟏.𝟐𝟓 Eq 33 Where:  The 1.25 factor is used to account for any inrush current or short-term surges. Pàg. 52 Report 6.3.6. Enclosure Design Safety:  Use a fire-resistant enclosure. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 53 7. Section V: Case Study This thesis delves into the detailed design and economic feasibility of an EVCS, recognizing the challenges posed by various uncertainties inherent to such projects. Key factors influencing the design include fluctuations in energy demand, the distribution of charging hours throughout the day, the capacity and strength of the local power grid and land availability for renewable system implementation. Due to these major uncertainties, it is quite difficult to develop a single, comprehensive EVCS handbook that is efficient and adequate for use anywhere in the world. Therefore, this thesis provides a specific case study as an example and discusses six different scenarios that address realistic probabilities of varying variables. The aim is to offer a mode of design for EVCS infrastructure that can guide engineers in developing their own stations by adapting the presented framework to their unique sets of variables. The case study examines the design and implementation of an Electric Vehicle Charging Station (EVCS) equipped with four DC fast chargers, each rated at 90 kW (Level III). To prioritize sustainability and enhance economic viability, the station incorporates renewable energy generation through a photovoltaic (PV) system and a Battery Energy Storage System (BESS). Given that EV charging behavior is influenced by daily commuting patterns and charging infrastructure availability, it is assumed that demand will be higher during the daytime than at nighttime. During the day, there is typically more demand for fast charging, especially in public and workplace locations. In contrast, at night, EV owners often recharge their vehicles at home using slower chargers, resulting in lower demand at charging stations. Therefore, two-thirds of the total demand is allocated to daytime, with one-third to nighttime. The Electric Vehicle Charging Station is equipped with four EV chargers, each with a rated output capacity of 90 kW, supplied by EVESCO [39]. These chargers operate on an AC input voltage of 400V. The maximum input power for each charger is calculated to be 92 kW, with a corresponding maximum input current of 133A. Additionally, the chargers are compatible with the following connector configurations: CHAdeMO + CCS2 or CCS2 + CCS2. This makes them suitable for a wide range of electric vehicles (EVs) including Tesla, BMW, Volkswagen, Ford, Audi, among others... These connector standards ensure the chargers are versatile and able to serve the charging needs of most EVs available in the European and Global market. Pàg. 54 Report Figure 18 Electrical Specifications of EVESCO Charger This configuration provides a total charging capacity of: 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲=𝟗𝟐 𝐤𝐖 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐫×𝟒 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐬=𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝐤𝐖 Eq 34 Each charger can serve one electric vehicle (EV) simultaneously, meaning the maximum number of EVs that can be charged per hour is: 𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐥𝐲 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲=𝟒 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 Eq 35 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 55 Over a 24-hour period, the station can support: 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐃𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐄𝐕 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲=𝟒 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫×𝟐𝟒 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬=𝟗𝟔 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐝𝐚𝐲 Eq 36 The corresponding total daily energy consumption at full capacity is: 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐃𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐩𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧=𝟗𝟔 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐝𝐚𝐲×𝟗𝟐 𝐤𝐖 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐫=𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡 𝐝𝐚𝐲 Eq 37 7.1. Category A In Category A, the daily energy demand is defined as 25% of the EVCS's maximum capacity, which can be calculated as: 𝐃𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝=𝟎.𝟐𝟓×𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡=𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝐤𝐖𝐡 𝐝𝐚𝐲 Eq 38 This demand corresponds to charging: 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐃𝐚𝐲=𝟎.𝟐𝟓×𝟗𝟔 𝐄𝐕𝐬=𝟐𝟒 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐝𝐚𝐲 Eq 39 The daily demand is distributed between daytime and nighttime as follows: 1. Daytime Demand Two-thirds of the total demand is allocated to daytime hours: 𝐃𝐚𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝=𝟐 𝟑×𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝐤𝐖𝐡=𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 40 This corresponds to: 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝= 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡 𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝐤𝐖 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 =𝟒 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 Eq 41 which equates to charging: 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 𝐃𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐃𝐚𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞=𝟒 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬×𝟒 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 =𝟏𝟔 𝐄𝐕𝐬. Eq 42 2. Nighttime Demand One-third of the total demand is allocated to nighttime hours: Pàg. 56 Report 𝐍𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝=𝟏 𝟑×𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝐤𝐖𝐡=𝟕𝟑𝟔 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 43 This corresponds to: 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝= 𝟕𝟑𝟔 𝐤𝐖𝐡 𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝐤𝐖 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 =𝟐 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 Eq 44 which equates to charging: 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 𝐃𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐍𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞=𝟐 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬×𝟒 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 =𝟖 𝐄𝐕𝐬. Eq 45 Category A Scenarios: 1. Scenario A-1: Grid + 2 BPs  During the day, the grid supplies power to meet the EVCS demand.  At night, two battery packs (BPs), each supplying energy for one hour of full load (368 kWh), cover the entire nighttime load.  The BPs are recharged from the grid during off-peak hours (00:00 to 6:00) when electricity prices are at their lowest. 2. Scenario A-2: PV + 2 BPs  A photovoltaic (PV) system generates sufficient energy to meet the entire daily demand, including recharging the two BPs.  At night, the BPs supply power to cover the entire nighttime load. Purpose of Scenario A-1 vs Scenario A-2:  A-1 vs A-2 highlights the importance of integrating PV to reduce grid dependency in meeting total demand. 3. Scenario A-3: Grid + 6 BPs  Six BPs are used, each capable of supplying one hour of full load (368 kWh).  The BPs are recharged from the grid during off-peak hours (00:00 to 6:00) when electricity prices are lowest.  Once charged, the BPs supply the entire EVCS load during both daytime and nighttime, with no direct grid consumption during the operational hours. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 57 4. Scenario A-4: Grid Only  The grid solely supplies power to the EVCS for both daytime and nighttime loads.  No PV system or BPs are utilized. Purpose of Scenario A-3 vs Scenario A-4:  A-3 vs A-4 emphasizes the role of BESS in reducing grid reliance, especially during peak hours. 7.2. Category B In Category B, the daily energy demand is defined as 75% of the EVCS's maximum capacity. This can be calculated as: 𝐃𝐚𝐢𝐥𝐲 𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝=𝟎.𝟕𝟓×𝟖𝟖𝟑𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡=𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟒 𝐤𝐖𝐡 𝐝𝐚𝐲 Eq 46 This demand corresponds to charging: 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐃𝐚𝐲=𝟎.𝟕𝟓×𝟗𝟔 𝐄𝐕𝐬=𝟕𝟐 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐝𝐚𝐲 Eq 47 The daily demand is distributed between daytime and nighttime as follows: 1. Daytime Demand Two-thirds of the total demand is allocated to daytime hours: 𝐃𝐚𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐃𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐧𝐝=𝟐 𝟑×𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟒 𝐤𝐖𝐡=𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 48 This corresponds to: 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐅𝐮𝐥𝐥 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝= 𝟒𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝐤𝐖𝐡 𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝐤𝐖 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 =𝟏𝟐 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 Eq 49 which equates to charging: 𝐄𝐕𝐬 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝 𝐃𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐃𝐚𝐲𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞=𝟏𝟐 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬×𝟒 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫 =𝟒𝟖 𝐄𝐕𝐬. Eq 50 Pàg. 64 Report Using [Eq 19], 𝐁𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 (𝐤𝐖𝐡)=𝟗𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡 ×𝟏.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟐 𝟎.𝟖 ×𝟎.𝟗𝟓 =𝟏𝟐𝟓.𝟑𝟐 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 61 This implies that for the battery to sustain the 92 kW load, it must have a minimum capacity of 125.32 kWh, assuming a C-rating of 1C. Using [Eq 22], 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐤=𝟏𝟐𝟓.𝟑𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟑.𝟐 ×𝟏𝟐𝟓 =𝟑𝟏𝟑.𝟑 Eq 62 The calculated number of cells required is 313.3; thus, the value is rounded up to 315 cells. Consequently, the revised sub-battery pack capacity is 126 kWh. Each EV charger requires 92 kW, necessitating an inverter with a minimum 92 kW AC output capacity. For this project, a 92 kW inverter from KACO new energy GmbH has been selected. [43] Figure 22 Technical Specifications of KACO Inverter Cells connections: A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 65 Using [Eq 23], [Eq 24] and [Eq 25], 𝐌𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬≥𝟔𝟔𝟖 𝐕 𝟐.𝟓 𝐕 = 𝟐𝟔𝟕.𝟐 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 Eq 63 𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬≤ 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟓 𝐕 𝟑.𝟔𝟓 𝐕 ×𝟏.𝟏 =𝟑𝟐𝟕.𝟓 𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬 Eq 64 𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐬≤𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝐀𝐡 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝐀𝐡=𝟏.𝟏𝟔 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 Eq 65 The configuration of each sub-battery pack will consist of one string of 315 cells connected in series, resulting in a nominal voltage of 1008 V and a capacity of 125 Ah, providing a total energy storage of 126 kWh. BMS: For the battery pack hosting 315 cells, the Nuvation Energy G5 Stack Switchgear (model: NUVG5-SSG-1500-200-x) will be utilized. [44] This BMS supports a maximum voltage of 1500V and a maximum current of 200A. Figure 23 Technical Specifications of NUVG5 BMS Using [Eq 30] and [Eq 31]: 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐕>𝟑𝟏𝟓×𝟑.𝟔𝟓×𝟏.𝟏=𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟓𝐕 Eq 66 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝐀>𝟏 ×𝟏𝟐𝟓=𝟏𝟐𝟓𝐀 Eq 67 Pàg. 66 Report 8. Section VI: Economic and Environmental Analysis 8.1. Cost Analysis for EVCS Across the Six Scenarios 8.1.1. PV System  Capital Expenditure (CAPEX): The upfront cost of installing the PV system, including panels, inverters, wiring, mounting structures, and installation labor. 𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗_𝐏𝐕 ( $ 𝐤𝐖)=∑(𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬)+𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 68  Operational Expenditure (OPEX): The annual cost of maintaining and operating the PV system, including cleaning, inspection, and minor repairs. 𝐎𝐏𝐄𝐗_𝐏𝐕 ( $ 𝐤𝐖×𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫)=𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 69  Annual Energy Production (AEP): The total energy generated annually by the PV system, considering location-specific solar irradiance, system efficiency, and degradation. 𝐀𝐄𝐏 (𝐤𝐖𝐡)=𝐒𝐮𝐧𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐃𝐚𝐲 ×𝐏𝐕 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲×𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ×𝟑𝟔𝟓 Eq 70  Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE): The average cost per kilowatt-hour (kWh) generated over the lifetime of the PV system. 𝐋𝐂𝐎𝐄_𝐏𝐕 ( $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡)=𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐏𝐕+∑𝐎𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐏𝐕 ∑𝐀𝐄𝐏 Eq 71 Based on values retrieved from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), which operates under the U.S. Department of Energy, the following benchmarks for photovoltaic (PV) systems are noted: 𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐏𝐕=𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐩 Eq 72 𝐎𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐏𝐕=𝟓 $ 𝐤𝐖×𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 Eq 73 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 67 In all scenarios involving the inclusion of PV systems, the system capacity remains consistent at 576 kWp, resulting in 𝐋𝐂𝐎𝐄𝐏𝐕=𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟎𝟗 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 74 8.1.2. Grid Infrastructure  Grid CAPEX: This includes the cost of equipment and infrastructure required to connect the EVCS to the grid, such as transformers, switchgear, and cabling.  Grid Energy Cost ($/kWh): varies based on the time of day and market fluctuations.  Grid Energy Supply Cost ($/kWh) 𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 ( $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡) =𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐞𝐱 × 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐃𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐎𝐯𝐞𝐫 𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 +𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 75 Where, 𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬 𝐃𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 =𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐚𝐧 (𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬)×𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐔𝐭𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐳𝐞𝐝 𝐇𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬. Eq 76 In this project, the total capacity of the system is designed to accommodate 368 kW, with a planned operational lifespan of 30 years. Based on data retrieved from ENDESA, a Spanish multinational electric utility company, the grid connection capital expenditure (Capex) is estimated at 37 €/kW [45], which is approximately 𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐆𝐑𝐈𝐃 =𝟒𝟎.𝟕 $ 𝐤𝐖 Eq 77 According to 2024 grid energy cost data in Spain, 𝐀𝐯.𝐠𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭=𝟎.𝟏𝟒𝟐𝟏 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 78 Pàg. 68 Report 𝐀𝐯.𝐎𝐅𝐅 𝐏𝐄𝐀𝐊 𝐠𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭=𝟎.𝟎𝟔𝟔 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 79 Utilizing an arbitrage method, where the BESS charges during off-peak hours and discharges during peak hours, the EVCS can: 1. Lower energy supply costs for EV chargers. 2. Balance grid load and reduce demand charges. In scenarios classified under Category A that incorporate grid energy, the grid delivers a total of 6 hours of energy per day. This results in: 𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝= 𝟎.𝟑𝟕𝟎𝟏 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 80 𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐁𝐏𝐬= 𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟒𝟎 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 81 However, in scenarios classified under Category B, the grid delivers a total of 12 hours of energy per day. This results in: 𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝= 𝟎.𝟐𝟓𝟔𝟏 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 82 𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐁𝐏𝐬= 𝟎.𝟏𝟖 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 83 8.1.3. BESS  CAPEX for BESS: The initial cost of the battery pack, including the cost of cells, Battery Management System (BMS), thermal management, and installation. 𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐒=∑(𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬)+𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 84  OPEX for BESS: The annual cost of maintaining and operating the battery system, including inspections, repairs, and cooling energy consumption. 𝐎𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐒=𝐀𝐧𝐧𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐌𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 85  Lifecycle Cost: The total cost of the battery over its useful lifetime, considering replacement after a defined number of cycles. A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 69 𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 ( $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡)= 𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐒+𝐎𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐒 𝐂𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲×𝐃𝐨𝐃×𝐂𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬×𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 Eq 86  Energy Delivered cost ($/kWh): If recharged by PV system: 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 ( $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡)=𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭+𝐋𝐂𝐎𝐄_𝐏𝐕 Eq 87 If recharged by Grid Energy: 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 ( $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡) =𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭+𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐒𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 88  Arbitrage method Profit ($/kWh) 𝐀𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐢𝐭( $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡) =𝐀𝐯.𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝(𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭− 𝐎𝐅𝐅 𝐏𝐄𝐀𝐊 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭) −𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 Eq 89 Over the next three decades, battery prices are projected to decline significantly, driven by technological advancements, economies of scale, and increased market demand. BloombergNEF forecasts a 68% reduction in the cost of lithium-ion battery systems in 2050 compared to today’s prices. [46] Pàg. 70 Report Figure 24 Predicted Trends in Battery Prices [47] The battery pack has a minimum lifespan of 5,000 cycles. Based on the operational scenarios, it is expected to complete approximately one cycle per day. Therefore, the battery pack is projected to last at least: 𝟓,𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝟑𝟔𝟓𝐃𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 ≈𝟏𝟑.𝟔𝟗 𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐬 Eq 90 For simplicity, we assume a lifespan of 15 years. However, the project is designed for a total lifespan of 30 years, meaning the battery pack will require one replacement after 15 years. Additionally, considering the anticipated decline in battery prices over the next 30 years, it is assumed that battery costs will have fallen by 50% in 15 years compared to current prices. Based on current battery market trends, the Capex for battery packs is approximately 176 $/kWh, with an Opex of 5 $/kWh per year. However, in this project, the battery packs will cost 40% less, reducing the Capex to 105.6 $/kWh. 𝐂𝐀𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐒 =𝟏𝟎𝟓.𝟔 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 91 A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 71 𝐎𝐏𝐄𝐗𝐁𝐄𝐒𝐒 =𝟓 $ 𝐤𝐖×𝐲𝐞𝐚𝐫 Eq 92 Accounting for a replacement at the 15-year mark, the lifecycle cost of the battery packs, including all associated expenses, is calculated to be: 𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐲𝐜𝐥𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 =𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟖 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 93 𝐀𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐟𝐢𝐭=𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟓 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 94 The energy delivered cost recharged from the PV system is: 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 (𝐏𝐕)=𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟒 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 95 For scenarios where the battery packs are recharged from the grid:  In Category A, 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 (𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝)=𝟎.𝟑𝟑𝟒𝟓 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 96  In Category B, 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐭 (𝐆𝐫𝐢𝐝)=𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟔 $ 𝐤𝐖𝐡 Eq 97 8.2. Comparisons and Conclusions Figure 25 Energy Supply Hours By Source Across Scenarios 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 Energy Source Contribution Hours to the Load PV GRID BP Pàg. 72 Report Figure 26 Profit Per kWh Energy By Source Across Scenarios Figure 27 Daily Profit By Source Across Scenarios Photovoltaics (PV) demonstrate the highest profitability as an energy source, with a revenue generation of approximately $0.4/kWh, as seen in Scenario A2. Battery packs (BPs) offer two key economic advantages: 1. Load Supply During Nighttime: Ensuring energy availability when solar generation is unavailable. 2. Arbitrage Method: Maximizing cost savings by strategically charging during offpeak hours and discharging during peak hours. 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 PROFIT ($/kWh) PV GRID BESS 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 Daily Profit Contribution PV GRID BESS A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 73 A1 vs. A2: A2 achieves higher profitability by relying entirely on PV as the primary energy source, supported by BPs for nighttime load coverage. In contrast, A1, which combines grid energy with BPs, generates lower revenues. This highlights PV's economic advantage as a cost-effective and sustainable energy source when integrated with battery storage. A3 vs. A4: A3, with six BPs recharged from the grid, outperforms A4, which relies solely on grid energy. The integration of more BPs in A3 allows for higher profitability through reduced grid dependency and energy arbitrage. This demonstrates the financial and operational benefits of scaling up battery storage in grid-dependent systems. B1 vs. B2: Both scenarios utilize PV for one-third of the demand, but B2 achieves higher profitability by optimizing the arbitrage method. By strategically managing battery operations and grid usage, B2 highlights how advanced energy management can maximize revenue in hybrid energy systems. Category A vs. Category B: Category B, with higher daily demand (18 hours of full load), reflects more realistic and large-scale scenarios compared to Category A (6 hours of full load). The results show that as demand increases, net revenues also increase, showcasing the scalability and financial benefits of hybrid systems designed for higher energy consumption. Category B further demonstrates the importance of integrating PV, BPs, and grid energy for cost optimization and reliability. Carbon Savings: Carbon savings are only achieved in scenarios where PV integration is included because PV systems generate electricity from renewable solar energy, displacing the need for grid energy generated from fossil fuels. Pàg. 80 Report [10] «Trends in electric cars,» IEA, [En línea]. Available: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024/trends-in-electric-cars. [11] «Global EV outlook 2024: EV sales set to reach 17 million,» International Energy Agency, 24 April 2024. [En línea]. Available: https://evboosters.com/ev-chargingnews/global-ev-outlook-2024-ev-sales-set-to-reach-17-million/. [12] «Charging point deployment versus sales of electrically-chargeable cars,» ACEA Driving Mobility For Europe, 27 February 2023. [En línea]. Available: https://www.acea.auto/figure/charging-point-deployment-versus-sales-of-electricallychargeable-cars/. [13] «Interactive map – Correlation between electric car sales and charging point availability (2023 data),» ACEA, [En línea]. Available: https://www.acea.auto/figure/interactive-map-correlation-between-electric-car-salesand-charging-point-availability-2023-data/. [14] «EVs Are Still 45% More Expensive To Make Than Combustion-Engined Cars,» Oliver Wyman, September 2020. [En línea]. Available: https://insideevs.com/news/444542/evs-45-percent-more-expensive-make-ice/. [15] «Electric Vehicles,» IEA, [En línea]. Available: https://www.iea.org/energysystem/transport/electric-vehicles. [16] Charlotte Argue, «Digging deeper into how temperature and speed impact EV range,» GeoTab, 30 November 2023. [En línea]. Available: https://www.geotab.com/blog/evrange-impact-of-speed-and-temperature/. [17] «Some countries are ending support for EVs. Is it too soon?,» MIT Technology Review , 23 September 2024. [En línea]. Available: https://www.technologyreview.com/2024/09/23/1104247/ending-ev-subsidies/. [18] «Germany Held Back EU Electric Car Market in First Half of 2024 — T&E Analysis,» Clean Technica, June 2024. [En línea]. Available: https://cleantechnica.com/2024/07/20/germany-held-back-eu-electric-car-market-infirst-half-of-2024-te-analysis/. [19] A. K. M. Yousuf, Z. Wang, R. Paranjape y Y. Tang, «An In-Depth Exploration of Electric Vehicle Charging Station Infrastructure: A Comprehensive Review of Challenges, Mitigation Approaches, and Optimization Strategies». A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 81 [20] Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, «Overview on Battery Swapping and Battery as a Service in China,» Beijing, 2022. [21] S. R. a. M. R. A. A. K. Karmaker, «Analysis of the impact of electric vehicle charging station on power quality issues,» 2019. [22] A. E. T. A. Y. a. O. M. S. Faddel, «Experimental verification of the effect of uncoordinated charging of electric vehicles on power grids,» 2019. [23] «Comprehensive Optimization Model for Sizing and Siting of DG Units, EV Charging Stations, and Energy Storage Systems.». [24] S. M. a. F. Mariasiu, «Electric vehicle battery technologies: From present state to future systems,» 2015. [25] J. T. S. M. B. M. T. Mutayab Khalid, «Impact of public and residential smart EV charging on distribution power grid equipped with storage». [26] P. T. I. P. a. I. K. J. Niitsoo, «Modeling EVs in residential distribution grid with other nonlinear loads,» 2015. [27] Y. X. Z. C. F. P. a. M. B. Y. Xu, «Harmonic analysis of electric vehicle loadings on distribution system,» 2014. [28] J. R. P. H. K. A. a. L. S. P. Grahn, «A method for evaluating the impact of electric vehicle charging on transformer hotspot temperature,» 2011. [29] «Enhancing Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure: A Techno-Economic Analysis of Distributed Energy Resources and Local Grid Integration». [30] «Electric vehicle charging technologies, infrastructure expansion, grid integration strategies, and their role in promoting sustainable e-mobility». [31] IEEE, «IEEE 1547: Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability of Distributed Energy Resources with Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces,» 2018. [32] «Understanding the IEEE 519 – 2014 standard for Harmonics,» ELSPEC LTD, [En línea]. Available: https://www.elspec-ltd.com/ieee-519-2014-standard-for-harmonics/. [33] «Understanding Lithium-Ion Battery Characteristics: A Comprehensive Guide,» MENRED ESS, November 2024. [En línea]. Available: https://www.menred- Pàg. 82 Report ess.com/understanding-lithium-ion-battery-characteristics-a-comprehensive-guide/. [34] L. Dong, «Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Characteristics,» August 2023. [En línea]. Available: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/lithium-iron-phosphate-batterycharacteristics-lesley-dong/. [35] «Typical cycle life: Gel vs AGM vs Lead Acid vs Lithium,» RED POLE ENERGY, [En línea]. Available: https://redpoleenergy.co.za/typical-cycle-life-gel-vs-agm-vs-leadacid-vs-lithium/. [36] «AGM (VRLA) batteries: maintenance-free 12V batteries and their advantages,» Armac Energy, September 2024. [En línea]. Available: https://armacenergy.eu/news/batteries-agm-vrla-unmanned-batteries-12v-and-their-benefits. [37] «MAXIMIZING THE CYCLE LIFE OF NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES,» Alnakhi Power, [En línea]. Available: https://alnakhipower.com/maximizing-the-cycle-life-ofnickel-cadmium-batteries/. [38] «Nickel Manganese Cobalt,» HBL, [En línea]. Available: http://www.hblbess.com/Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt.html. [39] «EVDC-90NA,» EVESCO , [En línea]. Available: https://www.powersonic.com/product/evdc-90-na/. [40] «Hi-MO-5,» LONGI , [En línea]. Available: https://www.longi.com/mx/products/modules/hi-mo-5/. [41] «Huawei SUN2000-150K-MG0,» Huawei , [En línea]. Available: https://www.solartraders.com/es/products/inversor/huawei-sun2000-150k-mg0. [42] «CALB L173F125B 3.2V 125Ah Lifepo4 Cell,» CALB , [En línea]. Available: https://lythbattery.com/calb-lfp-battery-l173f125-3-2v-125ah-lithium-battery-2/. [43] «blueplanet gridsave 92.0 - 137 TL3-S,» KACO NEW ENERGY, [En línea]. Available: https://kaco-newenergy.com/es/productos/blueplanet-870-tl3-125-tl3. [44] «G5 Stack Switchgear,» NUVATIONENERGY, [En línea]. Available: https://nstore.nuvationenergy.com/products/g5-stack-switchgear. [45] «Find out how much it costs to connect to the grid or increase your power,» UFD GRUPO NATURGY, 17 February 2023. [En línea]. Available: https://www.ufd.es/en/blog/conoce-los-costes-para-conectarte-a-la-red-o-ampliar-tu- A Case Study on Hybrid EV Charging Infrastructure Pág. 83 potencia/?utm_source=chatgpt.com. [46] «Energy Storage to Steal $277B From Power Grids by 2050,» BloombergNEF, [En línea]. Available: https://about.bnef.com/blog/energy-storage-to-steal-277b-frompower-grids-by-2050/. [47] «Electric vehicle battery prices are expected to fall almost 50% by 2026,» Goldman Sachs, 7 October 2024. [En línea]. Available: https://www.goldmansachs.com/insights/articles/electric-vehicle-battery-prices-areexpected-to-fall-almost-50-percent-by-2025. [48] «Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP or LiFePO4),» PowerTech Systems, [En línea]. Available: https://www.powertechsystems.eu/home/tech-corner/lithium-ironphosphate-lifepo4/.