Fully Polymeric Distillation Unit Based on Polypropylene Hollow Fibers

polyme s A icle Fully Polyme ic Dis illa ion Uni Based on Polyp opylene Hollow Fibe s Te eza K˚udelo á1,* , E ik Ba uli 1, Alan S unga 1, Jiˇ íH ožd’a 1and Mi osla Dohnal 2   Ci a ion: K˚udelo á, T.; Ba uli, E.; S unga, A.; H ožd’a, J.; Dohnal, M. Fully Polyme ic Dis illa ion Uni Based on Polyp opylene Hollow Fibe s. Polyme s 2021,13, 1031. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ polym13071031 Academic Edi o : Michael R. Buchmeise Recei ed: 25 Feb ua y 2021 Accep ed: 24 Ma ch 2021 Published: 26 Ma ch 2021 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1Hea T ans e and Fluid Flow Labo a o y, Facul y o Mechanical Enginee ing, B no Uni e si y o Technology, Technická2, 61669 B no, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed] (E.B.); [email p o ec ed] (A.S.); [email p o ec ed] (J.H.) 2ZENA s. .o., B anky 278/21, 66449 Os opo ice, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: Te [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : Access o pu e wa e is a e y opical issue oday. Desalina ion ep esen s a p omising way o ob aining d inking wa e in a eas o sho age. Cu en ly, e o s a e being made o eplace he me al componen s o exis ing desalina ion uni s due o he high co osi i y o sea wa e . Ano he equi emen is easy anspo a ion and assembly. The p esen ed solu ion combines wo ypes o polyme ic hollow ibe s ha a e used o c ea e he dis illa ion uni . Po ous polyp opylene hollow ibe memb anes ha e been used as an ac i e su ace o mass ans e in he dis illa ion uni , while non-po ous he mal polyp opylene hollow ibe s ha e been employed in he condense . The la ge ac i e a ea o olume a io o he hollow ibe module imp o es he e iciency o bo h uni s. Ho wa e is pumped inside he memb anes in he dis illa ion uni . E apo a ion is i s obse ed a a empe a u e g adien o 10 ◦ C. The wa e apo lows h ough he unnel o he condense whe e cold wa e uns inside he ibe s. The empe a u e g adien causes condensa ion o he apo , and he condensa e is collec ed. The a icle p esen s da a o ho wa e a empe a u es o 55, 60, and 65 ◦C. Op imiza ion o he memb ane module is e alua ed and p esen ed. Keywo ds: polyp opylene; hollow ibe memb anes; hea ans e ; sweep gas memb ane dis illa ion 1. In oduc ion Memb ane dis illa ion is one o he newe sepa a ion p ocesses, in which he indi id- ual componen s a e sepa a ed based on hei di e en molecula p ope ies. The p ocess u ilizes mass ans e be ween he gas and liquid phase. A memb ane has de ined su ace p ope ies as well as a p ecisely de ined po e size h ough which he gas phase o he sub- s ance pene a es. Theo e ically, he sepa a ion yields a 100% pu e compound, cleansed o all sal s o con amina ion [ 1 – 3 ]. Phase ansi ion occu s in memb ane dis illa ion, he e o e highe ene gy equi emen s should be assumed han o p ocesses wi hou i [1]. This p ocess has a wide ange o po en ial applica ions including desalina ion, was ew- a e ea men , hea y me al emo al, and p ocesses in he ood indus y, al hough i has no ye been implemen ed indus ially. Mos cu en applica ions o memb ane dis illa ion a e s ill in he labo a o y o small pilo s age. Thus a , he p ima y ocus has been wa e desalina ion. The possibili y o using enewable ene gy sou ces, such as was e hea , sola ene gy, o geo he mal ene gy, may allow he in eg a ion o memb ane dis illa ion wi h o he p ocesses, making i mo e a o able ene gy-wise and he e o e p omising on an indus ial scale [ 4 , 5 ]. Ano he possible use o he polyme ic hollow ibe memb ane is o ae osol o gas il a ion [6–9]. Mic ochemical p ocess echnologies ha e been iden i ied as a sui able s a egy o in ensi ica ion o chemical p ocesses [ 4 ]. In hese echnologies, he modules ha e a leas one dimension less han 1 mm. The s eamlining o mic ochemical p ocesses is possible mainly h ough he ac ha when he liquid lows inside a channel which has a diame e o less han 1 mm, i s hea ing o cooling is mo e e icien due o a signi ican inc ease in Polyme s 2021,13, 1031. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/polym13071031 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/polyme s Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 2 o 18 he a io o he ac i e a ea o he module olume [ 10 ]. By educing he diame e o he channels used, he dis ance o he liquid om he ac i e memb ane su ace is also educed. Mass ans e in memb ane dis illa ion is con olled by h ee basic mechanisms: Knud- sen di usion [ 11 ], Poiseuille lux ( iscous lux) [ 12 ], and molecula di usion [ 13 ]. The Knudsen numbe , de ined as he a io o he mean ee pa h o anspo ed molecules o he memb ane po e size, is an indica ion o which mechanism is p edominan wi hin he memb ane po es. The p e ailing mechanism de ines he ype o mass ans e esis ance due o a momen um ans e o a suppo ed memb ane ( iscous lux esis ance), collision o molecules wi h o he molecules (molecula esis ance), o collision wi h he memb ane i sel (Knudsen esis ance). The esis ance in he bounda y laye is gene ally negligible, as is su ace esis ance, because he su ace a ea is small compa ed o he po e a ea. On he o he hand, he he mal bounda y laye has been shown o be a limi ing s ep o mass ans e [14]. O e a billion people do no ha e access o clean d inking wa e [ 15 ]. E en hough exis ing d inking wa e supplies a e su icien o he gene al popula ion, he dis ibu ion o d inking wa e does no coincide wi h popula ion dis ibu ion [ 16 , 17 ]. Memb ane dis illa ion looks like a p omising echnology o sol e his p essing issue, and he e o e a lo o p og ess has been made in his ield. Gene ally, memb ane dis illa ion wo ks a lowe empe a u es han o he con en ional dis illa ion me hods and uns a lowe hyd os a ic p essu es han o he memb ane-based p ocesses, making i a mo e economically ad an ageous ope a ion, especially since i also has less demanding memb ane mechanical p ope ies [4]. The memb anes used in memb ane dis illa ion can be con igu ed in o a ious mem- b ane modules, he mos common being pla e-and- ame, hollow ibe s, ubula , and spi al-wound. The main choice o memb ane module depends on he ope a ing condi ions and cos s. O he impo an pe o mance c i e ia include e ec i e con ol o he empe - a u e and concen a ion e ec s. Pla e-and- ame ype con igu a ions a e widely used in he esea ch o his pape because hey a e easy o clean and eplace. Howe e , hei high p ice and low su ace a ea o olume a io makes hem uneconomical o he indus y. Hollow ibe o spi al-wound modules a e usually used ins ead [4,14,18,19]. Memb anes a e de ined by se e al pa ame e s, he mos impo an being liquid en y p essu e (LEP), hyd ophobici y/hyd ophilici y, pe meabili y, chemical and he mal s abili y, and ouling a e. Liquid en y p essu e (LEP) is he minimum hyd os a ic p essu e ha mus be applied o he solu ion o o e come he hyd ophobic o ces, and undesi able leakage will occu . I can be calcula ed as ollows: LEP = BγLcosϕ max (1) whe e Bis he geome ical ac o ha is de ined by he p ope ies o he po es, γL is he su ace ension o he liquid, ϕ is he con ac angle o he liquid wi h he solid su ace, and max is he maximum po e size [20]. We abili y o he memb ane is an impo an pa ame e o he memb ane, which in luences he LEP. We abili y can be de ined by he con ac angle, which is he angle o med by he memb ane su ace by he angen o a d op o he liquid [ 21 ]. Hyd ophilic ma e ials ha e a con ac angle lowe han 90 ◦ , i.e., he liquid sp eads on he su ace easily. A con ac angle highe han 90 ◦ cha ac e izes hyd ophobic ma e ials. The dynamic con ac angles measu ed by he Wilhelmy balance me hod o non-po ous polyme ic hollow ibe s we e s udied be o e [ 22 ]. A con ac angle o abo e 90 ◦ is equi ed o applica ions wi h saline aqueous solu ions. The pe meabili y o he memb ane a ec s he amoun o he ou pu — he highe he pe meabili y, he highe amoun o he ou pu . Mola lux depends on he po osi y ε o he memb ane, he o uosi y τ o he po es, memb ane hickness δ and he a e age po e size 〈 α〉, and is de ined as [23]: N∝h αiε τδ (2) Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 3 o 18 Memb ane po osi y is ano he impo an pa ame e o he memb ane ha in luences he pe meabili y. A memb ane wi h highe po osi y p o ides mo e ac i e su ace a ea, which con ibu es o he highe mass ans e h ough he memb ane and dec eases he he mal conduc i e losses h ough he memb ane wall [24]. To ensu e long- e m s abili y and unc ioning o he modules, he memb ane mus ha e high chemical s abili y o a oid any eac ion be ween he solu ion and he memb ane ha could cause damage o he memb ane s uc u e. Mo eo e , he mal and mechanical s abili y mus be ensu ed o a oid deg ada ion o he memb ane du ing ope a ion. The memb ane hickness signi ican ly in luences he p ocess o pene a ion h ough he memb ane. The lowe hickness con ibu es o he highe mass ans e h ough he memb ane. Howe e , i also con ibu es o highe he mal losses ha nega i ely a ec he ene gy equi emen s [ 25 ]. This has led o he use o composi e memb anes ha ha e mo e laye s [ 26 ]. Composi e memb anes ha e a hin hyd ophobic selec i e laye and a hyd ophilic suppo ing laye . The size o he po es de e mines he mass ans e and LEP. La ge po es ha e highe mass ans e , bu also lowe LEP [ 24 ]. The e o e, i is necessa y o op imize he po e size. Commonly used memb anes ha e a po e size in he ange o 100 nm–1 µ m [ 13 ]. The memb anes used in his s udy ha e an a e age po e size o 0.1 µ m and we e p oduced by ZENA s. .o. [27]. The phenomenon o memb ane ouling is one o he mos se ious issues o memb ane dis illa ion and hollow ibe memb anes wi h a small diame e a e especially ulne able. In o de o p e en i , il a ion o he solu ion om impu i ies mus be ensu ed [ 28 ]. Mem- b anes a e usually ouled by a ious sal s, p edominan ly compounds o calcium and magnesium [ 29 ], ha o m scales in he a ea o he po es [ 30 ]. Once he ini ial ouling laye is o med i s a s o g ow apidly. The hickness o he ouling laye a ec s bo h he mass and hea ans e [ 18 , 31 ]. The o ma ion o scales is e e ed o as he main eason o unde- si able leakage, dec ease in he mass ans e , and damage o he memb ane s uc u e [ 32 ]. Inc eased empe a u e p opaga es he o ma ion o scales [ 33 ]. I is necessa y o elimina e ouling as much as possible o gua an ee eliable ope a ion o he memb ane dis illa ion uni . A gas added o he solu ion is one o he possible ways o educe ouling [ 34 ]. Ano he possibili y is o use polyphospha e, which does no inhibi he o ma ion o he scales, bu p e en s hem a aching hemsel es o he memb ane wall [ 35 ]. In addi ion, modi ica ion o he memb ane wall su ace can p e en scales om adso bing [36]. Non-po ous polyp opylene hollow ibe s we e used in he design o polyme ic hollow ibe hea exchange s (PHFHEs). The i s men ion o PHFHEs is om 2004 in [ 37 ], whe e he au ho s used PHFHEs as condense s. PHFHEs consis o many polyme ic hollow ibe s (hund eds o e en housands) wi h an ou e diame e o a ound 1 mm. The hickness o he wall anges om 10% o 25% o he ibe ou e diame e depending on he applica ion equi emen s. PHFHEs a e an al e na i e o he commonly used me al hea exchange s and ha e se e al ad an ages including lowe weigh , lowe ma e ial cos s, co osion esis ance, easie p oduc ion and modi ica ion, and high chemical endu ance and s abili y. Mo eo e , PHFHE also equi e less ene gy o p oduce and a e ecyclable, which con ibu es o hei en i onmen al iendliness [ 38 ]. Polyme s a e known o hei low he mal conduc i i y, which anges om 0.1 W/(m K) o 0.4 W/(m K), which could be hei main disad an age. Howe e , i can be neglec ed due o he e y low hickness o he ibe wall. PHFHEs a e e y compac hea exchange s ha p o ide a la ge hea ans e a ea wi h espec o hei olume [ 39 ]. PHFHEs can ha e a chao ic, semi-chao ic, o egula s uc u e [ 40 ]. Chao iza ion o he polyme ic hollow ibe s con ibu es o he imp o ed use o he ac i e hea ans e a ea o he uni . Sepa a ion o he ibe s is necessa y o gua an ee high e iciency [ 41 ]. The impo ance o he ibe a angemen is highligh ed in [ 42 , 43 ], whe e he au ho s claim ha il ed ibe s o ming an angle o 22.5 ◦ ac oss he laye s, which esul s in an o e all inc ease o 12.5% in he hea ans e coe icien in compa ison o he pa allel ibe s. Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 4 o 18 Possible ouling o PHFHEs mus be aken in o conside a ion. The ouling can occu on bo h he inne and ou e su aces o hollow ibe s. In e nal ouling is deal wi h in he same way as o memb ane ibe s, i.e., il a ion o mechanical impu i ies and use o polyphospha e [ 35 ]. The e a e wo ypes o ouling o PHFHEs on he ou e su ace: O ganic and ino ganic. In he case o o ganic ouling, once he ini ial ouling laye is o med, ouling g ows apidly [ 44 ]. PHFHEs show be e esul s o ino ganic ouling han aluminum hea exchange s ha a e commonly used in ai -condi ioning [ 45 ]. A PHFHE wi h a egula s uc u e was used in he s udy. De e mina ion o he li e ime is an impo an ac o in e e y de ice e alua ion. Fa igue es ing by p essu e loading p o ed ha chao ic PHFHEs a e able o wi hs and mo e han one million p essu e cycles ( om 0 o 3.5 ba ) wi hou any sign o damage [ 46 ]. These PHFHEs a e used in his s udy. PHFHEs can be used as imme sed hea exchange s ha a e compe i i e in compa ison o comme cially a ailable hea exchange s. They ha e o e all hea ans e coe icien s o up o 890 W/(m 2 K) [ 47 ]. Ano he possible use is in he au omo i e indus y as a ca adia o . The s udy [ 48 ] concluded ha PHFHEs a e able o achie e compa able esul s o me al inned ube hea exchange s. PHFHEs a e also sui able o HVAC applica ions [ 45 ]. Condensa ion on he ou e su ace o PHFHEs is in luenced by he we abili y o he ibe s. The cha ac e iza ion o he ou e su ace we abili y o he polyp opylene hollow ibe s ha a e used o p oduc ion o PHFHEs is p esen ed in [ 22 ]. The hyd ophobic polyp opylene causes d opwise condensa- ion [ 49 , 50 ]. The possibili y o using PHFHEs o cooling elec onic sys ems is desc ibed in [ 51 ]. Due o hei lexibili y, PHFHEs can be used o cooling elec onic boxes ha can be di icul o access. The s udy shows ha he o e all hea ans e coe icien s in wa e -ai applica ion a e up o 250 W/(m 2 K) and 80 W/(m 2 K) o o ced and na u al con ec ion, espec i ely. PHFHE as a supe compac coole o Li-ion cells is p esen ed in [ 52 ]. A housing made o polydicyclopen adiene is used o polyme ic hollow ibe s o c ea e a ully polyme ic solu ion. The lexibili y o he ibe s allows he ibe s o be wound a ound he Li-ion cell and hence o achie e a la ge con ac a ea and e ec i e cooling. In he s udy p esen ed in his pape , he polyp opylene PHFHE wi h a chao ic s uc u e will be used as a condense . This s udy examines he combina ion o he polyme ic hollow ibe memb ane which can be used o memb ane dis illa ion, and PHFHEs ha ha e al eady p o ed hei en- du ance o p essu e loading and showed la ge o e all hea ans e coe icien s. Despi e he ac ha hey a e made o polyp opylene, hey a e an e ec i e hea exchange wi h esul ing bene i s such as low weigh , low ene gy consump ion du ing manu ac u ing, and chemical and co osion endu ance. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods 2.1. Me hods Depending on how he apo p essu e g adien is induced, memb ane dis illa ion can be di ided in o ou ypes: Di ec con ac memb ane dis illa ion (DCMD), acuum memb ane dis illa ion (VMD), ai gap memb ane dis illa ion (AGMD), and sweep gas memb ane dis illa ion (SGMD). DCMD is a e y simple con igu a ion in which he memb ane sepa a es wo media a di e en empe a u es. The empe a u e di e ence be ween he wo media induces a apo p essu e di e ence ac oss he memb ane. This di e ence is esponsible o he e apo a ion o he wa m solu ion molecules. Vapo is hen d i en by he o ce caused by he p essu e di e ence h ough he po es o he memb ane and pe mea es i . When he apo comes in o di ec con ac wi h he pe mea e, i condenses due o he lowe empe a u e and p essu e [ 4 , 53 ]. The wa m solu ion is main ained a a mosphe ic p essu e and below i s boiling poin . The colde pe mea e is main ained a a signi ican ly lowe empe a u e and is ci cula ed unde he same condi ions as he wa m solu ion. The hyd os a ic p essu e mus no exceed he maximum pe missible alue on ei he side o he memb ane, o he wise undesi able leakage will occu . Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 5 o 18 AGMD is a a ian o memb ane dis illa ion in which he e is a s a iona y ai gap be ween he memb ane and he su ace on which he apo condenses. This su ace is buil in o he module. Due o he he mal cha ac e is ics o he ai ( he mal insula o ), he ai gap con ibu es o he educ ion o hea loss due o conduc ion. The disad an age o he ai gap is he addi ional con ec ion esis ance, which mus be o e come when apo s pene a e he memb ane. This nega i ely a ec s he mass low h ough he memb ane [4,53]. VMD is based on he use o low p essu e o a acuum on he pe mea e side. The p essu e is lowe han he sa u a ion p essu e o he ola ile molecules ha will be sep- a a ed om he solu ion. The apo condenses ou side o he memb ane module. The ad an ages o his con igu a ion a e he low conduc ion hea losses and educed mass ans e esis ance. On he o he hand, i s disad an ages a e he inc eased isk o po e we ing and highe ene gy equi emen s [4,53]. SGMD uses cold sweep gas o anspo he apo o he condense . The mechanism is simila o AGMD, howe e he sweep gas educes he con ec ion esis ance and imp o es he mass ans e . Usually, ai o an ine gas like ni ogen is used in SGMD as he sweep gas. The condense is placed ou side he memb ane module. Di usion o a small olume o apo in o a la ge olume o swep gas is he disad an age o SGMD [4,53]. DCMD is he mos s udied ype o memb ane dis illa ion due o i s simplici y [ 54 ]. The ad an age o VMD is he high p oduc yield. The ad an age o AGMD and SGMD is he a io be ween ou pu and ene gy cos s [ 55 – 57 ]. AGMD is also conside ed o be he mos lexible con igu a ion and he e o e has po en ial in desalina ion [58]. SGMD was chosen as he ype o memb ane dis illa ion o he esea ch p esen ed in his pape . Ai was used as he sweep gas. 2.2. Expe imen al Pa The dis illa ion uni consis s o h ee main pa s—a dis illa ion unnel, a memb ane module, and a condense . The unnel is made o anspa en polyca bona e shee s so he p ocess can be con inuously obse ed. The memb ane module consis s o a bundle o a numbe o bundles o polyme ic hollow ibe memb anes. The memb anes used we e p oduced by ZENA s. .o. [ 27 ]. An elec on mic oscope pho og aph o he memb ane is shown in Figu e 1. These memb anes a e made o hyd ophobic polyp opylene ibe s wi h an ou e diame e (OD) o 0.6 mm, an inne diame e (ID) o 0.48 mm, memb ane hickness o 0.06 mm, a e age po e size o 0.1 µ m wi h a po osi y o 50%, and LEP o o e 3.5 ba . The condense is made o polyp opylene hollow ibe s as well, howe e , hese a e non-po ous. The OD o he condense ’s ibe s is 0.8 mm and he ID is 0.6 mm. The condense is made o 200 ibe s wi h a leng h o 600 mm. The e o e, he condense p o ides a hea ans e a ea o 0.3 m2. The condense is shown in Figu e 2. Polyme s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 19 Figu e 1. An elec on mic oscope image o he po ous polyp opylene memb ane ha was used o dis illa ion; he pho og aph was p o ided by ZENA s. .o. [27]. Figu e 2. A condense made o non-po ous polyp opylene hollow ibe s. The op imiza ion o he memb ane module equi ed six di e en con igu a ions. They di e in he numbe o ibe s, he OD o he ibe s, and he leng h o he ibe s. All bundles we e po ed in a DN 16 PVC ube. The p ope ies o he memb ane modules a e lis ed in Table 1. Examples o a single-bundle and double-bundle memb ane module a e shown in Figu e 3. Table 1. P ope ies o memb ane modules. Memb ane Module No. o Fibe s OD (mm) ID (mm) Fibe Leng h (mm) Mass T ans e A ea (m2) No e MM001 4000 0.33 0.24 300 1.24 ou -bundle memb ane module MM002 200 0.6 0.48 140 0.06 single-bundle memb ane module MM003 300 0.6 0.48 140 0.08 single-bundle memb ane module MM004 500 0.6 0.48 140 0.14 single-bundle memb ane module MM006 600 0.6 0.48 140 0.16 double-bundle memb ane module MM007 1000 0.6 0.48 140 0.29 double-bundle memb ane module Figu e 1. An elec on mic oscope image o he po ous polyp opylene memb ane ha was used o dis illa ion; he pho og aph was p o ided by ZENA s. .o. [27]. Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 6 o 18 Polyme s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 o 19 Figu e 1. An elec on mic oscope image o he po ous polyp opylene memb ane ha was used o dis illa ion; he pho og aph was p o ided by ZENA s. .o. [27]. Figu e 2. A condense made o non-po ous polyp opylene hollow ibe s. The op imiza ion o he memb ane module equi ed six di e en con igu a ions. They di e in he numbe o ibe s, he OD o he ibe s, and he leng h o he ibe s. All bundles we e po ed in a DN 16 PVC ube. The p ope ies o he memb ane modules a e lis ed in Table 1. Examples o a single-bundle and double-bundle memb ane module a e shown in Figu e 3. Table 1. P ope ies o memb ane modules. Memb ane Module No. o Fibe s OD (mm) ID (mm) Fibe Leng h (mm) Mass T ans e A ea (m2) No e MM001 4000 0.33 0.24 300 1.24 ou -bundle memb ane module MM002 200 0.6 0.48 140 0.06 single-bundle memb ane module MM003 300 0.6 0.48 140 0.08 single-bundle memb ane module MM004 500 0.6 0.48 140 0.14 single-bundle memb ane module MM006 600 0.6 0.48 140 0.16 double-bundle memb ane module MM007 1000 0.6 0.48 140 0.29 double-bundle memb ane module Figu e 2. A condense made o non-po ous polyp opylene hollow ibe s. The op imiza ion o he memb ane module equi ed six di e en con igu a ions. They di e in he numbe o ibe s, he OD o he ibe s, and he leng h o he ibe s. All bundles we e po ed in a DN 16 PVC ube. The p ope ies o he memb ane modules a e lis ed in Table 1. Examples o a single-bundle and double-bundle memb ane module a e shown in Figu e 3. Table 1. P ope ies o memb ane modules. Memb ane Module No. o Fibe s OD (mm) ID (mm) Fibe Leng h (mm) Mass T ans e A ea (m2)No e MM001 4000 0.33 0.24 300 1.24 ou -bundle memb ane module MM002 200 0.6 0.48 140 0.06 single-bundle memb ane module MM003 300 0.6 0.48 140 0.08 single-bundle memb ane module MM004 500 0.6 0.48 140 0.14 single-bundle memb ane module MM006 600 0.6 0.48 140 0.16 double-bundle memb ane module MM007 1000 0.6 0.48 140 0.29 double-bundle memb ane module Polyme s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 19 Figu e 3. Single-bundle memb ane module MM003 (le ) and double-bundle memb ane module MM006 ( igh ). The es unnel has a ec angula c oss-sec ion wi h a heigh o 120 mm and a wid h o 100 mm. The unnel o ms a ec angula 2000 mm × 1000 mm closed loop. The es sec ion is loca ed along he longe side. On he o he side o he unnel is he spo whe e he empe a u e, humidi y, and ai speed a e measu ed in s abilized condi ions. A mul iple o 10 hyd aulic diame e s is applied in on o and behind he es spo . The memb ane module and he condense a e placed in o he dis illa ion unnel whe e he sweeping ai lows. The ai low is p o ided by a s anda d compu e an wi h dimensions o 100 mm × 100 mm. The an was supplied wi h 11 V o each con igu a ion, which co esponds o an ai speed om 0.6 o 0.8 m/s ela i e o he speci ic module. The ho medium lows h ough he dis illa ion memb ane module. The wa e e apo a es and he wa e apo pene a es he memb ane in he unnel. I is hen swep along by he lowing ai o he condense , whe e i condenses and he condensa e is collec ed. Tap wa e was used as a ho medium o e i ica ion o he dis illa ion uni . Be o e he expe imen , he wa e was modi ied wi h polyphospha e. This ea men is based on he abili y o phospha e polyme s o be abso bed by he su ace o c ys alline calcium and magnesium co es. This c ea es a p o ec i e ilm ha p e en s he co es om me ging and o ming c ys als. Wa e ea ed his way, while main aining i s o iginal ha dness, does no o m a ha m ul coa ing. D inking wa e emains d inkable e en a e his ea men [59]. The concen a ion o he employed solu ion was 0.02 g/L. The scheme o he es ig wi h he posi ions o he measu ing p obes is shown in Figu e 4. The inpu and ou pu empe a u e, p essu e d ops, and low a e a e measu ed o he memb ane module and he condense . The humidi y and empe a u e a e measu ed inside he unnel. The measu ing spo s a e be o e and a e he es ed sec ion, and one spo is opposi e he es ing sec ion whe e he ai low is s abilized. This is also he spo whe e he ai speed is measu ed. All empe a u es a e measu ed wi h he P 100 he mome e (OMEGA Enginee ing, Inc., No walk, CT, USA) wi h accu acy o 1/3 DIN, i.e., ± (0.10 + 0.0017·abs ( )) °C. The humidi y me e (B+B The mo-Technik GmbH, Donaueschingen, Ge many) gi es an e o o ± 3% o he measu ed alue ela i e humidi y, he anemome e (OMEGA Enginee ing, Inc., No walk, CT, USA) has an accu acy o ± (5% o measu ed alue + 0.1) m/s, and he p essu es (KELLER AG ü D uckmess echnik, Win e hu , Swi ze land) a e measu ed wi h an e o o ± 25 Pa. The ho medium low a e (i m elec onic, Essen, Ge many) has an e o o 0.4 L/min and he low a e h ough he condense has an accu acy o ±0.8 L/min. The ela i e humidi y and empe a u e measu ed inside he unnel a e ma ked as H1, …, H4 and T1, …, T4. The ai inside he unnel lows om H1 o H4 h ough H2 and H3. As men ioned abo e, Tmi ma ks he inpu empe a u e o he memb ane module and Tmo is he ou pu empe a u e o he memb ane module. Tci deno es he inpu empe a u e o he condense and Tco Figu e 3. Single-bundle memb ane module MM003 (le ) and double-bundle memb ane module MM006 ( igh ). The es unnel has a ec angula c oss-sec ion wi h a heigh o 120 mm and a wid h o 100 mm. The unnel o ms a ec angula 2000 mm × 1000 mm closed loop. The es Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 7 o 18 sec ion is loca ed along he longe side. On he o he side o he unnel is he spo whe e he empe a u e, humidi y, and ai speed a e measu ed in s abilized condi ions. A mul iple o 10 hyd aulic diame e s is applied in on o and behind he es spo . The memb ane module and he condense a e placed in o he dis illa ion unnel whe e he sweeping ai lows. The ai low is p o ided by a s anda d compu e an wi h dimensions o 100 mm × 100 mm. The an was supplied wi h 11 V o each con igu a ion, which co esponds o an ai speed om 0.6 o 0.8 m/s ela i e o he speci ic module. The ho medium lows h ough he dis illa ion memb ane module. The wa e e apo a es and he wa e apo pene a es he memb ane in he unnel. I is hen swep along by he lowing ai o he condense , whe e i condenses and he condensa e is collec ed. Tap wa e was used as a ho medium o e i ica ion o he dis illa ion uni . Be o e he expe imen , he wa e was modi ied wi h polyphospha e. This ea men is based on he abili y o phospha e polyme s o be abso bed by he su ace o c ys alline calcium and magnesium co es. This c ea es a p o ec i e ilm ha p e en s he co es om me ging and o ming c ys als. Wa e ea ed his way, while main aining i s o iginal ha dness, does no o m a ha m ul coa ing. D inking wa e emains d inkable e en a e his ea men [ 59 ]. The concen a ion o he employed solu ion was 0.02 g/L. The scheme o he es ig wi h he posi ions o he measu ing p obes is shown in Figu e 4. The inpu and ou pu empe a u e, p essu e d ops, and low a e a e mea- su ed o he memb ane module and he condense . The humidi y and empe a u e a e measu ed inside he unnel. The measu ing spo s a e be o e and a e he es ed sec- ion, and one spo is opposi e he es ing sec ion whe e he ai low is s abilized. This is also he spo whe e he ai speed is measu ed. All empe a u es a e measu ed wi h he P 100 he mome e (OMEGA Enginee ing, Inc., No walk, CT, USA) wi h accu acy o 1/3 DIN , i.e., ± ( 0.10 + 0.0017·abs ( )) ◦C . The humidi y me e (B+B The mo-Technik GmbH, Donaueschingen, Ge many) gi es an e o o ± 3% o he measu ed alue ela- i e humidi y, he anemome e (OMEGA Enginee ing, Inc., No walk, CT, USA) has an accu acy o ± (5% o measu ed alue + 0.1) m/s, and he p essu es (KELLER AG ü D uckmess echnik, Win e hu , Swi ze land) a e measu ed wi h an e o o ± 25 Pa. The ho medium low a e (i m elec onic, Essen, Ge many) has an e o o 0.4 L/min and he low a e h ough he condense has an accu acy o ± 0.8 L/min. The ela i e humidi y and empe a u e measu ed inside he unnel a e ma ked as H1, . . . , H4 and T1, . . . , T4. The ai inside he unnel lows om H1 o H4 h ough H2 and H3. As men ioned abo e, Tmi ma ks he inpu empe a u e o he memb ane module and Tmo is he ou pu empe a u e o he memb ane module. Tci deno es he inpu empe a u e o he condense and Tco deno es he ou pu empe a u e o he condense . The p essu e a he inpu and ou pu o he memb ane module and condense we e measu ed a he same spo as empe a u es Tmi, Tmo, Tci, and Tco. When es ing wo memb ane modules simul aneously, index numbe s 1 and 2 a e added o he empe a u es. These deno e he i s o second memb ane module o condense in he di ec ion o he ai low. H2 and T2 we e no measu ed when he scheme on he igh side o Figu e 4was applied. The no a ions H3, H4, T3, and T4 emain he same as in he scheme on he le o easons o cohe ence. See Figu e 4 o de ailed loca ions o all measu ing spo s. The in luence o he inpu empe a u e o he memb ane module was expec ed. 55 ◦C , 60 ◦ C, and 65 ◦ C we e chosen as es ing empe a u es. The humidi y and empe a u e o he ai we e measu ed o obse e he capabili y o he ai o abso b and elease he mois u e. The Knudsen numbe (Kn) was e alua ed o he es ing empe a u es 55 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and 65 ◦ C; i s alues a e 3.36, 2.67, and 2.19, espec i ely. The ansi ion egime occu s o 1<Kn<10 . The mean ee pa h o a molecule is compa able o he a e age po e size and he di usion is a mix u e o he ee and he con ined modes o di usion. Fi s ly, he memb ane module MM001 was used. The memb ane module consis s o ou bundles, each wi h 1000 ibe s wi h an OD o 0.33 mm. MM001 is he module wi h he la ges ac i e su ace—1.17 m 2 . The e o e, he la ges amoun o condensa e was expec ed Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 8 o 18 he e. Due o he leng h o he ibe s and hei small OD, he ibe s we e oo lexible, and hey hus slipped in o ou big ubes ins ead o 4000 small ones, and he ac i e su ace was blocked by he con ac wi h each o he . The e o e, he pe mea e lux o he module was poo . Figu e 5shows he MM001 and he condense inside he unnel. Polyme s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 19 condense . The p essu e a he inpu and ou pu o he memb ane module and condense we e measu ed a he same spo as empe a u es Tmi, Tmo, Tci, and Tco. When es ing wo memb ane modules simul aneously, index numbe s 1 and 2 a e added o he empe - a u es. These deno e he i s o second memb ane module o condense in he di ec ion o he ai low. H2 and T2 we e no measu ed when he scheme on he igh side o Figu e 4 was applied. The no a ions H3, H4, T3, and T4 emain he same as in he scheme on he le o easons o cohe ence. See Figu e 4 o de ailed loca ions o all measu ing spo s. Figu e 4. Scheme o he es ig o MM001 (le ) and o o he memb ane modules ( igh ), op iew. The in luence o he inpu empe a u e o he memb ane module was expec ed. 55 °C, 60 °C, and 65 °C we e chosen as es ing empe a u es. The humidi y and empe a u e o he ai we e measu ed o obse e he capabili y o he ai o abso b and elease he mois u e. The Knudsen numbe (Kn) was e alua ed o he es ing empe a u es 55 °C, 60 °C, and 65 °C; i s alues a e 3.36, 2.67, and 2.19, espec i ely. The ansi ion egime occu s o 1 < Kn < 10. The mean ee pa h o a molecule is compa able o he a e age po e size and he di usion is a mix u e o he ee and he con ined modes o di usion. Figu e 4. Scheme o he es ig o MM001 (le ) and o o he memb ane modules ( igh ), op iew. Polyme s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19 Fi s ly, he memb ane module MM001 was used. The memb ane module consis s o ou bundles, each wi h 1000 ibe s wi h an OD o 0.33 mm. MM001 is he module wi h he la ges ac i e su ace—1.17 m2. The e o e, he la ges amoun o condensa e was ex- pec ed he e. Due o he leng h o he ibe s and hei small OD, he ibe s we e oo lexible, and hey hus slipped in o ou big ubes ins ead o 4000 small ones, and he ac i e su ace was blocked by he con ac wi h each o he . The e o e, he pe mea e lux o he module was poo . Figu e 5 shows he MM001 and he condense inside he unnel. Figu e 5. MM001 ( igh ) wi h he condense (le ) inside he unnel, he ai lows om he igh o he le . Based on he measu ed esul s o MM001, he o he memb ane modules a e made o 140 mm ibe s wi h an OD o 0.6 mm. These modules p o ide a much lowe mass ans e a ea, bu he ibe s a e s i e . The leng h o 140 mm was chosen as i is he longes ibe op ion ha can s ill be sepa a ed. The sepa a ion is done by pushing he module e minals owa ds each o he by 20% o he o iginal leng h. This me hod does no a ec he hyd o- phobici y o he ibe s and causes no kinks. The sepa a ion o he ibe s is shown in Figu e 6. I can be also obse ed ha when he module is made o wo bundles, he sepa- a ion o ibe s is wo se. This can in pa icula be seen in Figu e 6, whe e he bo om bun- dle is limi ed by he sepa a ion o he ibe s in he uppe bundle. Al hough he sepa a ion o he bundles is simila (due o he dimensions o he ibe s and hei numbe ), i is ne e iden ical. This can esul in a sligh ly di e en mass ans e a ea. Howe e , he di e ence is no signi ican as he memb ane ibe s a e andomly ouching each o he . Figu e 6. Tes ing sec ion wi h MM007, condense , MM004 and condense ( om igh o le ). 3. Resul s The esul s a e p esen ed sepa a ely o indi idual memb ane modules. The lowe index m, c, i, o ma ks he memb ane module, condense , inpu , and ou pu , espec i ely. Each expe imen is gi en a e e ence-EXxy, whe e xy is a numbe om 01 o 20 o be e o ien a ion. 3.1. Fou -Bundle Memb ane Module The es scheme o measu ing MM001 is shown in Figu e 4 on he le . MM001 was es ed a wo di e en memb ane low a es, (Qm) 100 and 60 L/h, and o h ee di e en Figu e 5. MM001 ( igh ) wi h he condense (le ) inside he unnel, he ai lows om he igh o he le . Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 9 o 18 Based on he measu ed esul s o MM001, he o he memb ane modules a e made o 140 mm ibe s wi h an OD o 0.6 mm. These modules p o ide a much lowe mass ans e a ea, bu he ibe s a e s i e . The leng h o 140 mm was chosen as i is he longes ibe op ion ha can s ill be sepa a ed. The sepa a ion is done by pushing he module e minals owa ds each o he by 20% o he o iginal leng h. This me hod does no a ec he hyd ophobici y o he ibe s and causes no kinks. The sepa a ion o he ibe s is shown in Figu e 6. I can be also obse ed ha when he module is made o wo bundles, he sepa a ion o ibe s is wo se. This can in pa icula be seen in Figu e 6, whe e he bo om bundle is limi ed by he sepa a ion o he ibe s in he uppe bundle. Al hough he sepa a ion o he bundles is simila (due o he dimensions o he ibe s and hei numbe ), i is ne e iden ical. This can esul in a sligh ly di e en mass ans e a ea. Howe e , he di e ence is no signi ican as he memb ane ibe s a e andomly ouching each o he . Polyme s 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 19 Fi s ly, he memb ane module MM001 was used. The memb ane module consis s o ou bundles, each wi h 1000 ibe s wi h an OD o 0.33 mm. MM001 is he module wi h he la ges ac i e su ace—1.17 m2. The e o e, he la ges amoun o condensa e was ex- pec ed he e. Due o he leng h o he ibe s and hei small OD, he ibe s we e oo lexible, and hey hus slipped in o ou big ubes ins ead o 4000 small ones, and he ac i e su ace was blocked by he con ac wi h each o he . The e o e, he pe mea e lux o he module was poo . Figu e 5 shows he MM001 and he condense inside he unnel. Figu e 5. MM001 ( igh ) wi h he condense (le ) inside he unnel, he ai lows om he igh o he le . Based on he measu ed esul s o MM001, he o he memb ane modules a e made o 140 mm ibe s wi h an OD o 0.6 mm. These modules p o ide a much lowe mass ans e a ea, bu he ibe s a e s i e . The leng h o 140 mm was chosen as i is he longes ibe op ion ha can s ill be sepa a ed. The sepa a ion is done by pushing he module e minals owa ds each o he by 20% o he o iginal leng h. This me hod does no a ec he hyd o- phobici y o he ibe s and causes no kinks. The sepa a ion o he ibe s is shown in Figu e 6. I can be also obse ed ha when he module is made o wo bundles, he sepa- a ion o ibe s is wo se. This can in pa icula be seen in Figu e 6, whe e he bo om bun- dle is limi ed by he sepa a ion o he ibe s in he uppe bundle. Al hough he sepa a ion o he bundles is simila (due o he dimensions o he ibe s and hei numbe ), i is ne e iden ical. This can esul in a sligh ly di e en mass ans e a ea. Howe e , he di e ence is no signi ican as he memb ane ibe s a e andomly ouching each o he . Figu e 6. Tes ing sec ion wi h MM007, condense , MM004 and condense ( om igh o le ). 3. Resul s The esul s a e p esen ed sepa a ely o indi idual memb ane modules. The lowe index m, c, i, o ma ks he memb ane module, condense , inpu , and ou pu , espec i ely. Each expe imen is gi en a e e ence-EXxy, whe e xy is a numbe om 01 o 20 o be e o ien a ion. 3.1. Fou -Bundle Memb ane Module The es scheme o measu ing MM001 is shown in Figu e 4 on he le . MM001 was es ed a wo di e en memb ane low a es, (Qm) 100 and 60 L/h, and o h ee di e en Figu e 6. Tes ing sec ion wi h MM007, condense , MM004 and condense ( om igh o le ). 3. Resul s The esul s a e p esen ed sepa a ely o indi idual memb ane modules. The lowe index m, c, i, o ma ks he memb ane module, condense , inpu , and ou pu , espec i ely. Each expe imen is gi en a e e ence-EXxy, whe e xy is a numbe om 01 o 20 o be e o ien a ion. 3.1. Fou -Bundle Memb ane Module The es scheme o measu ing MM001 is shown in Figu e 4on he le . MM001 was es ed a wo di e en memb ane low a es, (Qm) 100 and 60 L/h, and o h ee di e en inpu empe a u es in he memb ane module, (Tmi) 55, 60, 65 ◦ C. The low a e h ough he condense was 360 L/h o all measu emen s. The ai speed inside he unnel was 0.7 m/s. The measu ed alues can be seen in Tables 2and 3. E o s a es he absolu e alue o he measu emen e o ha comes om he he mal balance be ween he memb ane module and he condense . The ai empe a u e in he unnel was 19 ◦ C in he spo whe e he ai speed was measu ed. Table 2. Measu ed empe a u es and humidi y o MM001. Qm(L/h) Tmi (◦C) Tmo (◦C) Tci (◦C) Tco (◦C) H1 (%) T1 (◦C) H2 (%) T2 (◦C) H3 (%) T3 (◦C) H4 (%) T4 (◦C) EX01 60 55.1 52.2 10.6 11.1 83.3 19.9 93.2 24.9 88.0 17.3 88.2 19.0 EX02 100 55.1 53.4 10.6 11.1 82.7 19.8 93.4 24.6 89.7 17.4 85.9 19.0 EX03 60 60.1 57.2 10.5 11.0 93.2 19.5 92.7 25.1 89.6 17.7 85.0 18.7 EX04 100 60.2 58.5 10.2 10.7 81.0 19.6 93.3 24.8 85.8 17.3 84.1 18.8 EX05 60 65.0 61.9 10.7 11.2 82.6 20.1 93.3 26.2 86.6 18.2 89.0 19.3 EX06 100 65.1 63.0 10.6 11.2 83.8 20.1 93.7 26.1 86.4 18.2 86.7 19.3 Polyme s 2021,13, 1031 16 o 18 6. Pa en s The main idea o his esea ch is p o ec ed by u ili y model CZ 32427 U1 “A memb ane dis illa ion module” issued by he Indus ial P ope y O ice o he Czech Republic. Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.D.; me hodology, T.K., A.S. and E.B.; alida ion, J.H. and T.K.; o mal analysis, T.K., A.S. and J.H.; in es iga ion, T.K. and E.B.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, T.K.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, M.D. and E.B. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This wo k was suppo ed by he Minis y o Educa ion, You h and Spo s o he Czech Republic unde OP RDE g an numbe CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/0000753 “Resea ch cen e o low-ca bon ene gy echnologies”. Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable. In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he co esponding au ho . Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . Re e ences 1. Camacho, L.M.; Dumée, L.; Zhang, J.; Li, J.; Duke, M.; Gomez, J.; G ay, S. Ad ances in Memb ane Dis illa ion o Wa e Desalina ion and Pu i ica ion Applica ions. Wa e 2013,5, 94–196. 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