Continuous Assurance for the Digital Transformation of Internal Auditing
Abstract
As a result of the increasing demand on the credibility of the financial information disclosure, internal auditing has been playing an increasingly important role in organizations. Currently, there is a need to ensure the compliance of organizational transactions in real time in order to increase the reliability of the information and to reduce risks. In this context, the concept of Continuous Assurance has emerged, allowing to reduce potential errors and risks and obtain useful information in real time, supporting more effectively the decision making and internal auditing. This paper aims to understand the importance and the use of Continuous Assurance services from the perspective of the internal auditor. So, the methodology used is qualitative and the questionnaire survey was used to collect data from interna auditors in Portugal. The main results demonstrate, among other findings, that the Continuous Assurance services are considered by the internal auditors as very important. Despite this, its implementation in the organizations does not follow the importance assigned to it, and is still far from being fully deployed. The dimension of the audit department is an influential factor in the use of some Continuous Assurance services.
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Jou nal o In o ma ion Sys ems Enginee ing and Managemen
2022, 7(1), 11681
e-ISSN: 2468-4376
h ps://www.jisem-jou nal.com/
Resea ch A icle
Con inuous Assu ance o he Digi al T ans o ma ion o
In e nal Audi ing
Cá ia Ba os1, Rui Ped o Ma ques 1 *
1 Uni e si y o A ei o, Po ugal
*
Co esponding Au ho :
uima [email protected] @ua.p
Ci a ion: Cá ia Ba os, Rui Ped o Ma ques (2022). Con inuous Assu ance o he Digi al T ans o ma ion o In e nal Audi ing.
Jou nal o
In o ma ion Sys ems Enginee ing and Managemen , 7
(1), 11681.
h ps://doi.o g/10.55267/iad .07.11681
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Recei ed: 10 Dec. 2021
Accep ed: 26 Jan. 2022
As a esul o he inc easing demand on he c edibili y o he inancial in o ma ion disclosu e, in e nal
audi ing has been playing an inc easingly impo an ole in o ganiza ions. Cu en ly,
he e is a need
o ensu e he compliance o o ganiza ional ansac ions in eal ime in o de o inc ease he eliabili y
o he in o ma ion and o educe isks. In his con ex , he concep o Con inuous Assu ance has
eme ged, allowing o educe po en ial
e o s and isks and ob ain use ul in o ma ion in eal ime,
suppo ing mo e e ec i ely he decision making and in e nal audi ing. This pape aims o
unde s and he impo ance and he use o Con inuous Assu ance se ices om he pe spec i e o he
in e n
al audi o . So, he me hodology used is quali a i e and he ques ionnai e su ey was used o
collec da a om in e na audi o s in Po ugal. The main esul s demons a e, among o he indings,
ha he Con inuous Assu ance se ices a e conside ed by he in
e nal audi o s as e y impo an .
Despi e his, i s implemen a ion in he o ganiza ions does no ollow he impo ance assigned o i ,
and is s ill a om being ully deployed. The dimension o he audi depa men is an in luen ial
ac o in he use o some Con inuous Assu ance se ices.
Keywo ds: Digi al T ans o ma ion, In e nal Audi , Con inuous Assu ance, Risk Managemen
INTRODUCTION
In ecen yea s we ha e seen cons an changes: in he
economy, in business ansac ions, in in o ma ion sys ems, hen
he business en i onmen has o adap daily o hese
ans o ma ions. In his con ex , in e nal audi ing has been
playing an inc easingly impo an ole wi hin o ganiza ions. The
in e nal audi ing no only e i ies he accoun ing sys em and he
anspa ency o he in o ma ion p o ided by he inancial
s a emen s, bu also helps o implemen con ol sys ems and
undamen al p ocedu es inhe en in he ac i i y o he
o ganiza ion. Acco ding o IIA (2021), in e nal audi ing is an
independen , objec i e assu ance and consul ing ac i i y
designed o add alue and imp o e an o ganiza ion’s
ope a ions. I helps an o ganiza ion accomplish i s objec i es by
b inging a sys ema ic, disciplined app oach o e alua e and
imp o e he e ec i eness o isk managemen , con ol, and
go e nance p ocesses.
Fu he mo e, wi h he mos echnological de elopmen s,
audi ing has also been digi ally ans o med, allowing he
e olu ion o adi ional audi ing o a con inuous and eal- ime
audi ing. In o ma ion sys ems ha e changed he way
o ganiza ions ope a e, ansac ions a e inc easingly au oma ed,
and human in e en ion in hese ansac ions also changes,
no ably as ega ds he oles, esponsibili ies and quali ica ions
equi ed. Thus, he audi o 's wo k has also been adap ed o
in oduce suppo ing echnologies ha p o ide no only eliable
bu eal- ime in o ma ion on he business p ocesses o be
audi ed. We can explain con inuous audi as a sys ema ic p ocess
o ac i i ies ha in ends o p o ide c edibili y and assu ance in
con inuous in o ma ion simul aneously, o in a sho pe iod o
ime a e he occu ence o ele an e en s. Bu despi e he
nume ous ad an ages in i s applica ion, i s implemen a ion is
no always easily accep ed by he o ganiza ion, due o he high
cos s o implemen ing he echnologies and in o ma ion sys ems
necessa y o i s p ocess, he lack o p ocedu es and p ac ices o
he con ol sys em and he lack o quali ied p o essionals in
con inuous audi ing (San os e al., 2019).
The Con inuous Assu ance concep eme ged wi h he
de elopmen o con inuous audi ing, based on a se o se ices
and echnologies ha enable audi o s o p oac i ely conduc
eal- ime managemen o ansac ions ha a e being execu ed
simul aneously, gi ing hem he abili y o in e ene in he
comple ion o ansac ions, co ec ing hem and in o ming hose
esponsible o he s a e o execu ion (Vasa helyi e al., 2010).
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The main objec i e o his s udy is o explo e, om he
in e nal audi o 's pe spec i e, he deg ee o impo ance and use
o Con inuous Assu ance se ices. In addi ion o being a ecen ,
inno a i e concep and he e being no e idence o he exis ence
o s udies o his ype, as we may ha e clues in he e iew made,
i is also a opic ha may ha e an impac on he u u e o
o ganiza ions, since i p o ides a new and b oad ision in which
will be he digi al ans o ma ion o in e nal audi . I s ele ance
is jus i ied by he ac ha in e nal audi ing should be a cons an
and ac i e p esence o he o ganiza ions, p o iding e ec i e
managemen o hem. The in e nal audi o should be awa e ha
ans o ma ion o he audi because i no only changes you
ou ine as you way o hinking.
This chap e is di ided in o i e main sec ions, including
his in oduc ion. Nex , he li e a u e e iew is p esen ed wi h
he main concep s and models which suppo his wo k, as well
as some ela ed wo ks mo e pe inen . Then i p esen s he
me hodology ha led o his esea ch. Be o e he conclusions, he
esul s a e p esen ed and discussed.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Con inuous Assu ance
Con inuous Assu ance is de ined as he applica ion o
eme ging in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies o he
s anda d echniques o audi ing, bo h manda o y pe iodic
audi ing and in e nal audi ing (Vasa helyi e al., 2010). In ha
iew, he same au ho s add ha Con inuous Assu ance appea s
as a pacese e o he digi al ans o ma ion o audi ing as a
pionee in he e olu ion o ansac ional audi ing om manual
echniques o au oma ed me hods.
Fu he mo e, Con inuous Assu ance eme ges as a se o
se ices which aims o es o e he c edibili y o audi ing,
simul aneously allowing o ganiza ions o mee he equi emen s
o egula ions. Hence, i can diagnose he company’s iabili y
and allega ions o aud and illegal ac s, assessing he economy,
e iciency and e ec i eness o o ganiza ions (Mu cia e al., 2008;
Vasa helyi e al., 2010).
Mo eo e , Con inuous Assu ance has p o ided a change in
he audi ing p ac ice o he maximum possible deg ee o
au oma ion. Gi en he emphasis on he ans o ma ion o he
en i e audi ing sys em, he de elopmen o Con inuous
Assu ance equi es a undamen al eassessmen o all aspec s o
audi ing, in pa icula on how da a is made a ailable o he
audi o , how ale s a e managed, wha kind o epo s a e issued,
and how o en and o whom hey a e sen (Ma ques, 2019)
The e ms Con inuous Assu ance, Con inuous Audi ing
and Con inuous Moni o ing a e some imes used
indisc imina ely in li e a u e. The e o e, i is c ucial o
unde s and wha cha ac e izes and dis inguishes hem, bu
mos ly o unde s and how hey can be ela e o, complemen ing
each o he (Figu e 1). Con inuous Assu ance is a s a emen on
he adequacy and e ec i eness o con ols and in eg i y o
in o ma ion. Con inuous moni o ing o con ols is a he cen e
o Con inuous Assu ance s a egies; howe e , he audi ac i i y
ensu es ha managemen ac i i ies a e app op ia e and e ec i e
so ha o ganiza ions ha e a g ea e le el o ce ain y abou he
e ec i e ope a ion o con ols, abou isk managemen and abou
he in eg i y o in o ma ion used o decision making (Alles e al.,
2003; Code e, 2005; Kuhn and Su on, 2006).
Figu e 1. Con inuous moni o ing, audi ing and assu ance
(adap ed om (Code e, 2005))
In u n, Con inuous Audi ing e e s o ac i i ies unde aken
o p o ide wa an y and c edibili y o ope a ions, besides gi ing a
mo e imely cha ac e o issues o con ol and managemen o isk.
Con inuous Moni o ing is esponsible o cons an ly moni o ing
and e alua ing business ansac ions and hei ela ed con ols,
enabling a eal- ime iew on e ec i eness o con ols and on
in eg i y o ansac ions ((Li ley e al., 2010; Minnaa e al., 2008).
E alua ing he combined esul s o Con inuous Moni o ing and
audi p ocedu es, audi o s can p o ide Con inuous Assu ance.
Howe e , only ecen ly has an e o been made o unde s and
hei di e ences and dis inguish be ween he concep s.
In 2006, a su ey (P icewa e houseCoope s, 2006) concluded
ha Con inuous Assu ance igge ed co po a e sensi i i y o i s
adop ion because in 2005 only 35% had a con inuous audi ing o
moni o ing p ocesses in place o we e planning o de elop one,
and his alue inc eased o 50% in 2006. I is in e es ing o obse e
ha 56% o esponden s said hei con inuous audi ing p ocesses
include bo h manual and au oma ed elemen s, 41% indica ed hei
p ocesses a e en i ely manual, and 3% epo ed ha ing ully
au oma ed p ocesses.
Ano he s udy by Ins i u e o In e nal Audi o s and ACL
(ACL, 2006) also showed simila esul s: 36% o su eyed
o ganiza ions con i med hey implemen ed a Con inuous
Assu ance app oach in all hei business p ocesses o simply in
some selec ed a eas, and 39% in ended o implemen in he nea
u u e. Howe e , i also s a es ha ega dless o he easons ha
o ganiza ions may ha e had o neglec he con inuing audi ing in
he pas , he ecen egula ions, he s imulus o eal- ime
moni o ing and epo ing o inancial in o ma ion and he abili y
o au oma e he adi ional audi me hods ha e s ongly
encou aged i s adop ion.
Acco ding o he subsec ion Rela ed Wo ks o his pape , we
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can see ha he implemen a ions designa ed as p o ide s o
Con inuous Assu ance se ices, in he pe iod 2002-2019, we e
s ill ew and wi h some limi a ions ega ding he di e si y o
se ices ha Con inuous Assu ance should be expec ed o o e .
This shows ha his a ea is s ill de eloping and ma u ing. Also,
o he s udies (Ma ques and San os, 2017a, 2017b) also e ealed
wi h bibliome ic s udies ha Con inuous Assu ance is no
ma u e enough and is g owing.
Objec i es and Componen s
The objec i es o Con inuous Assu ance, making i
ad an ageous, a e di ided in o ou le els, which a e di icul o
de ine in a mu ually exclusi e way, bu which se e o illus a e
he unc ional dependence o Con inuous Assu ance on audi ing
(Alles e al., 2004):
Le el 1: E alua ion o O ganiza ional T ansac ions - a
his le el, i is in ended o e alua e o ganiza ional ansac ions,
and analyze and e i y he a omic ac ions o ansac ions
execu ion. Wi h he use o co po a e sys ems, such as ERP
(En e p ise In o ma ion Sys em) sys ems, i is possible o
analyze, agg ega e and e alua e da a in o de o classi y and
moni o o ganiza ional ansac ions. A his le el, inpu da a
should be es ed in o de o e i y whe he hey a e alid, and
whe he p ocedu es in execu ion o ansac ion a e consis en
wi h he sequence o es ablished ope a ions Con a y o
adi ional audi ing, wi h Con inuous Assu ance i is possible o
do his check in eal ime due o au oma ion and in eg a ion o
audi p ocedu es. This ansac ion con ol can use he o mal
speci ica ion o wo k low o p ocesses de ined in he ERP
sys ems as a s anda d beha io o ansac ion. Thus, i is possible
o e i y whe he ansac ions ha e been execu ed in compliance
wi h all p o ided s eps o o esee he low o ansac ions, and
whe he hese a e missing o ailing.
Le el 2: Compliance o Pe o med Ope a ions - a his
le el i is in ended o ensu e ha p ocedu es applied in he
execu ion o o ganiza ional ansac ions a e app op ia e ( o
example, a e consis en wi h he ules, no ms, o s anda ds se by
he o ganiza ion o by ex e nal egula o y en i ies).
Le el 3: Quali y o Es ima es and he Consis ency o
Agg ega e Da a - in some businesses, es ima es and o ecas s a e
o en used because he measu emen o di ec de e mina ion o
some in o ma ion is di icul and expensi e o ob ain. A simple
and economical al e na i e is o use a o mal model o
au oma ically ge an es ima e, hen he audi o ’s ask will be
educed only o e i ying he accep abili y o his model, which
can be done only once and o -line, based on knowing whe he
he used pa ame e alues in model a e easonable. This le el o
Con inuous Assu ance includes au oma ion o analy ical
p ocedu es based on in e nal and ex e nal pa ame e s. The use
o analy ical p ocedu es in an au oma ed sys em o Con inuous
Assu ance inc eases e iciency and e ec i eness o audi ing.
Le el 4: E alua ion o O ganiza ional Decisions - he
audi ing ca ied ou by using ERP sys ems and ad anced
inancial ins umen s mus inco po a e complex and high-le el
assessmen s, which a e especially impo an o decision making.
Con inuous Assu ance and he cu en analy ic echnology allow
he ex ensi e ga he ing o exogenous e idence, which p o ides
c ucial inpu in o hese judgmen s. Con inuous Assu ance may
use, o example da a wa ehousing and da a mining as ools ha
acili a e au oma ion o some o hese decisions, imp o ing he
quali y o high-le el decisions and dec easing he audi isk.
Con inuous Assu ance is di ided in o h ee dis inc
componen s, bu complemen a y (Vasa helyi e al., 2010):
Con inuous Con ols Moni o ing (CCM): Consis s o a se
o p ocedu es o moni o he ope a ion o in e nal con ol
mechanisms;
Con inuous Da a Assu ance (CDA): Ve i ies he in eg i y
o he da a ci cula ing in o ganiza ional in o ma ion sys ems;
Con inuous Risk Moni o ing and Assessmen (CRMA):
Measu es he isk dynamically and allows o sus ain an audi ing
plan.
Model o E alua ing an In o ma ion Sys em wi h
Con inuous Assu ance
A model composed o ou dimensions we e p oposed in
o de o e alua e an in o ma ion sys em wi h Con inuous
Assu ance se ices (Ma ques e al., 2016). I in ends o be ega ded
as a e e en ial se o equi emen s when de eloping his ype o
in o ma ion sys ems. Ma ques e al. (2016) used he Delphi me hod
o alida e he model in o de o ensu e he ele ance o inclusion
o hese dimensions and equi emen and also a se o me ics o be
included in each dimension. Fu he mo e, his model was
success ully used in a mo e comp ehensi e esea ch p ojec
(Ma ques e al., 2015).
I is composed o he dimensions Moni o ing, Compliance,
Es ima ion and Repo ing, which comp ise all objec i es and
componen s o a sys em wi h Con inuous Assu ance se ices
(Ma ques e al., 2016):
Dimension Moni o ing ela es wi h he objec i es o le el
1 and he componen CCM. In his dimension, he ollowing
me ics may be ound o assess whe he he sys em can: moni o
he a ious ope a ions o a p ocess as soon as hey occu ; iden i y
an i egula (un o eseen o inconsis en ) ope a ion as soon as i
occu s; e i y whe he he ope a ions we e p ocessed a all he
p e ious s eps as equi ed; de ec lack o ope a ions; and assess he
con inui y and comple eness o ansac ions.
Dimension Compliance includes he ea u es o he
componen CDA and he objec i es o le el 2. The me ics
associa ed o his dimension aims o assess whe he he sys em can:
ecognize which known execu ion pa e n was o has been
ollowed by each o ganiza ional ansac ion moni o ed; asce ain
which ules, condi ions and p ocedu es we e ul illed and
un ul illed in he o ganiza ional ansac ions moni o ed; de ec
po en ial e o s; inhibi inapp op ia e e en s o beha io s; and
help compliance wi h exis ing laws, policies, no ms and
p ocedu es.
Dimension Es ima ion co e s he objec i es o le el 3 and
he unc ions o he CRMA componen . The me ics o his
dimension assess whe he he sys em can: es ima e, gi en he
cu en si ua ion, wha he possible esul s o he o ganiza ional
ansac ion execu ion will be; and de e mine he execu ion pa e n,
o a se o execu ion pa e ns, which will be possible o be ollowed
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by he o ganiza ional ansac ions moni o ed, acco ding o he
cu en s a us o execu ion.
Dimension Repo ing includes he ea u es o all
componen s and he objec i es o all le els. The me ics o his
dimension mus assess whe he he sys em can: epo he esul s
o he moni o ing o ansac ions; no i y he esul s o he
e i ica ion o compliance; in o m he esul s o es ima ion; and
ale use s o i egula si ua ions in moni o ing, compliance
e i ica ion and es ima ion o nega i e esul s.
Table 1 concisely summa izes his model, p esen ing
quan i a i ely measu able me ics o each dimension.
Table 1. Dimensions o he model and hei me ics
Dimensions Me ics
Moni o ing
Real- ime moni o ing o ope a ions
Real- ime iden i ica ion o i egula ope a ions
Real- ime e i ica ion o p ocessing o equi ed
ope a ions a all p e ious s eps
Real- ime de ec ion o lack o ope a ions
Real- ime assessmen o he s a e o execu ion o
business ansac ions
Compliance
Recogni ion o execu ion pa e ns
Asce aining o ul illing o ules
De ec ion o po en ial e o s
Ve i ica ion o compliance o exis ing policies
Es ima ion
Es ima ion o possible esul s
De e mina ion o possible execu ion pa e ns
which a e likely o be ollowed
Repo ing
Real- ime p esen a ion o he execu ed ope a ions
which we e moni o ed
Real- ime p esen a ion o he compliance
e i ica ion in ansac ions execu ions
Real- ime p esen a ion o he isk es ima ed on
de e mining possible execu ion pa e ns
Real- ime ale o i egula si ua ions in
moni o ing, compliance e i ica ion and
es ima ion o nega i e esul s
Rela ed Wo k
An o ganiza ion in he s eel indus y wi h 234 indus ial
and comme cial uni s, p esen in 10 coun ies and wi h sha es in
New Yo k S ock Exchange, was o ced o implemen measu es o
Con inuous Assu ance in acco dance wi h SOX equi emen s.
A e hese measu es, all p ocesses had o be documen ed and
in o ma ion s a ed o be disclosed in ime and wi h hei
in eg i y ensu ed and i held he pa icipan s esponsible,
inhibi ing he occu ence o aud (Ha gadon and Fanelli, 2002).
Siemens has made an e o in his a ea, and i has
success ully expe imen ed some aspec s o Con inuous
Assu ance, namely, o ensu e he in eg i y o i s ERP sys ems and
hei au oma ed modules wi h audi unc ions. Siemens’s p ojec
p oposes a me hodology o moni o and e alua e he daily
con igu a ion o a ious se ings o exis ing con ols using CCM,
because abou 68% o i s audi ac i i ies could be ully
au oma ed. Thus, an independen sys em was de eloped o
in e ac ing wi h ead-only ope a ions wi h he exis ing
in o ma ion sys ems and o epo ing sys em and ala ms in case
o eme gency (Alles e al., 2006).
These implemen a ions ha e ensu ed he e ec i eness,
e iciency and a imely cha ac e o he audi p ocedu es (Alles e
al., 2006, 2008). Fo example, he use o CCM a Siemens Financial
Se ices enabled signi ican imp o emen s in he a e age
excep ion a e, h ough he es ing and moni o ing o pe o mance
analy ics (e.g. inpu checks, alidi y checks, and compliance wi h
egula ions and in e nal policies). In some depa men s, he
educ ion in he a e age excep ion a e was o e 20% in he i s
yea o implemen a ion.
Also, and acco ding o Vasa helyi e al. (2010), one o he
bigges banks in B azil, wi h mo e han 1400 b anches, has
implemen ed measu es o Con inuous Assu ance, p o ing he
iabili y and bene i s o hese measu es. This ins i u ion has a
CDA, a sys em which daily analyses mo e han i e million
accoun s and gene a es abou six housand ale s a mon h. This
sys em aims o inc ease p oduc i i y wi h e iciency and quali y
and i s mission is o assess he isks and con ols au oma ically and
con inuously in o de o iden i y excep ions, anomalies, ends and
indica o s o isk; ad ise abou con ols, isk assessmen ; and
con ibu e o he co po a e go e nance. These ea u es include all
p oduc s, p ocesses and se ices which enable da a ex ac ion and
analysis. The aken app oaches a e o de ec ion ( ou ines o de ec
possible e o s), o de e ence ( ou ines o inhibi inapp op ia e
beha io and e en s), inancial ( ou ines o educe o a oid losses),
and o compliance ( ou ines o ensu e compliance wi h applicable
laws, policies and s anda ds) (Vasa helyi e al., 2010).
The audi s ca ied ou by sampling once a yea a e
insu icien o he cu en business model. Thus, con inuous
audi ing is he answe o g ea e e ec i eness in comba ing aud
and e o s and hus inc easing in es o con idence. I is impo an
ha ansac ion anomalies a e ound wi hin o ganiza ions in eal
ime and ha hei epo is immedia ely issued (Boyda¸s and
Haza , 2021). Ini ially, con inuous audi ing so wa e becomes a
ime-consuming p ocess, as i equi es a highly specialized se ice.
Howe e , he same modules can be used o e and o e again,
educing cos s in he long un. Con inuous audi ing also allows
emo e access o company da a, hus allowing audi o s o ca y ou
he audi ou side he en i y's loca ion, hus educing he audi cos
and inc easing ime e iciency. The au ho s s a e ha he concep
o con inuous audi is s ill no widely used by o ganiza ions, he
implemen a ion me hods a e s ill in he esea ch phase and s ill
ha e g ea di icul ies in execu ion, howe e he con inui y o
esea ch ha has been e i ied and he de elopmen o in o ma ion
sys ems, will elimina e he di icul ies o implemen a ion and hei
use will be exponen ial (Boyda¸s and Haza , 2021).
A s udy (Ezzamou i and Huls ijn, 2018) in he public sec o ,
mo e speci ically in some municipali ies in he Ne he lands, shows
he oppo uni ies and needs o con inuously moni o and e alua e
inancial da a in he social a ea, as hese se ices we e
decen alized om he go e nmen o he municipal le el.
Acco ding o he s udy, i was ound ha he echnology applied
o con inuous moni o ing easily de ec s e o s and de ia ions,
making i easie o ca y ou imp o emen p ocesses.
Ma ques e al. (2015; 2018) de eloped an inno a i e solu ion
in o de o implemen Con inuous Assu ance se ices in
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in o ma ion sys ems applicable o any business p ocess,
ega dless o i s ype, dimension, business a ea o e en i s
in o ma ion sys em suppo echnology, suppo ed by an
on ological model a an abs ac ion le el ha gua an ees ha
con ex ual independence. The esul s analysis om an
implemen a ion o his solu ion allowed o ensu e he easibili y
and he e ec i e use o he solu ion.
A s udy was ca ied ou in Indonesia (Soeda sono e al.,
2019), inqui ing axpaye s om a ious Minis ies, wi h he aim
o esea ching he e ec s o he quali y o in o ma ion and
managemen suppo , o he applica ion o a con inuous
audi ing and moni o ing in he go e nmen sec o . Con inuous
moni o ing was implemen ed in eal ime o moni o he
go e nmen 's inancial pe o mance and concluded ha he
quali y o in o ma ion posi i ely a ec s he applica ion o
con inuous audi ing and con inuous moni o ing, namely in he
a ailabili y o eal- ime da a o each echnical a ea, he
imp o ing inancing p ocesses and inc easing human esou ces
skills. The au ho s also sugges he c ea ion o a egula ion o
he ansi ion om manual p e en i e p ocedu es o au oma ic
de ec ion con ols in o de o inc ease he e ec o con inuous
audi ing and con inuous moni o ing o be epo ed o
in o ma ion use s and managemen .
A a enowned public uni e si y in he USA, a con inuous
moni o ing sys em was implemen ed in he in e nal audi
depa men , o shopping ca ds used by uni e si y employees
(T on o and Killingswo h, 2021). The use ulness o his
implemen a ion was o educe he amoun o documen a ion,
and he cos s associa ed wi h he analysis o his documen a ion,
hus allowing he pu chase o se ices and goods o educed
alue o be mo e e icien . To educe he isk o misuse o he ca d
by employees, p e en i e ac ions we e implemen ed in o de o
comba aud. The p ojec was success ul, demons a ing ha
con inuous moni o ing plays a e y impo an ole in in e nal
audi ing, educing he ime equi ed o checking ansac ions.
Me hodology
Conside ing ha he main objec i e o his s udy is o
explo e, om he in e nal audi o 's pe spec i e, he deg ee o
impo ance and use o Con inuous Assu ance se ices. The
ollowing esea ch ques ions we e he e o e aised:
RQ1: Wha a e he mos ele an Con inuous Assu ance
se ices om he pe spec i e o he in e nal audi o ?
RQ2: Wha Con inuous Assu ance se ices a e mos
used by he in e nal audi o ?
RQ3: Wha ac o s in luence he impo ance assigned by
in e nal audi o s o he Con inuous Assu ance se ice?
RQ4: Wha ac o s in luence he use o he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice by in e nal audi o s?
RQ5: Is he deg ee o impo ance o he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice, om he in e nal audi o 's poin o iew,
equi alen o he deg ee o use o he Con inuous Assu ance
se ice?
This is an explo a o y s udy ha uses a quali a i e
me hodology. We op ed o a ques ionnai e su ey applied o
p o essionals linked o he in e nal audi ing unc ion o companies
o any size and o any sec o o ac i i y, be ween Janua y and
Feb ua y 2019. The ques ionnai e was dis ibu ed by he social
ne wo k LinkedIn. In his social ne wo k, p i a e messages we e
sen o p o essionals who iden i y hemsel es in hei p o ile as
in e nal audi o s in Po ugal, asking hem o espond o he
ques ionnai e. In o al, abou 600 o hese messages we e sen .
The ques ionnai e was di ided in o ou pa s: he i s was
o know he p o ile o he esponden (age, gende , academic
quali ica ions, possession o an audi ing ce i ica ion, p o essional
expe ience in audi ing in numbe o yea s and unc ion.), he
second was in ended o cha ac e ize he company whe e
esponden wo ks (size o he company in which he esponden
wo ks, numbe o in e nal audi o s in he company), he hi d was
o collec da a on he deg ee o impo ance o he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice and he ou h pa abou he use o he
Con inuous Assu ance se ice. The hi d and ou h pa s we e
suppo ed by he dimensions and me ics included in he
in o ma ion sys ems model o e alua ing in o ma ion sys ems
wi h Con inuous Assu ance se ices p esen ed abo e.
Rega ding ques ions o impo ance and use o Con inuous
Assu ance, a Like Scale was used, consis ing o quali a i e
a iables wi h an o dinal scale o measu emen in which he
di e en ca ego ies o he scale a e o de ed in a g adua ed o de ,
and he esponden can choose be ween i e possible answe s.
Rega ding he scale o esponse, i was used "no impo an ",
"sligh ly impo an ", "mode a ely impo an ", "impo an " and
" e y impo an " o he ques ion o deg ee o impo ance. Fo he
ques ion o deg ee o use, i was used he op ions "no
implemen ed", " a ely", "casually", " equen ly" and "always".
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Sample Cha ac e iza ion
The sample o his s udy consis s o 91 alid answe s o he
ques ionnai e.
The i s pa o he ques ionnai e, wi h espec o he
cha ac e iza ion o he esponden s, shows ha mos o he
esponden s, app oxima ely 75.82%, a e be ween 25 and 45 yea s
o age (36.26% be ween 25 and 35 yea s and 39.56% be ween 35 and
45 yea s). Abou 15.38% a e in he 46-55 age g oup, only 5.49% a e
unde 25 yea s old and 3.30% o he sample a e o e 55 yea s old.
The esponden s a e mos ly male, abou 73.63% o he answe s,
and he emaining esponden s a e emale.
Rega ding academic quali ica ions, i is obse ed ha mos o
he esponden s, 49.45%, ha e an unde g adua e deg ee. In
addi ion, 25.27% ha e a pos g adua e deg ee, 23.08% ha e a
mas e 's deg ee and only 2.20% go a PhD.
The majo i y o esponden s do no ha e any audi
ce i ica ion, co esponding o 64.84% o he answe s. I should be
no ed ha 21.98% o he sample a e CIA (Ce i ied In e nal
Audi o ), and his pe cen age is s ill ep esen a i e. The e a e also
CISA (Ce i ied In o ma ion Sys ems Audi o ) and CRMA
(Ce i ied in Risk Managemen Assu ance) co esponding o 3.30%
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and 2.20% espec i ely, bu wi hou g ea impac on he o al
sample. The esponse ega ding o he ce i ica ions ob ained
7.69% o he answe s, indica ing essen ially in e nal ce i ica ions
based on he ac i i y/depa men o he o ganiza ion in which
he esponden is inse ed.
Rega ding he p o essional expe ience o he esponden s,
we ound ha he hose who ha e o less han 5 yea s o
expe ience and be ween 11 o 20 yea s ha e simila equency,
wi h 28.57% and 27.47%, espec i ely. Howe e , mos o hem,
abou 38.46%, ha e be ween 5 and 10 yea s o expe ience, and,
inally, only 5.49% wo ked o mo e han 20 yea s. Fu he mo e,
71.43% o esponden s pe o m audi ing unc ions, 12.09%
managemen unc ions and he o he adminis a i e, inancial,
accoun ing o in o ma ion sys ems unc ions.
Conce ning he ques ions in he second pa o he
ques ionnai e which cha ac e izes he companies whe e
esponden s wo k, i was ound ha he as majo i y, a ound
79.12%, wo k in a la ge company, 16.48% wo k in a medium-
sized en e p ise, only 3.30% wo k in a small en e p ise and only
one esponden wo ks in a mic oen e p ise. The ca ego ies o
mic o, small and medium-sized en e p ises is based on he
Eu opean Commission Recommenda ion 2003/361/EC o 6 May
2003 conce ning he de ini ion o mic o, small and medium-sized
en e p ises.
Wi h ega d o he numbe o in e nal audi o s wo king in
he audi depa men whe e he esponden is inse ed, he da a
show ha 10.99% o esponden s indica e ha he e is only one
audi o in ha depa men , 25.27% o esponden s indica e ha
i is composed o 2 o 4 audi o s, 24.18% indica e ha i is
composed o 5 o 10, and 39.56% o esponden s say ha he e
a e mo e han 10 audi o s wo king. This las inding is expec ed
since he as majo i y wo k in a la ge company.
By ela ing some o he a iables p esen ed p e iously, i is
possible o ob ain a mo e de ailed cha ac e iza ion o he sample.
Fo example, Table 2 shows ha 52.75% o he esponden s
wo king in a la ge company do no ha e any audi ce i ica ion
and only 16.48% a e CIA. The emaining CIA wo k in medium-
sized en e p ises (3.30%), and in small and mic oen e p ises
(1.10% each). I should be no ed ha he only esponden who
answe ed he ques ionnai e wo king in a mic oen e p ise is CIA.
We can also obse e ha almos 65% o he esponden s,
ega dless o he size o he company whe e hey wo k, ha e no
audi ce i ica ion. This pe cen age is simila when we analyze
he numbe o p o essionals wi hou ce i ica ion by company
size.
Table 2. Ce i ica ion o Responden s by Company Size
No
Ce i ic CIA CISA CRMA
O he s To al
La ge Company
52.75% 16.48%
2.20% 1.10% 6.59% 79.12%
Medium
-Size
Company 9.88% 3.30% 1.10% 1.10% 1.10% 16.48%
Small Company
2.20% 1.10% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 3.30%
Mic oen e p ise
0.00% 1.10% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 1.10%
To al
64.84% 21.98%
3.30% 2.20% 7.69% 100.00%
Analyzing Table 3, we ound ha o he 79.12% pa icipan s
who wo k in a la ge company, almos hal ha e mo e han 10
in e nal audi o s in hei companies. I is also clea ha 5.49% o
esponden s wo king in a la ge company ha e only one audi o . I
should be also no ed ha he esponden wo king in he
mic oen e p ise indica ed ha he e a e be ween 2 and 4 audi o s
and ha a esponden , wo king in a small company, speci ied ha
he e a e mo e han 10 audi o s.
Table 3. Numbe o Audi o s by Company Size
1 2-4 5-9 10+ To al
La ge Company 5.49% 16.48% 20.88%
36.26%
79.12%
Medium-Size Company
3.30% 7.69% 3.30% 2.20% 16.48%
Small Company 2.20% 0.00% 0.00% 1.10% 3.30%
Mic oen e p ise 0.00% 1.10% 0.00% 0.00% 1.10%
To al 10.99%
25.27% 24.18%
39.56%
100.00%
Answe s o Resea ch Ques ions and Discussion
RQ1: Wha a e he mos ele an Con inuous Assu ance se ices
om he pe spec i e o he in e nal audi o ?
To answe his ques ion, we ou line a anking o he me ics
o each dimension. The choice ell on he measu e o loca ion o
cen al endency: mode. Mode is he mos equen alue o he
esponses made a ailable o he esponden . I depends only on he
equency o obse a ions and no on hei alue, and is no
a ec ed by ex eme alues, which makes i a e y obus measu e
(Ma inez and Fe ei a, 2007). Table 4 shows he dis ibu ion o he
answe s by he a ious answe op ions; he mode being
ep esen ed in bold o e e y me ic.
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Table 4. Dis ibu ion o esponses ega ding he impo ance assigned o each me ic
Dimensions Me ics No
Impo an
Sligh ly
Impo an
Mode a ely
Impo an Impo an Ve y
Impo an
Moni o ing Real- ime moni o ing o ope a ions 2.20% 6.59% 21.98% 45.05% 24.18%
Real- ime iden i ica ion o i egula
ope a ions 1.10% 2.20% 7.69% 29.67% 59.34%
Real- ime e i ica ion o p ocessing o
equi ed ope a ions a all p e ious s eps 2.20% 6.59% 19.78% 51.65% 19.78%
Real- ime de ec ion o lack o ope a ions 1.10% 2.20% 5.49% 39.56% 51.65%
Real- ime assessmen o he s a e o execu ion
o business ansac ions 2.20% 7.69% 20.88% 47.25% 21.98%
Compliance Recogni ion o execu ion pa e ns 1.10% 1.10% 15.38% 47.25% 35.16%
Asce aining o ul illing o ules 1.10% 6.59% 13.19% 46.15% 32.97%
Ve i ica ion o compliance o exis ing policies 0.00% 6.59% 9.89% 39.56% 43.96%
De ec ion o po en ial e o s 1.10% 4.40% 3.30% 45.05% 46.15%
Es ima ion Es ima ion o possible esul s 1.10% 1.10% 3.30% 35.16% 59.34%
De e mina ion o possible execu ion pa e ns
which a e likely o be ollowed 1.10% 0.00% 5.49% 39.56% 53.85%
Repo ing Real- ime p esen a ion o he execu ed
ope a ions which we e moni o ed 1.10% 6.59% 23.08% 42.86% 26.37%
Real- ime p esen a ion o he compliance
e i ica ion in ansac ions execu ions 1.10% 5.49% 8.79% 49.45% 35.16%
Real- ime ale o i egula si ua ions in
moni o ing, compliance e i ica ion and
es ima ion o nega i e esul s
2.20% 2.20% 9.89% 36.26% 49.45%
Real- ime p esen a ion o he isk es ima ed
on de e mining possible execu ion pa e ns 1.10% 3.30% 23.08% 42.86% 29.67%
The "no impo an " op ion has achie ed ex emely low
esponse a es, so his means ha in e nal audi o s a e awa e o
he impo ance o Con inuous Assu ance se ices.
Rega ding he Moni o ing dimension, he me ics “ eal-
ime iden i ica ion o i egula ope a ions” and “ eal- ime
de ec ion o lack o ope a ions” we e conside ed he mos
impo an , ha ing bo h ob ained mo e han hal o he
esponden s conside ing hem e y impo an . The impo ance
a ibu ed o his dimension by he in e nal audi o s is e y
no o ious. Rega ding he Compliance dimension, i is impo an
o no e ha he me ic “asce aining o ul illing o ules” did no
ob ain any "no impo an " esponse, hus showing he conce n
o all audi o s in complying wi h egula ions and legisla ion,
howe e , despi e he mode being “ e y impo an ”, his anks
second, wi h me ic “de ec ion o po en ial e o s” being he
mos impo an .
All me ics in he Es ima ion dimension we e " e y
impo an " as mode, wi h a esponse equency g ea e han 50%.
In addi ion o he " eal- ime iden i ica ion o i egula
ope a ions" me ics om he Moni o ing dimension, we ha e he
“es ima ion o possible esul s” me ic, wi h a simila numbe o
esponses in he " e y impo an " op ion (almos 60%). O he 15
me ics conside ed in he s udy, hese wo a e he mos impo an
in he pe spec i e o in e nal audi o s. We can also e i y ha he
" eal- ime ale o i egula si ua ions in moni o ing, compliance
e i ica ion and es ima ion o nega i e esul s” was conside ed
he mos impo an in he Repo ing dimension, ob aining almos
50% o he esponses.
The esponse op ions which co espond o he highes
impo ance (impo an and e y impo an ) we e he mos
equen , allowing o con i m ha he o e whelming majo i y o
esponden s a e awa e o he bene i s ha he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice p o ides in an o ganiza ion and he
impo ance may ha e in he execu ion o he audi wo k. The
sum o esponses in hese wo esponse op ions is always highe
han 69% in each me ic, wi h some o hem eaching close o 95%
o he answe s.
RQ2: Wha Con inuous Assu ance se ices a e mos used by
he in e nal audi o ?
In he same way o he p e ious ques ion, we used mode o
analyze he deg ee o use o each me ic unde analysis. Table 5
shows he equency o esponses ob ained in each esponse
op ion by dimension and me ic o he model. Simila ly, he
mode is ep esen ed in bold.
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Table 5. Dis ibu ion o esponses ega ding he equency o use o each me ic
Dimensions Me ics No
Impleme ed Ra ely
Casually
F equen ly
Always
Moni o ing Real- ime moni o ing o ope a ions 19.78% 6.59% 18.68% 39.56% 15.38%
Real- ime iden i ica ion o i egula ope a ions 20.88% 4.40% 20.88% 34.07% 19.78%
Real- ime e i ica ion o p ocessing o equi ed ope a ions a all
p e ious s eps 16.48% 9.89% 15.38% 40.66% 17.58%
Real- ime de ec ion o lack o ope a ions 20.88% 7.69% 15.38% 40.66% 15.38%
Real- ime assessmen o he s a e o execu ion o business ansac ions 15.38% 9.89% 20.88% 36.26% 17.58%
Compliance Recogni ion o execu ion pa e ns 13.19% 6.59% 24.18% 38.46% 17.58%
Asce aining o ul illing o ules 3.30% 4.40% 14.29% 46.15% 31.87%
Ve i ica ion o compliance o exis ing policies 6.59% 1.10% 16.48% 39.56% 36.26%
De ec ion o po en ial e o s 7.69% 4.40% 13.19% 50.55% 24.18%
Es ima ion Es ima ion o possible esul s 5.49% 8.79% 19.78% 40.66% 25.27%
De e mina ion o possible execu ion pa e ns which a e likely o be
ollowed 10.99% 7.69% 16.48% 47.25% 17.58%
Repo ing Real- ime p esen a ion o he execu ed ope a ions which we e
moni o ed 20.88% 9.89% 18.68% 35.16% 15.38%
Real- ime p esen a ion o he compliance e i ica ion in ansac ions
execu ions 5.49% 7.69% 18.68% 36.26% 31.87%
Real- ime ale o i egula si ua ions in moni o ing, compliance
e i ica ion and es ima ion o nega i e esul s 17.58% 4.40% 15.38% 38.46% 24.18%
Real- ime p esen a ion o he isk es ima ed on de e mining possible
execu ion pa e ns 9.89% 7.69% 14.29% 40.66% 27.47%
As shown in he able abo e, he pe cen age o answe s "no
implemen ed” is mo e signi ican han he "no impo an " in he
ques ion abou impo ance. Thus, we immedia ely pe cei e a
gap be ween impo ance and implemen a ion.
Rega dless o dimension, he mos equen answe is
" equen ly". In his ques ion we no longe ob ain he maximum
scale "always" as he mos equen answe , and he answe s
we e al eady much mo e dis ibu ed by he esponse op ions
and no as concen a ed in he wo maximal scales as in he
ques ion abou impo ance.
Analyzing now he pe cen age o esponse ob ained o he
answe ha co esponds o Mode, i is obse ed ha in he
dimension Moni o ing, he e a e h ee me ics wi h highe
equency o use wi h iden ical pe cen ages, namely “Real- ime
e i ica ion o p ocessing o equi ed ope a ions a all p e ious
s eps”, “Real- ime de ec ion o lack o ope a ions”, and “Real-
ime moni o ing o ope a ions”, bo h wi h abou 40% esponses.
In he same way, i is e iden ha , in he dimension
Compliance, he “de ec ion o po en ial e o s” has he highes
pe cen age in he esponse op ion ha co espond o Mode,
ob aining 50.55% o answe s. In he Es ima ion dimension, he
wo me ics ha e alues no oo a apa , bu sligh ly below 50%.
Finally, in he Repo ing dimension, he mos widely used me ic
is " Real- ime p esen a ion o he isk es ima ed on de e mining
possible execu ion pa e ns" wi h almos 41%.
In addi ion, we can u he conclude ha he me ics wi h
he lowes implemen a ion in companies a e:
Real- ime iden i ica ion o i egula ope a ions;
Real- ime de ec ion o lack o ope a ions;
Real- ime p esen a ion o he execu ed ope a ions
which we e moni o ed;
Real- ime moni o ing o ope a ions;
Real- ime ale o i egula si ua ions in moni o ing,
compliance e i ica ion and es ima ion o nega i e esul s;
Real- ime e i ica ion o p ocessing o equi ed
ope a ions a all p e ious s eps.
F om he anking o he leas implemen ed me ics, we
obse e ha hose ha compose he Moni o ing dimension a e
he leas implemen ed and used. This esul is in line wi h wha
was ound in he li e a u e by Ma ques and San os (2017a),
which demons a e by a bibliome ic s udy ha esea ch on
con inuous moni o ing is sca ce and he e o e may be one o he
causes o he slow g ow h o esea ch on con inuous assu ance,
and consequen ly i s implemen a ion. Some eal- ime epo ing
se ices a e also he leas implemen ed because hey a e a
consequence o he sca ce implemen a ion o eal- ime
moni o ing, since he e will be no eal- ime epo ing wi hou
con inuous moni o ing.
RQ3: Wha ac o s in luence he impo ance assigned by
in e nal audi o s o he Con inuous Assu ance se ice?
In o de o answe his ques ion, he ollowing hypo heses
we e pu o wa d and he non-pa ame ic Chi-Squa e
independence es was applied, which allows us o de e mine
whe he wo a iables a e ela ed. All he cha ac e is ics o he
esponden will be es ed as independen a iables. Tha is, he
hypo heses below will be applied o e e y independen
a iable.
The hypo heses conside ed o applying he Chi-Squa e
es a e:
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H0: The impo ance assigned o he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice is independen o he independen a iable;
H1: The impo ance assigned o he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice is dependen on he independen a iable.
Fo simpli ica ion o he sample: in he company size, since
we only ob ained 3.30% o he esponses o small companies and
1.10% o mic oen e p ises, which a e no signi ican in he o al
sample, bu ne e heless a e alid answe s, we conside ed hese
answe s as being o medium-sized companies. In he same line
o hinking, and ega ding ce i ica ion in audi ing, as we only
ob ained 3.30% CISA and 2.20% CRMA, which a e no signi ican
in he o al sample, howe e , a e alid answe s, we conside he
answe s in he ca ego y wi hou CIA ce i ica ion. In o al we
ha e 22% CIA and 78% o non-ce i ied esponden s.
Fo a signi icance le el o 5%, he decision ule depends on
whe he he alue o Sig. is g ea e han 0.05. Table 6 shows he
alue o Sig. ob ained om he Chi-Squa e es o each me ic
and independen a iable. F om his able, we obse e ha he
alue o Sig. is almos always g ea e han 0.05, so we do no
ejec H0. Tha is, he impo ance assigned o he Con inuous
Assu ance se ice is, in gene al, independen o he analyzed
a iables.
Table 6. Value o Sig. ob ained om he Chi-Squa e es (independence o he pe cep ion o impo ance)
Me ics Age Sex Habili a ions
Ce i ica ion Expe ience Job Role
Company
Size
No. o
Audi o s
Dimension Moni o ing
Real- ime moni o ing o ope a ions 0.672 0.634 0.941 0.865 0.314 0.355 0.197 0.028
Real- ime iden i ica ion o i egula ope a ions 0.889 0.754 0.997 0.656 0.300 0.093 0.579 0.509
Real- ime e i ica ion o p ocessing o equi ed
ope a ions a all p e ious s eps 0.476 0.714 0.782 0.911 0.266 0.504 0.687 0.430
Real- ime de ec ion o lack o ope a ions 0.690 0.827 0.795 0.968 0.182 0.110 0.720 0.204
Real- ime assessmen o he s a e o execu ion
o business ansac ions 0.911 0.366 0.431 0.949 0.997 0.540 0.654 0.615
Dimension Compliance
Recogni ion o execu ion pa e ns 0.742 0.063 0.676 0.785 0.829 0.190 0.816 0.303
Asce aining o ul illing o ules 0.991 0.817 0.669 0.904 0.432 0.273 0.775 0.078
Ve i ica ion o compliance o exis ing policies 0.774 0.536 0.744 0.497 0.427 0.430 0.988 0.631
De ec ion o po en ial e o s 0.293 0.328 0.960 0.605 0.269 0.191 0.958 0.111
Dimension Es ima ion
Es ima ion o possible esul s 0.917 0.393 0.946 0.006 0.687 0.005 0.263 0.509
De e mina ion o possible execu ion pa e ns
which a e likely o be ollowed 0.189 0.511 0.777 0.564 0.639 0.318 0.844 0.212
Dimension Repo ing
Real- ime p esen a ion o he execu ed
ope a ions which we e moni o ed 0.992 0.366 0.965 0.972 0.275 0.061 0.371 0.852
Real- ime p esen a ion o he compliance
e i ica ion in ansac ions execu ions 0.885 0.449 0.961 0.842 0.065 0.111 0.785 0.661
Real- ime ale o i egula si ua ions in
moni o ing, compliance e i ica ion and
es ima ion o nega i e esul s
0.931 0.243 0.271 0.903 0.199 0.661 0.677 0.660
Real- ime p esen a ion o he isk es ima ed on
de e mining possible execu ion pa e ns 0.808 0.636 0.963 0.991 0.212 0.227 0.607 0.567
Howe e , we de ec ed h ee me ics in which he exac
opposi e is ue:
Real- ime moni o ing o ope a ions is in luenced by he
numbe o audi o s - he le el o impo ance a ibu ed o his
me ic is in luenced by he numbe o audi o s wi hin he
company, a g ea e a ibu ion o impo ance is obse ed when
he depa men is made up o se e al in e nal audi o s.
Es ima ion o possible esul s is in luenced by
ce i ica ion in in e nal audi ing - he impo ance a ibu ed o
his me ic is in luenced by audi ce i ica ion. All esponden s
who a e CIA esponded ha his me ic is "impo an " o " e y
impo an ", hus ce i ica ion in luences he impo ance
pe cei ed.
Es ima ion o possible esul s is in luenced by he
audi o 's ole – he impo ance is also ela ed by he audi o 's
unc ion. I is obse ed ha almos all in e nal audi o s,
conside ed his me ic "impo an " o " e y impo an ".
The e o e, when an audi o exclusi ely assumes he in e nal
audi as i s main unc ion, he p o essional gi es mo e
impo ance o his me ic.
In hese me ics, he e is a dependence ela ion among he
a iables. An audi o wi h in e nal audi ce i ica ion is mo e
awa e o he es ima ion o po en ial isks in he execu ion o his
wo k. And he eal- ime moni o ing o ope a ions is pe o med
mo e equen ly and e ec i ely in a depa men whe e wo ks
many in e nal audi o s.
We can con i m ha ega dless o he p o ile o he