APPROACHES TO MODERNITY

1 1 2 3 APPROACHES TO MODERNITY Ma ia Helena Maia Ma iann Simon Edi o s 4 CEAA Edi ions /6 Ti le APPROACHES TO MODERNITY Edi o s Ma ia Helena Maia and Ma iann Simon © 2015 by au ho s and CESAP/CEAA G aphic design Jo ge Cunha Pimen el and Joana Cou o Edi ion CEAA | Cen o de Es udos A naldo A aújo da CESAP/ESAP P ope y o Coope a i a de Ensino Supe io A ís ico do Po o P in and inishing G á ica Maiadou o 1s Edi ion , Po o, Ma ch 2015 Copies: 500 ISBN: 978-972-8784-37-9 Legal Deposi : This book was subjec ed o double blind pee e iew. Re e ees: Concepción Diez Pas o , Ma co Ginoulhiac, Miguel Pais Viei a, Miguel Sil a G aça, Paolo Ma colin, Zo an Vukosza lye . This publica ion was conduc ed unde he s a egic p ojec PEs -OE/EAT/ UI4041/2014, unded by na ional unds by FCT - Founda ion o Science and Technology unde he De elopmen , Consolida ion and S enghening o Na ional ID Ins i u ions Ne wo k (OE). The au ho s o he ex s ha e he exclusi e esponsibili y o image copy igh s p in ed in he co esponden ex s. The edi o s do no ake any esponsibili y o any imp ope use o images and any consequences ollowing. Cen o de Es udos A naldo A aújo Escola Supe io A ís ica do Po o La go de S. Domingos, 80 4050-545 PORTO, PORTUGAL Tele : 223392130; Fax: 223392139 e-mail: [email protected] www.esap.p 5 FOREWORD And ás Fe kai SHAPE & SPACE FROM THE CITY TO THE BUILDING APPROACHES TO MODERNITY - LA TOURETTE AS A LANDMARK Ana Lídia Vi udes NOTES ON THE POTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE Jose ina González Cube o and Noemí Vicen e Ma ín PERMANENCE AND EXPERIMENTATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SPACE I án I. Rincón Bo ego 9 13 25 41 CONTENTS 6 CONTENTS TIME & INTERPRETATION CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME Rémi Papillaul POST-MODERNITY AS A CULTURAL WEAPON Ped o Viei a de Almeida COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES Zol án Bun ARCHITECTURE & PEOPLE TRADITION AND MODERNITY. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SURVEY ON REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE Alexand a Ca doso and Ma ia Helena Maia WEAK ARCHITECTURE – COOL DISCIPLINE Ma iann Simon AUTHORS ABSTRACTS 61 81 87 107 121 133 137 7 APPROACHES TO MODERNITY 14 is he medie al s one wo k se ing o ind he missing link be ween he u h ha i s use ep esen s and he mode nis conc e e wo k, in i s mos s aigh - o wa d way, he appa en conc e e. The new app oach ha cha ac e ized he mode n a chi ec u e and spa ial plan- ning didn’ mean ha e e y hing was new and di e en om he pas and he p e ious p ac ices. In his con ex , a new app oach could mean a di e en i.e. new in e p e a ion o he building o he space, using an exis ing ype and no necessa ily a new ype and “Le Co busie ’s monas e y o La Tou e e (...) is an illumina ing example o such app oach” (Leupen e al., 1997: 143). In he con en o La Tou e e he e a e mul iple pe spec i es o ein e p e a ion o spaces and a mul iplici y o looks. I should no be seen as a mani es bu a- he as an elabo a ed wo k o a chi ec onical medi a ion and s udying. Conse- quen ly, La Tou e e could be seen as a landma k o he mode nism endency, o e-in e p e ing he ypes om he pas , designing new p ojec s. 1.2 Assump ions o he p ojec o La Tou e e The p ojec o he Dominican Con en o Sain e Ma ie de La Tou e e, É eux- su -A b esle, in F ance, by he a chi ec Le Co busie was inspi ed by his isi s in 1907 o he Cha e house o Ema, in I aly; and in 1953 o he Cis e cian monas e y o Le Tho one , in F ance. This p ojec was p oposed o him, ep e- sen ing he oppo uni y o Le Co busie o pu in p ac ice a new app oach o mode ni y based on he idea o collec i e o ms o li e. The p ojec o La Tou e e was bo n om a mee ing in 1952 be ween he Do- minican Ma ie-Alain Cou u ie and Le Co busie . In his epoch he e was an ex- change o co espondence be ween he wo o hem abou he ideas ha should be p esen in his con en p ojec . Ma ie-Alain Cou u ie was he p omo e o he mo emen o sac ed a and de- dica ed his wo k o he eno a ion o li u gical a wi h a pa icula a en ion gi en o mode n a . I was in his con ex ha he con ac ed Le Co busie as an expe on mode n a chi ec u e, in o de o be he au ho o he new con en . ANA LÍDIA VIRTUDES 15 F om he mee ing be ween hese wo, he e a ose an a chi ec onical, philosophi- cal and spi i ual dialogue, esul ing in he assump ions o he p ojec o La Tou- e e. In his dialogue, Cou u ie played he ole o being men o o mode ni y in he chu ch, and a de ende o a eno a ed ai h by means o con empo a y a . Le Co busie was seeking o enew alues in he spi i o mode ni y, h ough he a chi ec onic p ojec . In he p ocess o de ining he assump ions o La Tou e e, Cou u ie and Le Co busie we e like wo opposing pe sonali ies con on ing each o he on a single p ojec iew and in e p e a ions. Ma ie-Alain Cou u ie ep esen ed he spi i ual iew, sough spi i uali y by a chi ec u e and Le Co busie ep esen ed he spa ial and a chi ec onic iew, sough a chi ec u e by means o spi i uali y. The inspi a ion o Le Tho one ; a Romanesque eligious complex buil in he la e 12 h cen u y, in sou he n F ance nea Toulon; was p esen in La Tou e e in he pu e olume o ‘bé on b u ’ emembe ing asce icism, and as a consequence, he ine i able e-encoun e wi h he sac ed. Jus like he s one o Le Tho one , he conc e e o La Tou e e shows he ue eali y. The signi ican in luence o Le Tho one upon Le Co busie can be seen in his opinion abou his building, ep esen ing a wi ness o he u h, using he s one, and whe e he “sha p edge en o ces cla i y o ou line and oughness o su ace (…). Ligh and shade a e he loudspeake s o his a chi ec u e o u h, an- quilli y and s eng h. No hing u he could add o i ” (Le Co busie in He é, 2001). This idea shows a new app oach o mode ni y in a chi ec u e in which ligh and shadow a e unde s ood as being he loudspeake s o u h. 2. F om he ci y o he building o La Tou e e 2.1 Cha e o A hens ules on he building scale In Eu ope, he bad condi ions o li ing in he indus ial ci y b ough abou spa- ial planning as a discipline and mode n a chi ec u e ocused on he ques ion o housing and u ban egene a ion, no only in spa ial e ms bu also in social e ms. FROM THE CITY TO THE BUILDING... 16 In he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, in he spa ial planning domain, he ga den ci y became a e y popula model o ollow, based on he single house. In he domain o a chi ec u e, in he decade o 1920, he idea o a ionaliza ion no only in e ms o housing bu also in economic e ms esul ed in a s ong impo - ance gi en o collec i e o ms o li e i.e. collec i e dwellings as a model o ollow in a chi ec u e, and he wo k o Le Co busie is no an excep ion (S anislaus, 2009: 135). Consequen ly, he building p ocess should be quicke and cheape . In his con ex , he p ojec o La Tou e e ep esen ed o Le Co busie an op- po uni y o design a building, pu ing in p ac ice his conce n wi h he ‘collec- i e o ms o li e’. In his domain he p ojec is cha ac e ized by he impo ance o he collec i e spaces such as he e ec o y, he chu ch o he mee ing halls. The p i a e spaces a e con ined o he indi idual cells o he ia s i.e. he dwel- ling uni s. P i a e cells and collec i e spaces we e designed o pe mi medi a ion, e lec ion and s udying. The con en o La Tou e e unc ions as a mic o-ci y which inse s wi hin mo- de nism. Ac ually some au ho s sugges abou his ma e ha he inal solu ion o La Tou e e is based upon he idea o an u ban mega-s uc u e (S anislaus, 2009: 168). The e is a s ong pa allel be ween he li es in he ci y o men (occu ing a he ci y scale) and he li es in he ci y o ia s (occu ing a he building scale). Such as in he eal ci y, in his mic o-ci y i.e. he con en o La Tou e e, e e- y hing is unc ional, sel -su icien and acco ding o cyclical mo emen s. As such, i mus espec ce ain ules i.e. he ules ha we e de ined in he Cha - e o A hens in 1933 ha ing as he main men o Le Co busie . These ules iden i ied ou aspec s p oposed as elemen s o he ci y’s o ganiza ion: li ing, wo king, physical and men al ec ea ion and ci cula ion. This classi ica ion o ci y elemen s and hei unc ions a e no only he keys o spa ial planning bu also o he mode n a chi ec u e o buildings and hey a e p esen in he p ojec o La Tou e e: he li ing unc ion co esponds o he in- di idual cells o ia s; he wo king unc ion co esponds o he class oom o ANA LÍDIA VIRTUDES 17 in ellec ual wo k and s udy; he physical and men al ec ea ion co esponds o he chu ch and o he e ec o y; and he ci cula ion unc ion is p esen in he in e connec ing co ido s and oo b idges o La Tou e e. In summa y, i can be said ha in La Tou e e p ojec Le Co busie has he oppo uni y o pu in o p ac ice in a building he ules ha in he Cha e o A hens we e de ined o he ci y as a whole. La Tou e e could be conside a landma k o he applica ion o he ules o he ci y planning de ined in he Cha e o A hens on he building scale. 2.2 Mode n a chi ec u e in he p ojec o La Tou e e ‘Bé on b u ’ The p ojec o La Tou e e e lec s mode n a chi ec u al ideas and cons uc ion p ocesses in which he esul is showed h ough he use o ‘bé on b u ’, he ab- solu e ideli y o he model and a pe ec ep oduc ion o he mould. FROM THE CITY TO THE BUILDING... Figu e 1. Cha e house o Ema, I aly. Google maps. 18 In his pa e n, conc e e is seen as a cons uc ion ma e ial ha “does no chea ; i eplaces; i cu s ou he need o ha icks e – coa ing.” (Po ié, 2001: 102). Chu ch The eligious buildings such as monas e ies o con en s a e ounded on he basic p inciple o a chi ec onical cen ali y wi h hei epicen e in he clois e . Clois e means some hing closed o able o be closed-o . The clois e o La Tou e e is unusual and doesn’ ha e he cha ac e is ics o i s p edecesso s which ollow a ‘p omenade’, in e connec ing he s uc u e and he building in o de o unde s and he simplici y o he plan. In his sense could be said ha La Tou e e is a ein e p e a ion o adi ional medie al monas e y ypes, buil a ound a clois e (Leupen, 1997: 143). Howe e , he cen al poin o spi i ual unc ionali y o La Tou e e is ound wi hin he chu ch, which is he mos signi ican place o he en i e building. The chu ch is he epicen e o he building and o Le Co busie i s p opo ions should p o oke en husiasm. The chu ch means he place o he cen e o he Dominican spi i uali y, ha is he celeb a ion o he Eucha is , and i s main al a ep esen s he mos ele an sa- c ed place o he eligious communi y. Uni cell Abou i y yea s sepa a e Le Co busie ’s isi o he Cha e house o Ema and i s p ojec o La Tou e e. Howe e , jus like in he case o Cha e house o Ema, he con en o La Tou e e allows indi idual and collec i e expe iences; ime o indi idual wo king, elaxing and medi a ion in he uni o he cell and ime o collec i e wo k, elaxing and medi a ion in he e ec o y o he chu ch. Jus as in he concep o he ‘uni s o habi a ion’, he cells o ia s we e inspi- ed in he model o he smalles li ing space which was o become a symbolic igu e o connec ion be ween he in e nal space i.e. he inside ( he p i a e space o he ia s) and he ex e nal space i.e. he ou side ( he ex e io o he building) h ough he acade. ANA LÍDIA VIRTUDES 19 Simplici y The sequence o cells would pe mi he s udy o a po ion o acade which would be applied wi h hy hmic epe i ion. This ac gi es h ough he simpli- ci y o he image o he acade ( he isible skin o he building), he pe cep ion o lack o com o and a ce ain sense o po e y. All hese cha ac e is ics a e acco ding o he mode n way o building (quickly and cheap) and o he way o li ing o a eligious communi y ( he ele ance o he spi i uali y o he de imen o he ma e iali y). Despi e huge amoun o money inanced by gi s, he building o La Tou e e no only looks cheap be- cause o he use o ‘bé on b u ’ bu also gi es a pe cep ion o lack o he mos p imi i e com o (S anislaus, 2009: 168). 2.3 Jus i ica ions and anno a ions o he p ojec Since he 13 h cen u y ha Dominican con en s gained ame and became e y popula o hei heological and philosophical ways o hinking. A e he Se- cond Wo ld Wa , he egional go e nmen o Lyon decided o build a con en has a school and esea ch ins i u ion o he Dominicans and by he yea o 1960 he cons uc ion o Sain e Ma ie de La Tou e e was nea ly comple e. The ex eme simplici y o his p ojec could be cha ac e ized by he combina- ion o wo aspec s: a ein e p e a ion o ancien monas ic a chi ec u e o me- die al abbeys wi h a pa icula ocus on he abbey o Le Tho one ; and he so- b ie y o e ed by a mode nis a chi ec u e language, consis ing o elemen s such as ‘pilo is’, s ai s o amps, which con adic s somewha he o me s a ic spi i o he Dominican o de . Though humanism o Le Co busie mean some hing independen o he Do- minicans’ ai h, i could be said ha o him, he a chi ec is insepa able om he humanis i.e. he egene a ion o he socie y h ough a chi ec u e. In his way, his wo k is ma ked by he e o o shaping a be e social o de h ough unc ionalis a chi ec u e o ms and cons uc ion echniques. Consequen ly, he a chi ec is open o spi i ual alues in he sense o he mys e y o being. His de i- FROM THE CITY TO THE BUILDING... 20 ni ion o soul allowed him o make a con en sui able o i s unc ion, espec ing ce ain a chi ec onical ules p e iously es ablished by con en ional p ac ice i.e. by he li es yle o Dominicans, pu ing in p ac ice in La Tou e e he a chi ec- u e gi ed wi h a spi i . The po e y o he ma e ials, he b igh ness o colou s, and he majes y o o- lumes, all lead owa ds an a chi ec u al exp ession which would enable he ia s o unde s and he asce ic li e, he spi i ual joy, and he mos solemn o silences. In ac , he p ojec o his con en has as much g andeu as i does simplici y wi h especially e iden in he chu ch. Le Co busie did no jus c ea e a li ing space o he eligious communi y bu also a chu ch whe e he mys e y o he Eucha is could be celeb a ed in a pe ec ma ch be ween he con aine ( he building) and he con ained ( he ia s). La Tou e e shows ha he ac ion o p aying and eligious li e is no only lin- ked wi h con en ional o ms o a chi ec u e such as he medie al con en s, bu could also happen in a mode n a chi ec u e building. Knowing he wo k o Le Co busie designing he eligious building o Chapel No e Dame du Hau , Ronchamp, in F ance, comple ed in 1955, and his inspi a ion, he p ojec o La Tou e e doesn’ mean ai h o him bu a he an unde s anding o wha a chi- ec u al e ms would p o ide in e ms o condi ions o ai h. In ac , La Tou- e e shows ha Le Co busie was su icien ly open mind aced o he no ion o he sac ed. The unde s anding o Le Co busie abou he a chi ec u e o a eligious buil- ding is p esen in his own exp ession: “my p o ession is o shel e men, by gi- ing hem an en elope o conc e e which allows hem o ha e a human li e (...) o build a chu ch as a place o habi a ion (...) would make sense o me” (Pe i , 1961: 17-18). By being asked o build he con en o La Tou e e, no only was Le Co busie eques ed o p o ide shel e o hund eds o men, bu also a place which would a o d hem silence. The si e whe e he con en was buil is on a deep slope, ending on a plain and being pa ially su ounded by o es , localized in he coun yside. ANA LÍDIA VIRTUDES 21 The building is designed s a ing om he op o he bo om, and i s compo- si ion began by he line o he co e ing; a g ea ho izon al ending wi h he ac- cen ua ed downwa ds slope whe e he building es ed by means o ‘pilo is’. In a wo d, he a chi ec u e o his building is o ganized in e ms o descen . In e ms o a chi ec onic composi ion, his p ojec ep esen s an answe o he eques ed p og am, o ganized ollowing a descending e ical. Each a chi ec u- al body o he building ouches he g ound in dis inc i e ways. The chu ch, he chapel and he sac is y a e ancho ed in he hillside. The o he h ee wings o he building co esponding o he uni cells i.e. o he space o single dwellings a e localized abo e he g ound suppo ed by ‘pilo is’ o se e al shapes. This o ganiza ion allows he ca ching o glimpses o he cen al open space which con ains he clois e , unc ioning as an open space, so cha ac e is ic o his ype o eligious buildings. FROM THE CITY TO THE BUILDING... Figu e 2. Localiza ion in he coun yside. La Tou e e. Google ea h. 22 3. Conclusions This a icle has aimed o show he wo k o Le Co busie in he p ojec o La Tou e e has a g ea in luence in he medie al a chi ec u e o eligious monas- e ies and con en s. On he one hand, his isi s o he Cha e house o Ema and o he monas e y o Le Tho one come o con i m ha in doing he p ojec o La Tou e e, Le Co - busie had had a way o compensa e many yea s o wo k, in o de o achie e a ein e p e a ion o he medie al a chi ec u e o eligious buildings, a he han o c ea e new ypes o meanings o hese buildings. On he o he hand, his humanis ic conce ns esul ed in he p ojec o Sain e Ma ie de La Tou e e as a place o medi a ion, sea ch o God, and o p aye o he Dominican commu- ni y. In summa y, he humanism p esen ed in he a chi ec onic p og am o La Tou- e e guided his wo k can be seen as an ad en u e in which he imagined he shapes and he ci cui s ha would be necessa y o p aye , li u gy, medi a ion and s udy. The collec i e spaces such as he e ec o y, he chu ch o he mee- ing halls; and he single dwellings i.e. he uni cells o Dominicans ia s, we e pe ec ly p opo ioned o wha his eligious communi y mos needed: silence and peace. In his sense, Sain e Ma ie de La Tou e e is a silen dwelling place o one hun- d ed bodies and hea s (Po ié, 2001: 7). The ole o he eligious communi y li- es yle, inside his silence, was o wo ship God and his con en o ‘bé on b u ’ is conside ed a labou o lo e. Consequen ly, o Le Co busie he e is no need o specula e abou i , because i s li e happens inside. Sain e Ma ie de La Tou e e ep esen s a mic o-ci y i.e. an example o a pa al- lel be ween he li es occu ing a he ci y scale and he li es occu ing a he building scale, whe e e e y hing is unc ional and sel -su icien , jus like in he p inciples o ci y planning o Cha e o A hens. ANA LÍDIA VIRTUDES 23 Re e ences AA.VV., Le Co busie : le symbolique, le sac é, la spi i uali é, Fonda ion La Co busie , Pa is: Édi ions de la Ville e, 2004. CHOAY, F ançoise, U banismo: u opias e ealidades, uma an ologia, São Paulo: Pe spec i a, 1965. CURTIS, William J. R., Le Co busie , ideas and o ms, Ox o d: Phaidon, 1986. EVENSON, No ma, Le Co busie : he machine and he g and design, G. B azille , 1970. HENZE, An on e al. La Tou e e: he Le Co busie monas e y, New Yo k: G. Wi enbo n, 1966 (1963). LE CORBUSIER, “In oduc ion” in Lucien He é, A chi ec u e o T u h, Phaidon P ess, 2001. LEUPEN, Be na d e al. Design and Analysis, (1993), Ro e dam: 010 Publishe s, 1997. MOOS, S anislaus on, Le Co busie : elemen s o a syn hesis, Ro e dam: 010 Publishe s, 2009. PETIT, Jean, Un Cou en de Le Co busie , Les Cahie s Fo ces Vi es, Pa is: Edi ec, 1961. POTIÉ, Philippe, De la spi i uali é ca ha e à l’ini ia ion pu is e in Le Co busie : le symbolique, le sac é, la spi i uali é, Fonda ion La Co busie , Pa is: Édi ions de la Ville e, 2004. POTIÉ, Philippe, Le Co busie : Le Cou en Sain e Ma ie de La Tou e e / The Monas e y o Sain e Ma ie de la Tou e e, Fonda ion Le Co busie , Basel: Bi khause Publishe s, 2001. Acknowledgmen s This wo k was conduc ed unde he s a egic p ojec PEs -OE/EAT/UI4041/2014, unded by na ional unds by FCT - Founda ion o Science and Technology unde he De elopmen , Consolida ion and S enghening o Na ional ID Ins i u ions Ne wo k (OE). FROM THE CITY TO THE BUILDING... 30 Ano he o shoo o his same app oach o olume can be pe cei ed when co - ne s a e le wi hou being o mally de ined in he cons uc ion. Pilla s a e shi- ed in om he co ne s and ind hei place along he olume’s sides. This oc- cu s in he Fa nswo h House (1945-51) in Plano and in Be lin’s New Na ional Galle y (1962-68). This is how Mies builds a i ual olume made o p e ailing ho izon al planes. In o he wo ds, he disman les boxes o highligh planes. Po- ency, hen, is no longe o be ound in he uni a y olume, bu a he in he isual weigh a ached o he ho izon al plane based on i s posi ion ela i e o he pilla s. Acco ding o Reyne Banham, i is pa adoxical ha he i s building o be e - med “New B u alis ”, he Huns an on Seconda y School (1949-54) by Alison and Pe e Smi hson, was inspi ed by he Mies’ Illinois Ins i u e o Technology and no he bé on b u wo ks by Le Co busie , he au ho he ci ed a he be- ginning o his a icle “The New B u alism”. Published in 1955, a he han de- mons a ing Huns an on’s ac ual links wi h his new aes he ic, i aims o jus i y e olu ion owa ds he o ganic in he Smi hsons’ ca ee . In his a icle, Banham es ablishes he school’s quali ies: “1, Fo mal legibili y o plan; 2, Clea exhibi ion o s uc u e, and 3, alua ion o ma e ials o hei inhe en quali ies ‘as ound’ “5. A e analysing he Smi hson’s design o he Uni e si y o She ield Ex ension compe i ion, Banham includes Huns an on’s i s quali y, “ o mal legibili y o plan”, in a b oade quali y a he end o he a icle, “memo abili y as an image”. He concludes ha Mies’ geome y is no an in eg al pa o New B u alis a chi- ec u e bu me ely a de ice o ealizing images, jus as opology is a de ice o The Uni e si y o She ield. While Le Co busie ’s Jaoul houses we e a benchma k o New B u alism due o hei ma e ials’ ea nes , po en mani es a ion, Banham was de e mined a all 5 Reyne Banham, “The New B u alism”, A chi ec u al Re iew, Decembe 1955, London, p. 357. JOSEFINA GONZÁLEZ CUBERO AND NOEMÍ VICENTE MARTÍN 31 cos s o make Huns a on’s emo ed, echnological school he example o New B u alis o hodoxy. This is why a conscious e o was made o a oid making e e ence o buildings wi h obus ech onics and mani es exp essions o esis ance o g a i y. Thei e y ma e ial cons i u ion a o ds hem he solidness and consis ence ha cha- ac e ise po ency in he sense o mass. When we u n o o he buildings whose ma e ial consis ency is mo e succinc and which ely mo e hea ily on echnolo- gy, we a emp o see how he buildings ha asse hemsel es in hei indoo - ou doo ela ionship, o en h ough anspa ency clea ly inspi ed by Mies an de Rohe’s a chi ec u e, also e lec a ques o quali ies o exp ess hei po ency. A decade la e , ollowing in Mies’s oo s eps, S e e Fehn buil he No wegian pa ilion (1958) a he B ussels In e na ional Exhibi ion. The squa e main o- lume lea es he c oss-shaped pilla a he co ne , bu a s ep is aken in ano he di ec ion by he choice o ma e ial. The pilla s and walls become anspa en NOTES ON THE POTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE Figu e 4. Alison and Pe e Smi hson. Huns an on Seconda y School (1949-54), No olk. In Reyne Banham. The New B u alism: E hic o Aes he ic?. Reynold, New Yo k 1966. 32 hanks o he use o Plexiglas, and he indoo space is isually ex ended ou o he wall along he p emises’ ou e pe ime e encompassing he building’s e he- iali y. The la ge oo is no suppo ed in he same way as in he Be lin Na ional Galle y’s c oss-shaped pilla -ca ya ids, bu ins ead seems o le i a e o e phan- asmago ical pilla s ha a e also c oss-shaped. O cou se, he oo does indeed es on nea by beams ex ending ou on h ee sides up o he wall a ound he pe ime e . Because i seems weigh less, he oo ’s po ency is he e o e no g a- i a ional. Fehn also add essed he dissipa ion o ma e ial on he co ne s in he a chi ec u e o he walls. The main pa ilion o he Bøle Cen e (1962-72) in Oslo e ica- lly sc a ches he co ne ou om he walls and uses glass o enclose he po ion whe e he wall is in e up ed. Two ma e ials a e he e o e used o he walls, bu he edge lines a e main ained, unlike neo-plas icism. The p e iously men ioned wo ks espouse he olume’s in eg i y ye also challen- JOSEFINA GONZÁLEZ CUBERO AND NOEMÍ VICENTE MARTÍN Figu e 5. S e e Fehn. No dic Pa ilion (1958), B ussels Expo. In Pe Ola Fjeld, S e e Fehn: he pa e n o hough s, The Monacelli P ess, New Yo k, 2009. 33 ge i o he ex en ha hey do no always p o ide clea legibili y o he edges. Bo h in pe meable a chi ec u e and wall-based a chi ec u e, he lack o co ne s, due o he indoo -ou doo ela ionship gene a ed by pa ial o o al anspa en- cy, achie es lowing space ha is no a ibu able o he undi e en ia ed spa ial con inui y used by some a chi ec s o he mode nis mo emen . As s a ed back in ime by Fehn, wha we cu en ly see is bo h con inui y wi h mode nism inso a as he adop ion o an elemen al olume is conce ned, and up u e because his elemen al olume is sub e ed. The sub e sion a ises when space is modi ied by changing he olume’s ma e ial and ea men . The ques o he speci ic as opposed o wha is uni e sal has led many a chi ec s o c i icise mode nism. Ce ain o he s conside ha he abs ac ion, geome y, and he aes he ics o machines and echnical ep oducibili y ha we e de ended need no be ejec ed all oge he in a single package. Cu en ly, jus as o he s ha e done in he pas , ce ain a chi ec s such as Toyo I o and Kazuyo Sejima de- Figu e 6. S e e Fehn. Bøle Communi y Cen e (1962-72), Oslo. Pho og aphy I án Rincón. NOTES ON THE POTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE 34 end bo h o hese s ances pa ially. I o decla es himsel an hei o mode n a chi ec u e and sus ains ha good a chi- ec u e is bo h simple and abs ac . Ye he disag ees ha his can be gene alised because one has o seek speci ic, unique solu ions o each gi en loca ion, wha he e ms “c ea ing places”. To con igu e he speci ic, he Sendai Media heque’s (1994-2001) p ism-shaped glass en eloping accommoda es an exp essi e s uc u e ambling wi hin i . Be- cause he s uc u e yields a he co ne s o he p ism-shaped olume, o a leas nea hem, he glass is wha delinea es he pe ime e . The anspa en glass o he boule a d açade becomes opaque on he o he açades, leading o he disa- gg ega ion o he olume, and is only g ouped oge he by he p esence o each o he loo s uc u es in e cep ing he con inui y o he e ical edges. In o de o p o ide con inui y along he boule a d, he a chi ec uses a second sc een o anspa en glass. JOSEFINA GONZÁLEZ CUBERO AND NOEMÍ VICENTE MARTÍN Figu e 7. Toyo I o. Media heque (1994-2001), Sendai. In GA A chi ec 17, ADAD Edi a, Tokyo 2001. 35 While in o he buildings, he s uc u al sys em, be i abs ac o igu a i e, p o- ides suppo o bo h he building and i s enclosu e, he e he p ism-shaped glass olume is w apped in a s uc u al amalgam ha seemingly aims o b eak wi h he esounding cla i y. London’s Se pen ine Galle y (2002) and Tokyo’s TOD’s s o e (2004) s and as good examples. While he media heque uses he loo s uc u es o hy hmically cu he edges in he la e wo examples, he ex e io açades lack bo h elie and dep h. The e he a chi ec highligh s he edges h ough he uni a y glass olume’s geome y, and blu s hem h ough he g aphic pa e n ha he s uc u e acqui es. In he Se pen ine Galle y, he uses geome ical decomposi ion while in he TOD’s s o e he does so wi h he nea by zelko a ees. Despi e he dialec ics de ining he s uc u al en eloping, I o says Figu e 8. Toyo I o. Se pen ine Galle y (2002), London. In EL C oquis Nº 123, 2001-2005, Mad id 2006. NOTES ON THE POTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE 36 ega ding he s o e “we ga e he building a po en , unique p esence”6. SAANA’s o mal del ings a e simila . The wo k o i s emale membe , Kazu- yo Sejima, hei o I o’s eachings, con inues o mo e p e ailingly in he sphe e o a play on elemen al bodies oscilla ing be ween he walls’ ech onics and he glass enclosu es. Examples o be ci ed a e he cube-shaped Zoll e ein School (2005) in Essen and he g ea cylind ical 21s Cen u y Con empo a y A mu- seum (1999-2004) in Kanazawa. A la e wo k, he Glass Pa ilion (2001-2006) a he Museum o Mode n A in Toledo, Ohio, mo es om he ci cle on o a combined geome y including bo h s aigh lines and cu es. The space adi ionally aken up by he mass o he walls in he a chi ec u e seems o ha e been emp ied in he Museum’s Glass Pa ilion, and a glass dia- 6 Toyo I o. Con e saciones con es udian es. Gus a o Gili, Ba celona 2005, p. 40. JOSEFINA GONZÁLEZ CUBERO AND NOEMÍ VICENTE MARTÍN Figu e 9. SANAA: Kazuyo Sejima+R yue Nishizawa. Zoll e ein School o Managemen and Design (2005), Essen. In EL C oquis Nº 139, 2004-2008, Mad id 2008. 37 ph agm s ands as he es ige o i s ou e bounda ies. The oo seems o loa as he edge is ounded o he co ne , while he pilla s a e i ually made o di- sappea h ough p opaga ion and a educ ion in hei c oss measu es. Ceiling and loo alike package oge he a space pe mea ed by gleam. On he ou doo s, he cu ed co ne s os e a gen le o hogonal ansi ion om he oo ’s pe i- me e , and he iewe ’s eyes a e d awn o he olume’s skin making i sel isible h ough he hos o e lec ions om i s su oundings. He e, po ency comes no om he solidi y o he walls o om he emblema ic channelling o he load h ough he pilla s. No does i come om he geome ic ays o shadows, bu a he om he e se ock o glass eil, as we can see in he Kanazawa Museum. The lack o elie on he en eloping o I o and SAANA’s buildings make hem monoli hs. Thei a chi ec u e, as has been indica ed once and again by o he au- ho s, is diag amma ic and mass disappea s, ancho ed in pu e olumes wi h no bodily solidi y. In o he wo ds, hei a chi ec u e eplaces he physical weigh o Figu e 10. SANAA: Kazuyo Sejima+R yue Nishizawa. Glass Pa illion, Toledo Museum o A (2001- 06), Ohio. In EL C oquis Nº 139, 2004-2008, Mad id 2008. NOTES ON THE POTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE 38 he walls wi h he e seness o he skin. Po ency as a quali y in a chi ec u e has g adually il e ed in o he ideal o beau y o such an ex en ha i has e en i ually come o eplace i . As we ha e al eady indica ed, Toyo I o akes no e o his conce n o ob ain po en p esence om o m, while Kazuyo Sejima es ablishes he quali ies o he buildings o ou ime: “We li e in a wo ld o unce ain y, he wo ld is mo ing owa ds a necessa y coexis en- ce o e y di e en ideas, people and cus oms, and in his con ex , a chi ec u e canno be in lexible. I has o be adap able, unce ain, and dynamic. All in all, powe ul ideas a e also needed o be able o ebuild chao ic ci ies. A chi ec s mus wo k o p o- duce hese wo ypes o buildings: changing and po en ”7. While changing buildings do no seem o abound much in he specialised media nowadays, po en buildings ce ainly seem o p oli e a e. In p inciple, i is he po en buildings ha p e ail because hey p o ide a esounding, uni a y image e lec ed in hei olumes’ pho ogenics and elabo a e bounda ies. Bu a e all o hese buildings ac ually po en ? Clea ly no . Di ec expe ience wi h hei a chi- ec u e is enough o ell ha . De oid in ex emis o hei physical ma e iali y, in hese buildings, po ency seems o be con e ed o he ex e io while mel ing away comple ely in a di use space in he building’s in e io . In e es ingly, mode n sensibili y has in eg a ed he app ehension o space and dep h by going beyond he ges al concep o shee isibili y, and subsequen ly, so-called New B u alism came o be cha ac e ised by “Memo abili y as an ima- ge”. This con empo a y dicho omy o space and image gene a es ques ions abou wha cu en ly unde pins a chi ec u e, whe he i is uni y o o m o uni y o image? In sho , does po ency belong o he building i sel as he objec ep e- sen ed, o is po ency he esul o a pho og aphic selec ion o he building’s ex- e io and subsequen in e io isa ion h ough pho og aphy? The ecogni ion a ained o la e by a chi ec u e pho og aphe s may owe o jus 7 Kazuyo Sejima. ‘La casa es un e ugio pa a la men e’, El País, 15 June 2002, p. 20. JOSEFINA GONZÁLEZ CUBERO AND NOEMÍ VICENTE MARTÍN 39 his, since pa o he me i o making a gi en in en ion isible has been a i- bu ed o hem. In o he wo ds, hese pho og aphe s a e able o make buildings speak, pe haps e en beyond wha hei ac ual essence. NOTES ON THE POTENCY OF ARCHITECTURE 46 did no s op he pos -wa consen on he insu iciency o he mode n language unde mining he ai h in echnology. Fo his eason, he popula e e ences we e an ini ial ield o s udy o hese a chi ec s, as a way o unde s and how he essence and he adi ional echnical de ails gi e enewed `exp essi e cha ac e ´ and `cons uc i e sense´ o he mode n pa adigms. The a chi ec S e e Fehn and his p oposal o he No wegian Pa ilion in he Uni e sal Exhibi ion o B ussels in 1958 shows his endency clea ly. On he one hand, he whole s uc u e o he building uses Mies an de Rohe´s designs om he hi ies. S e e Fehn p oposes a ho izon al space comple ely opened and con ained be ween a podium and a la oo ha is su ounded wi h a p e ab ica ed zigzag conc e e wall. The se e al openings ha appea be ween he squa e oo and he i egula pe ime e c ea e di e en a eas wi h he help o ligh walls ha do no ouch he oo and glass walls ha de ine wo glazed cou ya ds a he back o he building. On he o he hand, he mechanism ha ac i a es Figu e 5. Model o he No wegian Pa ilion o he Uni e sal Exhibi ion o B ussels, 1958. ‘S e e Fehn’. Au ho ´s a chi es. Figu e 6. De ail o glazing cou ya d o he No wegian Pa ilion o he Uni e sal Exhibi ion o B ussels, 1958. ‘S e e Fehn’. IVÁN I. RINCÓN BORREGO 47 he p ojec is he c ea ion o a ho izon al space ha changes acco ding o he sunligh o he incidence o he sun, which a ibu es new o mal quali ies o he oo : ‘ he idea o he Pa ilion is e y simple (…) a li le building wi h di e en kinds o ligh in he shape o cons uc ion’,4 as S e e Fehn says. So he chooses o he oo h ee di e en plas ic ma e ials in o de o il e he na u al ligh and o c ea e singula b igh a mosphe es, as i he we e designing enclosu es ma ked o by limi s o co po eal ligh . The esul main ains he p edominan ho izon ali y o he sandwich space, bu in ha mony wi h he e ical di ec ion o he mega on space, which is now no only p esen in he cou ya ds, bu also in he co e ed in e io , emphasizing he di ec ion o he na u al e en s om abo e and below he building, om he sky and he ea h. S e e Fehn and his ellow coun yman Gei G ung ha e a common in e es in he combina ion o mode ni y and adi ion which s ems om hei ea ly ca ee . In he i s building hey designed oge he , he C a Museum in Lillehamme in 1949, hey adap ed a space con ained be ween wo ho izon al planes o a gen le slope. The loo and he oo descend une enly o e he lowe slope o a hill, as i he ini ia ion walk o he museum we e a a ionalis wa e all ha is sensi i e o he loca ion. The p oposed expe ience is a kind o descen h ough he a , a p omenade ha adds he a iable o he place and he implan a ion o he abs ac cha ac e o he abo e-men ioned mode n p o o ypes. In addi ion, du ing a jou ney o Mo occo in 1951, Fehn d aws he A ab cou ya ds o Biog a as mega on in e io s opened owa ds he sky, emembe ing wi h his ske ches he ones o Le Co busie o he Beis egui apa men , 1929-31. So he isi o he a chi ec onic landscapes o he p imi i e cul u es o no h A ica and O ien is also a clea in luence in hei p ojec o he e i emen home Oke n in Oslo o 1952-55; a building based on he o e lap o weigh less s uc u al slabs ha es ca e ully on he g ound, jus as i is in Japanese adi ional houses. 4 S. Fehn, `The Skin, he Cu & he Bandage´, in S Ande son (ed.), The Pie o Belluschi Lec u es, The MIT P ess, Bos on 1994, p. 7. PERMANENCES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SPACE 48 Fehn's and G ung's a i ude is concilia o y and c i ical in ela ion o he models inhe i ed om he mas e s o mode ni y, and i p oduces a posi i e sync e ism ha iden i ies wi h a lo o membe s o he hi d gene a ion. A he beginnings o he i ies S e e Fehn and Gei G ung collabo a e wi h Jø n U zon being all oge he membe s o PAGON (P og essi e A chi ec s´ G oup o Oslo, No way). A ha ime, Jø n U zon also designs in a way ha makes sui able he spa ial pa e ns o he Mode n Mo emen o speci ic si ua ions and o ex eme condi ions, his p oposal o a pape mill d awn du ing his second s ay in Mo occo in 1947 is a good example o his. The ac o y is homage o he cellulose p oduc ion p ocess by g a i y. Jø n U zon makes a diag am o i using cu ed s ipes ha descend o ganizing he sec ion o he building. As i i we e an eno mous mega on es ed on a opog aphic acciden , wo eno mous pa allel and polygonal ou lined walls es o e he g ound keeping i s g adien . O e hem, he e is a oo consis ing o V-shaped beams ha il e he na u al Figu e 7. Model and longi udinal sec ion o he C a Museum in Lillehamme , 1949. ‘S e e Fehn and Gei G ung’. Figu e 8. Ske ch o an A ab cou ya d in Biog a, Mo occo, 1951. ‘S e e Fehn’. C. No be g Schulz, G. Pos iglione, S e e Fehn: Wo ks, P ojec s, W i ings, 1949-1996. The Monacelli P ess, Milan, 1997. IVÁN I. RINCÓN BORREGO 49 ligh , emphasizing he in e nal e aced o de . So he plan is jus composed by wo opaque walls wi h bu esses and by he abs ac symbols o he indus ial machine y, whose logic is shown as a p in ed digi al ci cui . The p ojec o he pape mill eleases composi i e analyses e e ed o he quo ed s uc u e mega on, analyses ha a e la e used by U zon in his design o he Melli Bank in Tehe an in 1959-60 and in he Bags ae d chu ch in 1968. In he i s example he builds again an a angemen o skyligh beams ha co e s a uni a y space lea ing he main oom o he bank ee o obs acles due o he e sa ile p o ile o he oo whose o m ep esen s he name o he bank en i y in A ab cha ac e s. In he second one he eco e s he idea o na u al analogy, and combines p e ab ica ed walls wi h cu ed su aces in o de o c ea e an in e io a chi ec onic landscape co e ed by imagina y clouds. Bo h buildings emphasize he impo ance o he mode n space s uc u e, ha is, o i s clea p og amma ic a ionali y. They a e cle e examples o he enewed alue o he Figu e 9. Ske ch o he Beis egui apa men , 1929-31. ‘Le Co busie ’. W. Boesige (ed.), Le Co busie & P. Jeanne e . Oeu e Complè e, Les Edi ions d´A chi ec u e, Zu ich, 1985. Figu e 10. Façade de ail o he Re i emen Home Oke n in Oslo, 1952-55. ‘S e e Fehn and Gei G ung’. Au ho ´s a chi es. PERMANENCES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SPACE 50 con ex ual e e ences o he a chi ec u e o he second hal o de 20 h cen u y. The I alian a chi ec Lina Bo Ba di is ano he p ominen exponen ha b eaks he moulds o he In e na ional S yle wi hou in inging on i s basic p inciples. He wo k, de eloped essen ially in B azil, syn hesizes he s uc u es o Mies an de Rohe wi h he ma e iali y o he b u conc e e. Mies had insis ed on he cons uc i e pe ec ion o he mode n space du ing his Ame ican pe iod. He looked o he mos anspa ency o he space and o he isual disappea ance o he columns pu ing hem ou side he building. The ex e io suppo s o he Fanswo h house, 1945-50, he accen o e he imma e ial co ne o he Fi y by Fi y Fee house, 1950-52, o he powe ul loa ing slabs o he C own Hall, 1950-56 no only p o e Mies an de Rohe´s in e es o he ho izon al con inui y o he space, bu also consolida e he bases o Lina Bo Ba di´s c ea i e mimic y which p o ides he mode n uni e sali y o hose buildings wi h exp essi e alues a ibu ed o he popula cul u e. Figu e 11. Plan and sec ion o a pape mill design, Mo occo, 1947. ‘Jø n U zon’. Figu e 12. Plan , sec ion and A ab name o he Melli Bank in Tehe an, 1959-60. ‘Jø n U zon’. J. J. Fe e Fo és, Jø n U zon. Ob as y p oyec os. Gus a o Gili, Ba celona, 2006. IVÁN I. RINCÓN BORREGO 51 Figu e 13. Plan , sec ion and açade o he Bags ae d chu ch, 1968. ‘Jø n U zon’. Figu e 14. Model o he C own Hall, IIT, Illinois, 1950-56. ‘Mies an de Rohe’. T. Riely, B. Be gdoll, Mies in Be lin. MOMA, New Yo k, 2001. PERMANENCES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SPACE 52 In Bo Ba di´s p ojec o a museum acing he A lan ic in Bei a do Oceano, São Vicen e, in 1951, he weigh lessness o he C own Hall in luences he designed conside ably. Fi e s iking ed ames buil in ein o ced conc e e hold up in he ai an impene able box ha con ains a la ge open-plan exhibi ion oom. The objec s exhibi ed in o he museum and he ligh walls ha di ide i s in e io hang be ween he loo and he oo . Likewise, he s uc u e is e y igh a ound he olume like a skele on amed by he only opened açade ha looks owa d sea. In spi e o i s abs ac and powe ul olume, he building in eg a es he na u al en i onmen and he ligh in o i s own buil shape. I s ands o e he beach, i closes owa d he moun ains and i opens owa d he ocean wi h g ea sensibili y, o e coming he schema ic iso opy o he mode n p o o ypes om which i d aws inspi a ion. Lina Bo Ba di achie es a mos spec acula de elopmen o he examples o Le Co busie and Mies an de Rohe in he Museum o Con empo a y A o São Figu e 15. Model o a Museum by he side o he A lan ic in Bei a do Oceano, 1951. ‘Lina Bo Ba di’. Ma celo Ca alho Fe az (ed.), Lina Bo Ba di, Cha a, Milano, 1994. Figu e 16. U ban iew o he Museum o Con empo a y A o São Paulo (MASP), 1957-68 ‘Lina Bo Ba di’. IVÁN I. RINCÓN BORREGO 53 Paulo (MASP) in 1957-68. Two huge conc e e ames hold again a weigh less museum, lea ing he space unde nea h comple ely ee o a public squa e. The au ho adicalizes he idea o open-plan and mode n con inuum space wi h an exp essionis ges u e o s uc u al b u alism owa d he Paulis a A enue. He in en ion is o link he u ban su oundings and he building h ough he disappea ance o he concep o on in a o o he one o olume y. Due o he lack o a monumen al empha ic en ance and because he e is jus a domes ic s ai s in a la e al posi ion, he isual weigh o he olume and he huge ho izon al hollow play he leading ole in he design. The oo s o he eloquen a chi ec onic ocabula y o Lina Bo Ba di lie in he he o ic o he mode n pa adigms, he simple essence o wha is p imi i e and he majes y shee s eng h o B azilian na u e. Au ho s o he second hal o he 20 h cen u y such as Jø n U zon, S e e Fehn o Lina Bo Ba di, among o he s, look a he a chi ec u e o he pas a he same Figu e 17. Model o he House in Bo deaux, 1994-98. ‘OMA/Rem Koolhaas’. A.A.V.V., El C oquis, nº 53+79, 1998. PERMANENCES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SPACE 54 ime as hey de elop a space genealogy based on he wo k o he mas e s o he Mode n Mo emen . They conside he language o na u e, he cha ac e is ics o e e y con ex and he exp essi e capaci y o he ma e ial o en ich he uni e sali y o he a ionalis a chi ec u e. As i hey we e looking o he essence o he mode n design, hey go back cons an ly o he ideas ha emana e om ha a chi ec u e in o de o en u e in o con empo a y a chi ec u e, an a i ude ha is common nowadays among many angua d a chi ec s. 3. Du ing he las decades, se e al buildings such as he house designed by OMA/ Rem Koolhaas in Bo deaux in 1994-98 p opose new s uc u es o mode n space wi h he in en o using i as a ehicle o exp ess he Zei geis and as a ield o a chi ec onic hough . This p ojec combines a mega on-cou ya d house and a ec angula conc e e box ha seems o le i a e o e an open space delimi ed Figu e 18. Model o a Ho el and a Cong ess Palace in Agadi , 1990. ‘OMA/Rem Koolhaas’. A.A.V.V., El C oquis, nº 53+79, 1998. IVÁN I. RINCÓN BORREGO 55 only by glazed planes. The only componen ha connec s e ically he en i e house is an ele a o , a mechanic pla o m which makes he co e o he dwelling equal o ha o a skysc ape . This decision is a su ealis ic c i ique o he Villa Sa oye, whose amp is eplaced by his indus ial de ice. The suppo s make up a collage o he e ogeneous pa s ha seem o be in uns able equilib ium. Fi s , he columns a e placed in an asymme ical way. Then, he main beam o he highe olume is pie ced. And inally, he cylinde ha suppo s hal o he building is made wi h a mi o aspec in o de o dissol e i s p esence in he e lec ions o he landscape. The s uc u e does no answe o he o de o he amed spaces, mo eo e , i igno es i s ho izon al and e ical di ec ions, showing he o mal and su ealis ic au onomy o an ac oba ic ec onic shape. OMA/Rem Koolhaas anscends he a ionalism o he ini ial mode n s uc u es, bu a he same ime he p ese es he memo y o hose. The impo ance o he s uc u e unde lines he lei mo i o he house. Figu e 19. In e io iew o he Rolex Lea ning Cen e in Lausanne. ‘SANAA/ Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa’. Au ho ´s a chi es. PERMANENCES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SPACE 62 De ining “Use ul Pas ” A he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, H. Wöl lin s a ed ha he his o ian had o ealize his abou his science: “A pas e a is like a mi o which e lec s only he ea u es o he pe son who looks in o i . Each gene a ion obse es, chooses, uses he pas in e ms o i sel .” We know ha he “pas ” was impo an o Le Co busie . P. Saddy has demons a ed how eely he a chi ec app oached his o y du ing his yea s o aining (Le Co busie , 1988). The “Whi e Ca hed als” a e an example o he mi o e ec . Wöl lin’s mi o allows he his o ian o ans o m a will he image o an e a h ough his analysis o i (Le Co busie , 1937) Tha is how Le Co busie sees he Middle Ages, “li ing pas ” as opposed “dead pas ”, a new pe iod, a model o which he ca hed al, seen as a conc e iza ion o he “human genius”, is he e lec ion: “Some pas s a e he mos igo ous ins iga o s o he p esen and he bes sp ingboa ds RÉMI PAPILLAULT Figu e 1. Ki an Cinema. Au ho ´s a chi es. 63 o he u u e”. Fo him, he p esen holds he same s akes a he beginning o he 20 h cen u y, only he p og amme is di e en . E en hough he pas seems e acua ed om he A hens Cha e , i and a ce ain de ini ion o i s ole s ill subsis in he wo k o Le Co busie . In 1935, he ex on he in i a ion ca d o “P imi i e A in Today’s House”, an exhibi ion which Le Co busie o ganized wi h Louis Ca é in his a elie , exp esses how he pas d i es con empo a y design: “The wo ks o he spi i do no age. By pe iods, by cycles, in se ies, hings come back: he same hou s pass, once again, in o minu es o conco dance. Thus a e ela ed, a e one, he wo ks d i en by he same po en ial ene gy. Uni y is no ound in uni o mi y o s yle; i is in an equi alence in po en ial. The con empo a y is oo ed in he dep hs o ime” (Le Co busie , 1988). Le Co busie goes o museums and d aws. Wo ks om he pas a e examined no o beau y o o m o colou bu o la en ene gy, he b u alism, “p ima y inspi a ion” which hey can con ey o he c ea i e a is . He adop s an a i ude o he pas which is close o ha o he “e e nal p esen ” de ined by Sieg ied Giedion as ea ly as he 1940’s. Fo him, he e a e anshis o ic elemen s in a chi ec u e and u banism which se e as sou ces om which a chi ec s o he 20 h cen u y can d aw, a “use ul pas ”. Fo many o he i s a chi ec s o he Mode n Mo emen , pas , p esen and u u e me ge in wha Giedion e ms he “e e nal p esen ”. Thei a is ic ac i i y as a whole is based on a sys em o in empo al e e ences, which ends owa d a sense o simul anei y and a spi i o abs ac ion. The pas canno be a lexicon o o ms om which o choose, as i o en was in he 19 h cen u y. Le Co busie ’s ela ion o he his o y o a chi ec u e is like his ela ion o his own his o y. I is in e es ing o no e ha Le Co busie ne e w o e his memoi s, in he li e a y sense o he e m. O en an au ho will p e ace his memoi s wi h an explana ion o why he is w i ing hem. Reading such p e aces by au ho s CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME 64 who ha e made a emp s in he gen e, we ind di e en mo i a ions: o ansmi knowledge o one’s e a and expe ience o u u e gene a ions, o si ua e one’s wo k in ela ion o one’s li e, o engage in e lec ion a a ime in one’s li e when i becomes di icul o ac . Fo his pa , Le Co busie is cons an ly ske ching, anno a ing, s iking o e , in his ske chbooks and on co ne s o ableclo hs. His leas idea is compiled. F om wha momen is he conscious ha he is building an oeu e? Ve y ea ly i would seem, pe haps e en as ea ly as his i s ips in 1907 - 1908, o as ea ly as his i s wo k on he building o ci ies, which he ne e published.1 All o his ske ches, shown in pa allel o his p ojec s, buil o unbuil , a e published in he Œu es Comple es. 1 See he analysis in he exhibi ion ca alogue o he Ho el de Sully, especially in Chap e I "Le Passe", he ansla ion o he lec u e by Julius Posene (1988). Figu e 2. Squa e on linea pa k. Au ho ´s a chi es. RÉMI PAPILLAULT 65 And so he cons i u es his w i en memoi s day by day. In publishing his ske ches, he wished o lea e o pos e i y a lexicon, a so o mode nis ’s ca alogue om which o he s could d aw and o which ch onology was o li le impo ance: in a ce ain sense, wha is said in 1920 s ill holds ue in 1960. Bu he e is also in his memoi s he desi e o demons a e he cohe ence and he e olu ion o his e lec ion o e he whole cou se o his ac i i ies: a cohe ence which is an icipa ed om he e y beginning o he wo k. Bo h Le Co busie ’s concep ion o he his o y o a chi ec u e, and o his own pe sonal his o y as an a chi ec , e lec he concep o he e e nal p esen which in i sel migh be conside ed o ende poin less he e y idea o he w i en memoi . The a chi ec uses his own wo k in he same way ha he uses he his o y o a chi ec u e gene ally: a any momen such a heme o he pas may be einjec ed in o he p esen bu ne e in a li e al way. To a ce ain ex en he a chi ec ‘ e-syn hesizes’ wi hin he amewo k o each new p ojec . The Figu e 3. En y illage g oup. Au ho ´s a chi es. CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME 66 con inui y o Le Co busie ’s esea ch is such ha speaking o s yle seems i ele an . In July 1965, in his las le e (Le Co busie , 1970:168), he a chi ec does no di ide his ca ee in o pe iods. He opens he Œu e Comple es wi h he Falle house a La Chaux de Fonds, buil when he was 17 yea s old, and he closes wi h he Open Hand Monumen a Chandiga h, o which he e e s as “ he end o he ace”. The no ion o a use ul pas in he his o y o a chi ec u e and in a chi ec u e i sel con on s Indian cul u e in a pa icula way. Th ee yea s be o e being in i ed o Chandiga h, Le Co busie ga e his imp essions o India in an a icle en i led “Pas , P esen and Tomo ow”: “In his India which has come h ough he da k pe iod o he i s machine age undamaged, he e seems o exis he basis o expansion, ha is: pe manen and human, e e nal ac o s, main ained h oughou he ages, in he essen ial and he anscenden , i e u able powe s o mode n echniques, ansien bu cons an ly imp o ed. The con inui y o yes e day - oday - omo ow, (and I ake as wi ness he pe sis ence o he hindu woman’s ga men ), b ings o wa d om he ages he mos b illan beau y and g ace and pe pe ua es hem wi hou anach onism in o he p esen day, “a aison d’ê e” ea i med” (Le Co busie , 1948). The sea ch o a “hindu s yle” (Le Co busie , 1950), while explici in in en ion is no ob ious in ac . In Le Co busie ’s lib a y he e a e ew books abou India.2 He does no seem o wan o de elop a documen ed knowledge o he coun y bu a he a knowledge based on isual in ui ion. The same can be said o his a els. F om Feb ua y o 1951 un il his dea h, Le Co busie a elled 23 imes o India. In spi e o his ske chbooks and o he documen s, we know e y li le abou his in e es in Indian a chi ec u al cul u e. Women in sa is, sac ed cows, he oyal ba h a Fo Rouge, a iew o Pa iala a nigh all, he ga dens o Pinjo e, a ew quo a ions abou he Delhi obse a o y in his a ious ske chbooks: he 2 See he in en o y o V. Po e aix, 1995-96. RÉMI PAPILLAULT 67 explici aces o ha ision o India a e inally qui e enuous when compa ed o he wo k being done a he same pe iod by Weine and Se in Sou h Ame ica o by Candilis and Woods in Mo occo. The p ojec o Chandiga h is ed by a globalis ision whose e e ences a e in he mode ni y o he a mac o an Ame ican ai po , a conc e e pa ape in Swi ze land, a iew o he py amids in Cai o, e c. This ision seems o be a he oo o he mode ni y o he ci y. I he d awings o Albe Maye and Ma hew Nowicki e lec a ce ain cul u alism, one migh say ha he Co busian design o Chandiga h is “a-cul u al”, a uni e salism in which Le Co busie ancho s his ision o he mode ni y o India, echoing Neh u’s wish o a ci y o a mode n building which is nei he Eu opean no Indian “bu some hing i ing in wi h he gene al s uc u e o socie y, echnological ad ance, clima e, unc ions, ...e c”.3 The his o ical elemen s o he si e which a e main ained in he plan o he new own a e o he mos pa hose which e e o he long e m : “ he si e is o ally emp y, a limi less plain leaning up agains hills and a backg ound o Himalayas” (Le Co busie , 1951). By igno ing he aces o he pas , Le Co busie is applying o he si e his no ion o he abula asa. Chandiga h’s g id-plan is b oken only by hose lines which a e a esul o na u al e osion o e a long pe iod, he cou se o he i e and he elie . Man’s age-old occupa ion o he si e is e ased when we look a he map a he scale o he e i o y. Bu i we look a smalle scale maps o he sec ions inalized in 1952-53 by Jeanne e , F y and D ew, we see ha he lines o mango ees which bo de ed he old oads a e kep and ha hey di ec he new di ision o he land, which is di e en om ha o V2 and V3, oo ing he whole in he e i o y and in ime. As ea ly as 1952 in he ea men o all he u ban scales down o ha o he indi idual pa cel, he e is con lic o con adic ion be ween he ci y-plan and he si e’s pas , be ween he abula asa and he palimpses , 3 Neh u, speech in New Delhi, Ma ch 1959, in Annual o a chi ec u e, s uc u e and own planning, Pub. Co po a ion o India, Calcu a, 1960. CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME 68 be ween he mode ni y o he A hens Cha e and he con ex ualism o he New Regionalism de ined by Giedion. The “Bu ning P esen ” “Li e is beau i ul because we do no in end no p e end o de e mine a ixed and e e nal des iny o all hings in he u u e. Each hing a e e y momen is bu a pa icipan in he p esen ” (Le Co busie , 1937:10). In de ining u banism, awa eness o he p esen hus appea s as a necessa y ool. When we build he ci y, his c i ical awa eness pe mi s us o make up o sho comings and o e ain hose quali ies which should endu e. Fo Le Co busie , o be o one’s ime and one’s e a is o be a he edge a he limi , sensi i e o all signs o mode ni y in he con empo a y si ua ion. He de ines he p esen as a “bu ning oday”, a “line o i e”(Le Co busie , 1948). Fo him Figu e 4. Walls on squa e. Au ho ´s a chi es. RÉMI PAPILLAULT 69 he p esen is cha ac e ized by a delica e equilib ium ha he me apho o he ac oba can help o explain: “An ac oba is no a puppe , he consec a es his ac i i y o which he is cons an ly in dange o dea h, he accomplishes ea s ne e -be o e pe o med, a he limi s o di icul y and wi h igou , p ecision and iming..., a he isk o b eaking his bones, o knocking himsel ou ”. As ea ly as 1924, in he o ewo d o U banisme, Le Co busie places his ci y in he p esen by saying o hose who accuse him o planning o he yea 2000 ha he is no building a “ci y o he u u e” bu a “con empo a y ci y”, “con empo a y, because omo ow belongs o no one” (Le Co busie , 1925). “I am i ed o o e e desc ibing, like some mino p ophe , his amb osian asylum o he u u e. I belie e I ha e become a u u is , which does no h ill me; I eel ha I am lea ing aside hose aw u hs o exis ence o gi e mysel o e o wild imaginings.” (Le Co busie , 1925:184) He desc ibes a “con empo a y ci y” no in he u u e ense bu in he p esen , and his despi e he s a is ics p esen ed which e eal aspec s o i s de elopmen 4. I is concei ed as a inished p ojec , whe e all he pa s mus i in o he olume ic en elopes ixed by he a chi ec . In his espec i esembles Tony Ga nie ’s indus ial ci y o 1901-1917, he i s example o p og essi e con empo a y u banism. In he ille adieuse, a Rio de Janei o, Algie s o e en Sain Die, Le Co busie lays ou an u ban p ojec as in ac a de ined, a chi ec u al one. E e y hing is d awn: oads, esiden ial buildings, indus ial buildings, public buildings... The ci y is ep esen ed as a o mally de ined objec . Howe e a Chandiga h his usion o a chi ec u e and u banism is called in o ques ion. A e he success o he ille adieuse and he commission o Chandiga h, a e 4 See he chap e on s a is ics, Le Co busie (1925:99). See also he chap e "La P é ision" in Le Co busie , Su les 4 ou es, 1939, Pa is. CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME 70 yea s o s ubbo n pe sis ence, Le Co busie had been able o con ince as many o his a chi ec u al colleagues as ce ain his o ians and a ew poli icians: mo e han he poli ician, he a chi ec is he one who can bes “ o esee” he p esen . And o Le Co busie , in India, and pe haps nowhe e else, was he e a poli ician who himsel had some o his kind o clai oyance: Jawaha lal Neh u. “Today, India is made up o millions o men and women, each one di e en , li ing in his own pa icula wo ld o hough s and eelings. I such is he p esen , how di icul i mus be o unde s and one’s pas wi h i s gene a ions o human beings. Some hing, howe e , has bound hem oge he and binds hem s ill. India is a geog aphical and economic en i y, a cul u al uni y o g ea di e si y, a bundle o con adic ions held oge he by in isible ies” (Neh u, 1986). Fo Le Co busie his awa eness o he p esen is cen al o his wo k on he design o he ci y “Dea iends Jane D ew and Maxwell F y, he p oblem is magni icen . A his Figu e 5. App op ia ion be o e. Au ho ´s a chi es. RÉMI PAPILLAULT 71 momen in he e olu ion o mode n ci ilisa ion, India ep esen s a nobili y o spi i which is pa icula ly endea ing. Ou ask is o come up wi h he u banism and a chi ec u e which eaches he e y li eblood o his deep and powe ul ci ilisa ion and gi es i he mode n equipmen which will help place i in he p esen . Tha is a ask o hinke s and o echnicians.” (Le Co busie :1950). He sees his mode ni y o India, as does Neh u, in indus ialisa ion and mechaniza ion, bu along wi h he p ese a ion o i s o iginali y which he eels de i es om i s ela ionship wi h consump ion and mone a y exchange, i s social o ganiza ion, i s ela ionship wi h na u e and especially i s ela ionship wi h ime, wi h he long e m. Va ious ac o s, philosophical, cul u al and demog aphic, gi e India a pa icula ixi y when aced wi h mode ni y and his pu s he human ac o a he cen e o he sys em: “No hing is easie han o use he a chi ec u al s ock o he whi e ace. And no hing exis s he e, in he Indies, which co esponds o mode n wo k, mode n li e. We mus Figu e 6. App op ia ion. Au ho ´s a chi es. CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME 78 The idea was: “The e can be no subu bs a ound Chandiga h” (Le Co busie , 1951). A he scale o he ci y, Jeanne e , F y and D ew co-signed wi h Thapa “zoning plans” which, sec o by sec o , de ined he oads, he ee spaces, he lo s, he use, he buil o m, he maximum heigh , he ype and heigh o enclosu es. Along wi h hese zoning plans a e 119 egula ions, signed by Thapa , he go e nmen ’s sec e a y. They se up a e y s ic amewo k: he equi emen o a building pe mi , minimum s anda ds o hygiene ( o one house: one ki chen, one indoo o ou doo ba h oom and one oile ), minimum ceiling heigh s, cons uc ion ma e ials wi h minimum dimensions, egula ion o he a chi ec u e p o ession, e c. The p ecision o he egula ions coupled wi h he zoning plan shows how na ow a ma gin was de ined o hose who wished o build in Chandiga h. This pe haps explains he success o he go e nmen al models e ined by Jeanne e , F y and D ew. - The clima ic g id, 1952 C ea ed a ound 1952 by M. Missena d, he clima ic g id allowed o he placing o buildings h ough si e analysis. The in ense hea and monsoon ains in Chandiga h lead o a chi ec u al solu ions such as he sun b eak in i s single o double e sion, and he pa asol o umb ella oo which is used mainly o la ge public buildings. Va ia ions on hese hemes we e ied ou by Jeanne e , F y and D ew o esidences and public buildings: a single, hick skin, a double skin, galle ies, e andas, e c... - The Modulo and he Pu usha o he B ahmins “The new Capi al o he Punjab is hus he i s ci y which will be en i ely o de ed by a ha monic measu e” (Le Co busie , 1951). Finalized in 1943, he Modulo is shown o he public o he i s ime in 1947, and a wo k is published in 1950 which explains Le Co busie ’s 7 yea s RÉMI PAPILLAULT 79 o esea ch.6 I was while wo king in he Maza ine lib a y in Decembe 1950 ha Le Co busie disco e ed he pu usha o he B ahmins, a uni y o dimension which co esponds o “a man s e ched ou , wi h his a ms ex ending abo e his body” (Le Co busie , 1955:83), an Indian echo o he Modulo . The challenge is o make he Modulo in o a ansgeog aphical and ans empo al ins umen , a kind o Espe an o o measu emen . The ha monisa ion o Chandiga h also comes om he Modulo as a sys em o p opo ion, a he scale o he gene al plan o he ci y as well as a he scale o he Capi ol and he a ious buildings. The Modulo also has he ad an age o co esponding o he p opo ion be ween he B i ish inch and oo . I hus becomes he common language o he a chi ec s in he Pa is o ice and he senio a chi ec s in Chandiga h. Pie e Jeanne e de eloped a con e sion able o me ic and impe ial measu es o he a chi ec s and enginee s, which was hen dis ibu ed o all he echnicians. In Decembe 1952 he w o e: “I is hanks o he Modulo ha we a e able o wo k in an o de ly way and success ully d aw up he mass o plans, and ha no only ou wo k bu also ou d a smen a e in acco d” (Le Co busie , 1953:113). All o he a chi ec ’s empo al ca ego ies applied o he ci y o Chandiga h show he dis ance co e ed since he abs ac ion o he Con empo a y Ci y o Th ee Million Inhabi an s. Wha is su p ising is he apidi y wi h which Le Co busie ealizes ha he mus in eg a e hese dimensions in o his p ojec . I is a s iking depa u e om his p e ious p ojec s, e en i mos o he elemen s can be aced back o ea ly wo ks. The Capi al seems o be a ca e ully cons uc ed sys em o opposi ions, a semio ic syn hesis o he empo al dimension o he ci y and, pe haps, he ul ima e syn hesis o he Œu e comple e. 6 Le Co busie , Le Modulo , Essai su une mesu e ha monique a l'echelle humaine applicable uni e sellemen a l'a chi ec u e e a la mecanique (1950). Followed by Le Co busie , Modulo 2: La pa ole es aux usage s (1955). Abou hese wo ks see: Ma eoni (1987:259). CHANDIGARH, THE INDIAN CITY OF LE CORBUSIER AND THE NOTION OF TIME 80 Re e ences ANNUAL o a chi ec u e, s uc u e and own planning, Pub. Co po a ion o India, Calcu a, 1960. CINCEI, Gio gio, "La poesie en casie ", in Le Co busie , une encyclopedie, Pa is: CCI, 1987. GIEDION, Sieg ied, Space, Time and A chi ec u e, 5 h edi ion, 1966. KUBLER, Geo ge, The Shape o ime, Rema ks on he his o y o hings, Yale Uni e si y P ess, New Ha en, Connec icu , 1962 (1973, Pa is: Ed. Champs Lib e). LE CORBUSIER, "Passé, p ésen e demain", Ma g, no4, 1948. LE CORBUSIER, Chandiga h, P ess con e ence o May 4, 1951, F.L.C. LE CORBUSIER, In o ma ions Comme ciales e Economiques de l'Inde, Janua y 26, 1952. F.L.C. LE CORBUSIER, Le Modulo , Essai su une mesu e ha monique a l'echelle humaine applicable uni e sellemen a l'a chi ec u e e a la mecanique, Boulogne: Ed. de l'A chi ec u e d'Aujou d'hui, 1950. LE CORBUSIER, Le passe a éac ion poé ique. Caisse Na ionale des Monumen s His o iques, 1988. LE CORBUSIER, Le e om Le Co busie o his mo he , Ma ch 2, 1951, F.L.C. LE CORBUSIER, Le e o M. F y and J. D ew, Decembe 1, 1950. F.L.C. p. 2-11. LE CORBUSIER, Minu es o a mee ing be ween P. Jeanne e , M. F y and J. D ew, Decembe 6, 1950. LE CORBUSIER, Modulo 2: La pa ole es aux usage s, Boulogne: Ed. de l'A chi ec u e d'Aujou d'hui, 1955. LE CORBUSIER, Œu e Comple e, Vol. 5 1946-52, Zu ich: Ve lag u A chi ek u , 1953. LE CORBUSIER, Œu e Comple e, Vol.8, 1965-69, Zu ich: Ed. A émis, 1970. LE CORBUSIER, Quand les ca héd ales é aien blanches, Ed. Plon, 1937. LE CORBUSIER, Su les 4 ou es, 1939, Pa is. LE CORBUSIER, Une encyclopédie, Pa is: CCI, 1987. LE CORBUSIER, U banisme, Pa is: Ed. C es, 1925. NEHRU, Jawaha lal, La P omesse enue, Pa is: L'Ha ma an, 1986. PAPILLAUT, Remi, "Les emps de l'u banisme, Toulouse le Mi ail", 1962-1972, Essay o Plan U bain, 1994. RÉMI PAPILLAULT 81 POST-MODERNITY AS A CULTURAL WEAPON PEDRO VIEIRA DE ALMEIDA 1)-Today’s idea o a cul u al “Globalisa ion” ep esen s a concep mainly coined wi h in a ne wo k o s ong poli ical in e es s aimed a he e ec i e cul u al con ol o he en i e plane . Though seldom a owed, ne e heless we could easily ga he some sound s a emen s ha seem o con i m o he alidi y o his in e p e a ion (Jameson; Leach; A gan; Said; Maalou ). 2)-Pa icula ly in he a chi ec u al ields, a skil ul s a agem unde lying he easoning ha suppo s he idea o a “Globalisa ion”, is he ambiguous way o unde s anding he his o ical pe iods conside ed, and he designa ions employed. The e o e, I hink i is use ul o eo ganise hem all, in o de o do away wi h much o he ambigui y (Le Go ; Nesbi ; Eisenman; Be s). 3)- Especially wi h some designa ions like “Mode n Mo emen ” which co e s di e en hings, and which has been al eady ecognised as being an “ambiguous umb ella”, allowing e e y in e p e a ion and sus ains e e y conclusion (Nesbi ). 4)-So conc e ely, I am p oposing he need o ead he e olu ion om he 15 h cen u y un il 20 h cen u y, di ided in wo main mode ni ies, which I belie e o be be e han o he s because hey a e se led mainly in social- economic ields. 5)-The i s one o be conside ed co e s all he pe iod om he Renaissance un il he end o he las cen u y, and i is conside ed he Mac o Pa adigm o An h opological Mode ni y. 6)-I includes he Mino Pa adigm o Sociological Mode ni y which is mo e speci ic and comes wi h peculia p oblems implied by he Indus ial Re olu ion. 7)-They bo h include se e al main pe iods and some o he mic o pe iods like mode nism and pos -mode nism which a e p ecisely ha : mo emen s o ally in eg a ed on he G ea Pa adigms conside ed be o e. 8)-Ne e heless he 21 h cen u y assis s o he bi h o Pos Mode ni y, which co esponds o ano he Mac o 82 PEDRO VIEIRA DE ALMEIDA Pa adigm, ha spli s ou all p inciples s uc u ing he Pa adigms exis en un il hen. 9) Besides, Pos Mode ni y implies a new cul u al consciousness me ged wi h a s ong poli ical consciousness sp ead all o e he wo ld. 10)- T ying o be awa e o his new demanding e a is pe haps he i s s ep, a big one, in o de o oppose he idea o a p oc us ean and s e ilising “Globalisa ion”. 1)- Today we can easily ind almos e e ywhe e ex s e e ing o a “Globalisa ion” as a no ion ha is sel -e iden and in some way ineluc able. Howe e , I am con inced ha his is no an nai concep bu i co esponds o an idea mainly coined in a ne wo k o e y s ong and well-de ined poli ical in e es s. As such, “Globalisa ion” co esponds o an agg essi e weapon in he ield o cul u e. O cou se his is my own iew on he ma e bu we could ind many o he opinions suppo ing ha s a emen . We could quo e om Edwa d Said who in 78 unde lies “ ha poli ical impe ialism ies o con ol all academic esea ch, all imagina i e s udies”, o exp esses he idea ha we lack a gene al s udy abou “impe ialism and cul u e” (Said, 2004:15). We could quo e as well om F ed ic Jameson who in 84 w i es ha Pos -mode n cul u e in ac co esponds o a new e o o he Uni ed S a es o ule he plane economically and mili a ily (Jameson, 1991[1984]:19). We could quo e om Mon ane who mo e ecen ly unde lied ha since he hi ies, No h Ame ican cul u al poli ics has ied o con ol he cul u al and a is ic p oduc ion all o e he wo ld (Mon ane , 2001:13). And so on. Had we ime enough we could quo e as well om Neil Leach (2005), om Amin Maalou (2002) and many o he s. 2)- Speci ically in he a chi ec u al ields, a skil ul s a agem is used o suppo 83 POST-MODERNITY AS A CULTURAL WEAPON he idea o an una oidable “Globalisa ion”, ying o ans o m His o y in o a u ile exe cise, as he his o ian Jacques Le Go (1982:72) e e s, o changing as a as possible cul u al e e ences, blu ing he bo de s be ween pe iods o e olu ion in his o y and ende ing ambiguous o senseless all pe iods p e iously de ined. O cou se his can be used as a ool o an imp o ed his o ical unde s anding as Jacques Le Go has done by p oposing o ex end he Middle Ages un il he19 h cen u y as a con inuous e olu ion. I is easy o unde s and how his co esponds o a p oposi ion ha de e mines new pa hs o esea ch and new global in e p e a ions in he ways o conside ing His o y. Ne e heless oday’s pseudo “a gumen s” a e used as an oppo unis ic ool wis ing and pe e ing any in e p e a ion, in o de o each ce ain poli ical objec i es. Neil Leach ad e s ha we a e li ing in a ime when i is possible o ame and dis o “ u h” in o de o alida e he my hs o His o y (Leach, 2005[1999]:40). Finally we lea n om Paul Be s how a ce ain ci cles and in e es s a e decided o go jus o each ha aim o wis ing His o y (Be s, 2009: 200). 3)-This is especially so wi h ce ain designa ions such as “Mode n Mo emen ” which co e s di e en hings, wha has been al eady ecognised as being an “ambiguous umb ella”, allows e e y in e p e a ion and sus ains e e y conclusion (Nesbi , 1996: 12). Cha les Jenks in 85 had denounced he lack o c i ical eliabili y o hese kinds o designa ions (Jenks, 1985:11). 4)- Tha ’s he eason why I hink ha , as a as a chi ec u e is conce ned, he a emp o e-analyze he issue o mo e ope a i e pe iods in His o y is an impo an s ep o ake. Conc e ely, I would like o p opose he need o eo ganise he his o ical e olu ion om he Renaissance un il he end o 20 h cen u y, di ided in wo 84 main pe iods o Mode ni ies ha a e pa ially supe imposed bu ha I suppose mo e wa an ed han o he s because hey a e se led mainly in social-economic ields. 5)-The i s one o be conside ed co e s gene ically he whole pe iod and is he Mac o Pa adigm o An h opological Mode ni y. This means ha men ha e ceased o hink abou hemsel es as a consequence o me aphysical concep ions (in his pe iod Rome would be he Capu Mundi). F om now on slowly bu i mly, men a e he eal cen e o any specula ion, and he concep ion o God is in ac a eal consequence o ou ideas abou ou sel es (Almeida, 2005). 6)-Though in he second hal o his pe iod, wi h he economic and social p oblems ha a ise om he Indus ial Re olu ion, he speci ic ans o ma ion o li e condi ions o ces us o conside a new Mode ni y which is o ally in eg a ed in he p eceding pe iod, ende ing i mo e accu a e. Tha one is a pe iod we could name he Mino Pa adigm o Sociological Mode ni y ( om now on Pa is becomes he Capu Mundi) (Almeida, 2005). 7)-They bo h include mic o pe iods like Mode nism and Pos -mode nism which, independen ly o hei quali ies and gene al me i s, a e no hing bu p o essional mo emen s de ining speci ic pa hs o esea ch, like many o he s ha ha e occu ed du ing he long pe iod o Mode ni ies. 8)- In he 20 h cen u y, especially a e Wo ld Wa II, we can enume a e se e al a emp s o ans o m New Yo k in o he capi al o cul u e (NY Capu Mundi) (Almeida, 2005). 9)- Anyway, in he 21 h cen u y we also wi ness he bi h o he Mac o Pa adigm o he Pos Mode ni y. PEDRO VIEIRA DE ALMEIDA 85 This ep esen s a ai ly new cul u al ci cums ance. No mo e a wo ld cen alised cul u e, no mo e pe iphe al coun ies, no mo e guiding ci ies and angua ds meaning wo ld wide alues. 10)- We can say ha his Mac o-Pa adigm disin eg a es ho oughly he Pa adigms exis en un il hen, which means ha now i is sp ead all o e he wo ld, and ha a new cul u al consciousness which e uses o acknowledge any coun y o any ci y he legi imacy o claiming o be he cul u al global leade s all o e he plane . 11)- O cou se his new Mac o Pa adigm o Pos Mode ni y means a s ong cul u al consciousness bu i ep esen s a s ong poli ical consciousness as well. Bo h o hem a e absolu ely necessa y o oppose he idea o a p oc us ean and s e ilising “Globalisa ion”. 12)- To cope wi h his new e a – I belie e a big and decisi e one-- is pe haps he i s s ep, o be done o es ablish a new and mo e sui able ame wo k in o de imp o e esea ch on hose ma e s. Acknowledgmen s This a icle was comple ed in 2010 as pa o he p ojec The ‘Popula A chi ec u e in Po ugal’: a c i i- cal look (FCT: PTDC/AUR-AQI/099063: COMPETE: FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-008832). POST-MODERNITY AS A CULTURAL WEAPON 86 Re e ences AGREST, Diana and Gandelsonas, Ma io, “Semio ics and A chi ec u e. Ideological consump ion o heo e ical wo k” in Theo izing a New Agenda o A chi ec u e. An An hology o A chi ec u al Theo y. 1965- 1995. Ka e Nesbi , Edi o . New Yo k: P ince on A chi ec u al P ess, 1996 (1973). ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, “A qui ec u a e Iden idade” in A e e Iden idade - in e e um po in e e um, nº 2, Po o: ESAP, 2006. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, Da Teo ia. Oi o Lições. Po o: ESAP, 2005. ARGAN, Giulio Ca lo, His ó ia da A e como His ó ia da Cidade. S. Paulo: Ed. Ma ins Fon es, 1998. BETTS, Paul, “The Bauhaus as a Cold Wa Weapon. An Ame ican-Ge man join en u e” in The Bauhaus Con li s 1919-2009. Con o e sies and Coun e pa s. Os ilde n: Ha je Can z Ve lag, 2009. CANIZARO, Vincen B., Edi o , A chi ec u al Regionalism. Collec ed W i ings on Place, Mode ni y, and T adi ion. New Yo k: P ince on A chi ec u al P ess, 2007. JAMESON, F ed ic, El posmode nismo o la lógica cul u al del capi alismo a anzado. Ba celona: Edi o ial Paidós, 1991 (1984). JENKS, Cha les, Mode n Mo emen s in A chi ec u e. In oduc ion o he 2ª edi ion. Penguin Books, 1985. LE GOFF, Jacques, Re lexões sob e a His ó ia. Lisboa: Edições 70, 1982. LEACH, Neil, A Anes é ica da A qui ec u a. Lisboa: An ígona, 2005 (1999). MAALOUF, Amin, As Iden idades Assassinas. Mi a lo es: Di el, 1999. MONTANER, Josep Ma ia, Depois do Mo imen o Mode no. Ba celona: Gus a o Gili, 2001. NESBITT, Ka e, (Edi o ), Theo izing a New Agenda o A chi ec u e. An An hology o A chi ec u al Theo y. 1965-1995. New Yo k: P ince on A chi ec u al P ess, 1996. SAID, Edwa d, O ien alismo. Rep esen ações Ociden ais do O ien e. Lisboa: Li os Co o ia, 2004. PEDRO VIEIRA DE ALMEIDA 87 COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES ZOLTÁN BUN Se e al con empo a y a chi ec s ha e u ned o Mies an de Rohe while hey a e dealing wi h eal p ojec s and no wi h he goal o building a pu e heo e ical edi ice: Pe e Eisenman and Daniel Libeskind on a adical o mal basis, and Rem Koolhaas and Be na d Tschumi on a p og amma ic one. These p ac ices we e ci cling a ound Eisenman om he ‘70s in he jou nal o Opposi ions o he ‘90s in he ANY con e ences. Now we a e going o in es iga e only Eisenman and Koolhaas in de ail, hei wo k om 1985 o 2000. The ques ion is wha do hey wan om Mies and why do hey e e o him speci ically? To e eal his ela ionship le me in oduce he e m ‘cul u e o in e p e a ion’ in which I place he meneu ics, decons uc ion o di e ence philosophy—and Hans-Geo g Gadame , Jacques De ida, Gilles Deleuze o F ed ic Jameson— nex o each o he , being awa e o he p oblems o his blu ing. The cul u e o in e p e a ion o he he meneu ics as he ’a o unde s anding’ o igina es in he shaken ai h o uni e sal eason o o scien i ic causal explana ions. I is scep ical abou domina ing he wo ld by a inal o basic p inciple which hen canno be conside ed as an opposi ion o (me aphysical) spi i and (scien i ic) ma e ial. I is he model o openness and eedom which means ha his kind o indi idual 94 con ex , a ic i ious his o y o he si e was s udied: he g ound le el o ms o oo p in s o Mies’s wo owe s we e supe imposed on each o he (by he digi al echnique o mo phing) and hen he op plan was o a ed o o he base plan. Fo Koolhaas he basic p oblem was wo old: on he one hand he wan ed o c i icize he a chi ec u al exhibi ions which deg ade he discipline elimina ing he dispu e abou i s complexi y o ela ionships; his ends in a quasi- o ake- a chi ec u e since he ins alla ions un ied a chi ec u e om eal asks like clien s, use o echnology. The o he side o he p oblem was ha Koolhaas’s p ojec was con empo a y wi h he ebuilding o Mies’s Ba celona Pa ilion, which had been des oyed mo e han i y yea s be o e, and Koolhaas wasn’ able o di e en ia e i om a Disney-ac . So he wo h eads became one in he designa ed oom in Milan in he o m o ‘an exhibi abou exhibi ion’, o , using Eisenman’s wo ds, in he o m o ‘ he sign o he sign’. Thus he Ba celona Pa ilion was econs uc ed inside he palazzo and since he oom was cu ed he Pa ilion also needed o be ZOLTÁN BUN Figu e 3. Ba celona Pa ilion econs uc ion plan o Koolhaas. (OMA, 1988:7). 95 cu ed. Wha is mo e, Koolhaas’s O ice o Me opoli an A chi ec u e c ea ed an a e li e ic ion o a ake my hology o he Pa ilion as i i had no been pulled down a e i s hal -yea -li e in he 1929 Wo ld Exhibi ion. This i iolic s o y o he non-usable quasi-building was also exhibi ed in he cu ed pa ilion by a massi e mul imedia-se . A i s sigh hese wo p ojec s, he skysc ape and he pa ilion, a e li e ally he wis ing o Mies; hey seem o be banal and exis o hei own sake. Bu h ough hei pu e concep ion and he didac ic mani es a ion o i we can see clea ly a leas h ee impo an hings: Fi s ly, he so-called au ho is eally dead as we we e awa e o i . The ee in e p e a ions ma k bo h he unique aspec s o Eisenman and Koolhaas and, a he same ime, ma k he shi ing emphasis om hei names as au ho s, o a he as mis eade s, o hei p ojec s as ex s. Fu he mo e he wo a chi ec s ha e a p opensi y o linking hei own concep s oge he om ime o ime. Eisenman used Le Co busie ’s Venice Hospi al plan in his Canna egio plan, whe e his ea lie house model was impo ed oo, and hen he whole plan was ans e ed o Pa is o a lo in he Pa c de la Ville e whe e co-au ho s we e Jacques De ida and Tschumi. Also, Koolhaas likes o p opaga e his as onishing idea o use he plans, ha is he shape and s uc u e, o a Du ch amily house o he Casa Musica in Po o which p ocess i s in he se ies o expe imen s o o ganizing space by he spi al. Bu hey a e jus ollowing hei a he ’s oo s eps as Mies con inuously de eloped his concep s, based on he ela ionship be ween ee space and s uc u al o ma ion, bo h in he ea ly Eu opean houses and in he public buildings in Ame ica. Secondly, mode n unc ion became a subo dina e ac o in bo h cases unde he ex uali y o concep o a chi ec u al discipline. And inally, o ell he na a i e o he concep o he skysc ape -clone and he pa ilion-clone, Eisenman used he compu e o do he mo phing and o make he p ocess o design anspa en , while Koolhaas communica ed by media- ansmission, h ough images, ideos, oices and suchlike. So imma e ial high COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES 96 echnology and ic i ious concep s based on eali y we e empha ically combined o e eal, wi h in ended c i icism, he na u e o con empo a y image-based cul u e, which is unambiguous, ep esen a ional and no hing mo e han wha we see on he su ace. *** The di ec app oach is abou he ques ion o e icali y and i deals wi h he concep o Figu e s. G ound. The na a i e ame is he compe i ion o c ea ing a new cen e o he IIT campus in Chicago in 1997; Koolhaas’s p oposal won and i was comple ed in 2004. Eisenman used an analogy o begin hinking abou Mies’s mas e plan and he ela ionship be ween his and a new building: his example was he 70- on s eel cube o Richa d Se a, which was placed on he podium o Mies’s Neue ZOLTÁN BUN Figu e 4. Se a’s cube as ‘ igu e’ made bo h he Miesian glass-edi ice and i s podium a ‘g ound’. D awing o he au ho . Figu e 5. Ho izon ali y o he IIT campus: he buildings belong o he g ound. D awing o he au ho . 97 Na ionalgale ie in Be lin in 1977. I was no enough o Se a o con as he massi e and hea y ma e iali y o he cube wi h Mies’s en i ely anspa en edi ice, so one edge o he cube was sunk h ee inches5 in o he pa emen , which is he oo o he eal galle y space pa ly unde he g ound. Acco ding o Eisenman his ac , des abilizing he solid s eel olume and playing wi h g a i y, leads o he ques ioning o he adi ional igu e/g ound con lic ing ela ionship. In his aspec he cube ew i es he o iginal Miesian ela ionship be ween he glass edi ice and he supposedly basic podium o i , c ea ing a igu e/g ound ela ionship be ween he sculp u e and i s a i icial con ex , making bo h he edi ice and he podium a g ound. Then, in he IIT campus mas e plan, he e is a so-called ho izon al dominance in es iga ed by Eisenman. He sees he campus as a kind o solid mass ha con ains bo h he g ound and he building blocks. They a e inco po a ed wi h he ‘ oidness’ o signi ying absence h ough he o ma ion o he co ne s. We should see his mis eading o Eisenman as a con inuous in es iga ion om he c uci o m shape o he column o he Ba celona Pa ilion. In Chicago, I hink, he concep is like he d awing o mul is able igu es, he ase s. ace, in which he wo coun e poin s ge meaning acco ding o he iewe . A chi ec u ally i can be conside ed as a shi om he opposi ion o igu e/g ound o he a achmen o a igu e/ igu e o ma ion. The IIT-p oposal wan s o be a c i ique o Mies’s idealism acco ding o Eisenman. He says ha he aim is ‘ o b ing he pas [ ha is a his o ical g ound] in o a c i ical p esen [as igu e], o see Mies in a manne ha has been ep essed by his own mode nis con ex ’.6 By ‘ igu ing’ bo h he his o ical and physical g ound he p ojec does no wan o hu he objec s o he campus sys em bu ies o ee hem om hei mode nis idealism. So he e is no his o icism, no o mal challenge, no o iginali y (as a igu e/g ound 5 App oxima ely 7,62 cm. 6 P ojec desc ip ion by Eisenman (Da idson, 2006:260). COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES 98 Figu e 6. Eisenman’s p oposal o he new cen e o he IIT campus. (Da idson, 2006:262). ZOLTÁN BUN 99 ela ion) and he e is no edi ice. Al hough Eisenman wan s, by e aming o by e- con ex ualizing he campus, o igno e he domina ing and hus ideal ho izon al plane, ‘ igu ing’ bo h g ound and unde g ound would a he emphasize i . Fu he mo e, as I see, dis o ing he o e all igid g id wi h an in ini e opological ne ecalls mo e o alizing p inciples: he idea o an a chi ec u e ha is able o sol e he p oblems o he campus by o malism and he idea o ‘ opology’ ha is he di ec mani es a ion o o m o he hyb id, ne wo ked o hizoma ic model o ou own e a. The keywo d o Koolhaas was he lapida y. I means he e ha all he apho isms o Mies, like ‘Less is Mo e’, on he one hand ca e ully hide his eal in en ions by hei simplici y and anspa ency, and on he o he , because o his so-called easy-unde s anding, hey become dogma ic co ne s ones la e . Since Mies ne e ‘explained’ himsel excep in he mos lapida y e ms i is ( oo) easy o mis ead him, so Koolhaas asks i ‘Mies is o blame o his own mis eading’?7 And o cou se, as Eisenman did, Koolhaas epea s his heo e ic app oach as a isual commonplace. As usual, he wis s and u ns he in e io wi h amps, ele a ed slabs and s ai s, acco ding o he p e-exis ing oo pa hs on he si e, and makes unde g ound exca a ions a ound Mies’s Commons Building jus o un: o see he ounda ions o he old building om he es au an ’s e ace. Bu he e is ano he aspec he e, o which Kolhaas is awa e, as we saw in connec ion wi h he pa ilion o he Ba celona Pa ilion, ha is he p oblem o a so-called monumen . He chose he si e nex o he Commons Building, in opposi ion o Eisenman who p e e ed a mo e neu al one; Koolhaas ea ed he exis ing building as a g ound ha can be buil on o and no as an un ouchable objec o monumen om he i ies. This ‘un ouchabili y’ would be a away om Mies’s 7 He con inues as ollows: ‘Mies’s usion o he sublime and he gene ic/ ea u eless in o a new hyb id was a o m o alchemy, a labo a o y expe imen ha could ne e be duplica ed by o he s. Is he magician esponsible o he lack o in elligence o his belie e s? Could Mies ha e a oided he endless ep oduc ion o he Box ha , in he 60s and 70s, h ea ened o ake he essence o he o iginal in an a alanche o ep oduc ion, o gi e he o iginal a bad name? Did he send us unknowingly o ou medioc i y?’ (Koolhaas, 2004:189). COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES 100 in en ion o hos any p og am o change in his buildings. A he same ime he exca a ion akes us close o a li e ally deepe eading o Mies: o unde s and ha swindle s uc u e which hides he undesi able unde he g ound o make ‘The less is mo e’ a chi ec u e abo e. So he concep o Eisenman sugges s ha Mies’s o e g ound igu es a e one and he same wi h hei unde g ound coun e pa s, while Koolhaas whispe s ha Mies was a chea e who made quasi li ed up low- ise buildings in he campus in which any unc ion can be housed by he column- ee, opened in e io . Bu he in e io s o bo h new p oposals a e di e en ia ed p og amma ically and o mally, which makes a g ea noise beside Mies’s silence. A he same ime hey a e cau ious o ‘Almos no hing’ on, o , o e he g ound. *** Figu e 7. Mies’s Commons Building su ounded by he new s uden cen e o Koolhaas in he IIT campus. Pho o om Flick . ZOLTÁN BUN 101 We s a ed om denying he uni e sal di ec i es o abs ac ideologies, which also exis oday in he o m o pu e digi ally i ual u opia-cons uc ions o ha o sus ainable dogmas. The concep s illus a ed abo e wan o escape om hem by a kind o indi idualizing o a he ‘singula izing’ na u e. He e, ins ead o his o ians o c i ics, a chi ec s w i e hei own c i ical o sel -c i ical a chi ec u al his o y, placing hei a he s’ image nex o hei own. Hence he lines o hough o Eisenman and Koolhaas a e no his o ical eadings, bu gene a i e in e p e a ions. They u n o Mies because in his wo ks he mode n Zei geis did no appea in o malis aes he ics, bu coded in he cons uc ion echnology.8 The p ojec s o Mies we e no exiled in o u opias bu ied o o e come p ac ical li e. The meaning was no los he e bu ec ea ed in he cons uc ing sys em, in he so-called build- up o he concep . This in oduces a kind o au onomy o he discipline oo ed in he s uc u al and concep ual ules o a chi ec u al his o y as he Miesian spaces and o ms a e independen o any con en —speci ic unc ion, p og am o e en — hus hey canno be explained by a ‘ unc ionalism’. The cons uc i e and pa ly ‘ adi ional’, pa ly ‘p og essi e’ app oach o Mies mi o s, o ies o ‘a ac ’, his con adic ion. I ends in he duali y o neu al ex e io and conges ed in e io , wi h Koolhaas p e e ing he ypical o a ypical, as does Tschumi by simply en eloping luxing e en s. This means ha bo h a chi ec s, like Mies, exhibi ci y li e h ough he ‘la ge glass’. Meanwhile Eisenman uses a seman ic colou scheme o show he aces o he concep ual s uc u e o his A ono building9 which hen becomes a ansc ip ion o he a chi ec onic ma e ial scheme o Mies’s Ba celona Pa ilion. The ‘making o a chi ec u e’ appea s also a Libeskind, in a simila manne o he Miesian one, in he o m o e ealing he 8 As Ta u i and dal Co w o e abou i : ‘ he building was p esen ed in he absolu e schema o i s own echnical na u e. As cons uc ion, i does no speak o o mal o de s; only pe ec adhe ence o he p oduc i e sys em can gua an ee ha he linguis ic educ ion does no i sel become a s yle.’ (Ta u i-Dal Co, 1980:153-154). 9 A ono Cen e o Design and A a he Uni e si y o Cincinna i, Ohio, 1988-96. COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES 102 con lic be ween (classical) c a smanship and (mode n) s anda diza ion: as Mies simul aneously admi ed ha we canno sa is y he needs o a mass socie y wi h medie al means and ied o make such a (neo-classical) c a smanship-quali y10, Libeskind c ea ed a comple ely handmade, ha is indi idual, eading machine bu had o make indus ially a (copying) w i ing machine o a chi ec u e.11 The sophis ica ed, o le ’s say au onomous, handling o Mies’s ma e ials and s uc u es lead Libeskind o dedica e his Ci y Edge p ojec o he ‘ a he ’ o he ou a chi ec s. Each o he buildings o he ou au ho s is simul aneously mo e, as he space and he iewe a e guided, di ec ed and con olled, and much less, as ‘embodying he 10 See Mies’s essay ‘Baukuns und Zei wille’ [A chi ec u e and Time] om 1924. Sho e sion in De See Mies’s essay ‘Baukuns und Zei wille’ [A chi ec u e and Time] om 1924. Sho e sion in De Sho e sion in De Que schni 1924/4. Ex ended e sion in (Neumeye , 1986:303-306). 11 Th ee Lessons in A chi ec u e. The Pilg image o Absolu e A chi ec u e (Libeskind, 1992: 37-45). Th ee Lessons in A chi ec u e. The Pilg image o Absolu e A chi ec u e (Libeskind, 1992: 37-45). The essay was i s published in 1985. Figu e 8. Daniel Libeskind: ‘Ne e is he cen e: Mies an de Rohe Memo ial’ o he Ci y Edge p ojec , Be lin, 1988. (Papadakis, Cooke, Benjamin, 1989: 202). ZOLTÁN BUN 103 absolu e absence’, han he Miesians. On he one hand he spi ally in e wea ing slabs o Koolhaas, he ho e ing b idges o Tschumi, he in-be ween alleys o Eisenman su ounded by column-g ids and he e ical and ho izon al oids o Libeskind a e all e e ence sys ems which, on he o he hand, hanks o hei complica ed o chao ic delinea ion, do no hold he seconda y classicali y o monumen ali y any mo e. They sea ch o he disciplina y con e gence o speci ici y somewhe e else—maybe be aying he mode a e Mies wi h a mo e sensa ionalis o didac ic me hod o exploi ing he idea o mode n chaos. While Eisenman mis eads Mies as ‘ ex ’ (agains he his o ical Mies-image) and Koolhaas as a hidden essence behind apho isms (agains con empo a y exhaus ion o he using up o Mies), hey a e alking abou he same p oblem and— om his poin o iew—wi h he same a i ude, no ma e i he p oduc is o malis o ypical. Meanwhile Mies is being ‘mode nized’ o upda ed: his ha mony, simplici y, anspa en anspa ency, a ionali y gains new meaning h ough dis o ing and indi idualizing. So Mies is he p ac ical o igin and Mies is he heo e ical goal: bu isn’ his coun e -a ac ion oo much o an in e p e a ion? COUNTER-ATTRACTION, OR, HOW TO MIES-READ ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY FOR OUR OWN PURPOSES 110 The link o geog aphy and an h opology I was p ecisely he eam leade o zone 2, Lixa Filguei as, who, in 1986, makes a new con ibu ion o wha we know o he an eceden s o he su ey, pa icula ly in ela ion o he an h opological and geog aphical ields which came o in luence he wo k ca ied ou by he eams assigned o he no he n zones o he su ey. Filguei as o e s a desc ip ion o he cul u al en ou age exis en a he ime in he Escola de Belas A es do Po o [Opo o Fine A s School], di ec ed by Ca los Ramos, who was in cha ge o selec ing he membe s o he eams assigned o he no he n zones. A he ime, O lando Ribei o had held a se ies o mas e classes in ha school and accompanied he s uden s on a ip wi h he pu pose o comple ing he ield wo k o hei class. O lando Ribei o was he geog aphe who published Po ugal, o Medi e âneo e o A lân ico [Po ugal, Medi e anean and A lan ic] (1945), a ema kable po ayal o he coun y which in luenced he geog aphical di ision o he coun y in o six zones o he pu poses o he su ey (Olle o, 2001). La e , he same s uden s pa icipa ed in he ieldwo k and su eys in he no h o he coun y, and also collabo a ed wi h he eam o Jo ge Dias, he mos impo an Po uguese an h opologis , o he ime, wo king on he ma e ial ha he had made collec ed. Filguei as (1986) adds ha ano he immedia e consequence o hese in luences was ha o he i s ime, a disse a ion on a chi ec u al heo y was accep ed o he comple ion o a deg ee in A chi ec u e. Ti led ‘U banism: A Ru al Theme’, he wo k was de ended by Filguei as in 1954 and esul ed in his selec ion as coo dina o o he eam assigned o zone 2 o he su ey. Following in he oo s eps o Lixa Filguei as, A naldo A aújo, ano he membe o zone 2 eam, p esen ed in 1957 he “ he second di e en hesis”, add essing he issue o u al habi a (Filguei as, 1986). I is based on his wo k ha Ped o Viei a de Almeida and Ma ia Helena Maia (1986) aw a en ion o he ac ha i is p ecisely A naldo A aújo who, oge he ALEXANDRA CARDOSO AND MARIA HELENA MAIA 111 wi h Viana de Lima, Fe nando Tá o a and Filguei as, will launch an in eg a ed s udy o an ag icul u al communi y in T ás-os-Mon es, which was p esen ed by he CIAM eam om Po o a he Ten h Cong ess in Dub o nik in 1958. Ana Tos ões (1997[1994]:165) highligh s he impo ance o his wo k, di ec ly connec ing i o he ongoing su ey “ o he e ision o in e na ional me hod condensa e in he app oach o he au hen ic o ms o li e as an inspi a ion o a chi ec u e”. Fo Manuel Mendes (1987), he app oach o he su ey by bo h eams assigned o he no h is cha ac e ised by a mo e an h opological and less unc ionalis ision o space and o a chi ec u al o ms. La e , he will de end ha “… he epo adop s a e i o ial app oach o ms o se lemen and li e-s yles b ough abou by he ake-o e o space: land, buil en i onmen , buildings” (Mendes, 1990). This cha ac e isa ion, howe e , is one ha Ped o Viei a de Almeida and Alexand a Ca doso speci ically es ic o he analysis done by he zone 2 eam in he egion o T ás-os-Mon es, an analysis ha “la gely hinged on e hnological app oach”. The au ho s also conside ha his wo k is he “ he iches and mos comple e o he whole su ey‘” (Almeida and Ca doso, 2002). The ela ions wi h he poli ical egime The inal p ess p oo o A qui ec u a Popula em Po ugal was p esen ed o Salaza himsel , and he was pa icula ly in e es ed in he esul s o he su ey conduc ed by he A chi ec s’ Union. In ac , acco ding o Nuno Po as (1978), “a cu ious coincidence o misunde s andings o alse p e ences” ha e con ibu ed decisi ely o he achie emen o he su ey. While he go e nmen belie ed his ac ion would ein o ce he aspec s o Po ugueseness in na ional a chi ec u e, he a chi ec s in ended ins ead o “ ap an explosi e documen a y” which would demons a e he exis ence o as many ‘ adi ions’ as he e we e egions. The same idea is con eyed in he p e ace o he 2nd edi ion o A qui ec u a TRADITION AND MODERNITY. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SURVEY ON REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE 112 Popula em Po ugal (Di ecção da AAP, 1979), u he ein o cing he claim ha he equi oca ion ha e been in en ionally kep by he a chi ec s o ensu e he con inua ion o inancial suppo om he go e nmen , c ucial o he implemen a ion o he p ojec . The same ex also cla i ies he ole o F ancisco Keil do Ama al, who launched he idea o he su ey and gi en a decisi e impe us o i s ealisa ion when he was p esiden o he A chi ec s’ Union. Acco ding o hese au ho s, due o he s a e o dis epai o many o he su eyed s uc u es, Keil el a g ea sense o u gency in he comple ion o he su ey and he egis e ing o he coun y’s e nacula a chi ec u e. A he same ime, Keil also conside ed ha his su ey would cons i u e an impo an ins umen by which o debunk he my h o a single “na ional s yle” (Di ecção da AAP, 1979). Following he all o he poli ical egime in 1974, he e is a ma ked inc ease in he in e p e a ions o he su ey as an ac o esis ance agains he a chi ec u al imposi ions o he egime. In ac , he e y no ion ha he egime held some so o ‘a chi ec u al con ol’ is no consensual. Following Ped o Viei a de Almeida’s discussion on his poin , he exis ence o he imposi ion o a speci ic a chi ec u al language by he Salaza egime has been ques ioned (Almeida and Maia, 1986; Almeida, 2004). This au ho a gues ha he idea o a “na ional s yle o s yles”, as imposed by he go e nmen , cons i u es a basic misunde s anding o he Inqué i o. Acco ding o Viei a de Almeida, he disco e y o di e si y and he absence o speci ic aspec s o Po uguese a chi ec u e is a di ec consequence o he ac ha he eams depa ed o ield wo k “mili an ly willing o ead his di e si y, e e y hing ha in he na ional e i o y was i egula and disjoin ed”. This is he a i ude ha he p e ace o he 2nd edi ion o A qui ec u a Popula em Po ugal legi imises his o ically h ough he “delibe a e and ci cums an ial s a egy o coun e an alleged o icial in e p e a ion” (Almeida, 2008:108). ALEXANDRA CARDOSO AND MARIA HELENA MAIA 113 The me hodology The me hodological issue is one o he p oblema ic aspec s o he su ey and, in addi ion o he con en s o i s published esul s, one o he aspec s ha has ecei ed leas schola ly a en ion, since mos ex s a e limi ed o me ely desc ibing ac ual aspec s o he su ey and analysing i s an eceden s and consequences. Indeed, Viei a de Almeida (1986) is he i s au ho o ocus on he su ey i sel , highligh ing he issue o a o al absence o common me hodology among he su ey eams. This will be con i med by Nuno Teo ónio Pe ei a (1987), one o he eam leade s, in he p e ace o he hi d edi ion o A qui ec u a Popula em Po ugal. In con as , while ecognising he di e si y o esul s, Ana Tos ões (1997[1994]:160), basing he a gumen on a documen allegedly w i en by Keil do Ama al, a gues o he exis ence o a p io plan and guidelines common o all g oups, “in o de o ensu e he uni y o he wo k.” These guidelines we e based on he ecogni ion o : “cu en ma e ials and p ocesses in he cons uc ion (…), u ban s uc u ing (…), wea he in luences(…), in luence o he economic (…), in luences o he social o ganisa ion (...), habi s, p ac ices and o he condi ioning ac o s (…) and exp ession and plas ic alue o he buildings and he u ban se lemen ” (Keil do Ama al quo ed in Olle o, 2001). La e , Rod igo Olle o (2001) makes e e ence o ye ano he documen , which, acco ding o him is also by Keil do Ama al. The documen consis s o he ou line o a le e , w i en o he eams o he no h, which, acco ding o Olle o, “ e eals a misunde s anding be ween he eams o he no h and o he sou h abou how he wo k should be done, especially abou he dimension and capaci y o wha hey had o do i , in a way e y di e en om he one ha ended up being made”. Indeed, Manuel Mendes (1987 has de ended ha he wo k o he eams in he no h was di e en ia ed by a ca e ul app oach o spa ial alues, al hough we ha e doub s as o whe he his was ac ually a decision aken by he eams, o whe he his is he au ho ’s own in e p e a ion. TRADITION AND MODERNITY. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SURVEY ON REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE 114 The consequences o he su ey Unde s ood om he beginning as being able o p o ide “ he basis o an hones , ac i e and heal hy egionalism” (Ama al, 1945), he su ey had a g ea in luence on he de elopmen o a chi ec u al cul u e in Po ugal. Unde aken a a his o ical u ning-poin , bo h na ional and in e na ionally, when he c i ical e iew o some o he p inciples o he mode n mo emen , he su ey will allow mode n a chi ec s o eco e na ional his o y and adi ion, which “ he a chi ec s began o use mo e eely, wi hou eeling hey a e be aying he basic p inciples o mode n a chi ec u e, some adi ional elemen s ha we e p e iously conside ed unclean and he e o e p osc ibed ...” (Pe ei a, 2000). Indeed, a e he su ey comes a " hi d way" (Po as, 1961) which uses adi ion in he cons uc ion o mode ni y. Commonly ci ed examples o his hi d way a e he house o O i , by Fe nando Tá o a (Po as, 1961), he house o A onso Ba bosa and HICA’s2 inns by Januá io Godinho (Po as, 1978; Tos ões, 1997[1994]), he house o Ruben A., by João And esen (Tos ões, 1997). Simila ly, he a chi ec u al wo ks o Viana de Lima (Fe nandez, 1988 [1985]; Almeida and Maia, 1986), Nuno Teo ónio Pe ei a, Nuno Po as, Ál a o Siza and many o he s a e also iden i ied as ep esen a i e o his hi d way. On he o he hand, Manuel Mendes s a ed ha he s udy o e nacula a chi ec u e has b ough a new equilib ium “ ha had been de o med by he echnological enligh enmen o he Mode n Mo emen : he ha mony be ween space, a chi ec u e and he li e o he inhabi an s, he ela ion be ween ans o ma ion p oposals and he exis ing landscape” (Mendes, 1990). The a ionalism, unc ionali y and connec ion wi h he landscape ound by he a chi ec s in adi ional egional a chi ec u e had a decisi e in luence in he di ec ions aken by subsequen Po uguese a chi ec u e. 2 HICA is he way in which he Hyd oelec ic o Cá ado is e e ed o. ALEXANDRA CARDOSO AND MARIA HELENA MAIA 115 Howe e , he way in which hey buil mode ni y in di ec liaison wi h adi ion can a y. Acco ding o Nuno Po as (1978), he e a e di e ences o in e p e a ion be ween he su ey eams, “one mo e cul u al, mo e ins umen al o ac ical, he o he ” ha “announce he spli , ha du ing he 1960s ... di ided he suppo e s o CIAM om he c i ics o CIAM”, a di ision ha will come in o ocus p ecisely on he ela ionship be ween adi ion and mode ni y and in he di e en manne s in which i was unde s ood. Sé gio Fe nandez no iced in 1985 ha ano he consequence o he su ey was he in e es gene a ed among he s uden s o Escola Supe io de Belas A es do Po o (ESBAP), which had as eache s he leade s and o he pa icipan s o eams o he no he n zones. This si ua ion had pedagogical e ec s (Fe nandez, 1988[1985]). The in e es in issues ela ed o u al housing came o be e lec ed in he p esen a ion o se e al heses, like hose o José Dias and Sé gio Fe nandez on communi ies in B agança and ha o José Fo jaz abou a illage in he Alen ejo (Almeida and Ca doso, 2002). Mo eo e , his expe ience would be expo ed o Mozambique, whe e José Dias and José Fo jaz had impo an echnical and adminis a i e esponsibili ies in go e nmen and An ónio Quad os, a pain e and poe who also hailing om ESBAP, exe ed a unanimously ecognised cul u al in luence. Ped o Viei a de Almeida and Alexand a Ca doso (2002) e en sugges ed he hypo hesis ha “ his mul i- unc ional app oach wi h an h opological and e hnog aphic oo s” had come o in luence he implemen a ion and de elopmen o “communal illages” in Mozambique. In ac , in his hesis, A naldo A aújo had al eady a gued ha i was in he “e o o analysis and de ec ion o speci ic needs o speci ic popula ions, as well as commi ed o local p oposals o in e en ion” ha could “come o se le he basis o a 'new egionalism' (Almeida and Ca doso, 2002) ha he Po uguese a chi ec , wi hou ha ing o abandon o educe (and wi hou being able o do so) his ela ions wi h he uni e sal lines ( echnical and aes he ic) o mode n TRADITION AND MODERNITY. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SURVEY ON REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE 116 a chi ec u e, should be close o he eali ies o his people, o in e p e hei i ues and build a oo ed Po uguese a chi ec u e” (A aújo, 1957). The in e es in popula a chi ec u e which cha ac e ises he su ey has i s oo s in o he coun ies, such as he a an -ga de Ca alan g oup GATEPAC ha in he 1930s published se e al examples o e nacula a chi ec u e in i s jou nal (Toussain , 2009). Howe e , he su ey is ac ually a an -ga de in i s concep ion and in i s sys ema ic implemen a ion. No e ha , as in en o ied by Michel Toussain (2009), bo h he su ey and i s publica ion p eda ed he amous exhibi ion a MoMA and he book / ca alogue by Be na d Rudo sky A chi ec u e wi hou A chi ec s (1964). A qui ec u a Popula em Po ugal is also p esen in he bibliog aphic e e ences o House Fo m and Cul u e by Amos Rapopo (1969). The in luence o his wo k in he i e olumes o A qui ec u a Popula Española [Popula Spanish A chi ec u e] by Ca los Flo es published in he end o he 1970s is also well-known. Indeed, Nuno Teo ónio Pe ei a (2000) no es ha one o he mos immedia e consequences o he su ey was i s con ibu ion o he expansion o he concep o ‘a chi ec u al he i age’ o he popula a chi ec u e and u ban se lemen s. I is hus undispu ed ha he Su ey on Regional A chi ec u e is an impo an eco d o a u al eali y ha almos immedia ely disappea ed. On he o he hand, he pho og aphic collec ion ha had been published, p o ided a enewed o mal epe oi e o a chi ec u al elemen s which had he unexpec ed consequence o being app op ia ed o ou ism and ha e come o appea in he many ’ ypical’ cons uc ions in he coas al pa s o he coun y, p oducing a esul an i he ical o ha o iginally in ended. The cu en impo ance o he su ey The eno mous spolium consis ing o no es, d awings and pho og aphs p oduced du ing he su ey, cons i u es an impo an eco d o a Po ugal ha has al eady ALEXANDRA CARDOSO AND MARIA HELENA MAIA 117 disappea ed. As no ed by Nuno Pe ei a Teo ónio (1987), his documen a ion can suppo app oaches di ec ly ela ed o a chi ec u e, bu may also cons i u e an impo an sou ce o in o ma ion o o he esea ch a eas such as his o y, an h opology, sociology and pho og aphy. Wi h ega d o a chi ec u e, he su ey “cons i u es an impo an poin in he his o y o Po uguese a chi ec u al cul u e as a his o ical es amen o i s ime ep esen ing a se ious challenge o ou cu en c i ical conscience” (Almeida e al. 2009). A his momen , we ha e begun o wo k on a esea ch p ojec wi hin CEAA in he ield o a chi ec u al heo y and c i icism, which makes use o he su ey as a main wo king documen . The esea ch p ojec , i led Popula A chi ec u e in Po ugal: a c i ical look3 is based in he p emise “ ha he c i ical discussion o he Inqué i o main ains all i s ele ance, now ha he hemes o he e nacula and egionalism ha e again en e ed in o p o essional discussions”(Almeida e al. 2009). Howe e , he p esen ex has no o he p e ension o he han o begin o objec i ise he eal con ibu ion o he s udy and unde s anding o he su ey and i s signi icance in Po uguese a chi ec u al his o y. Wi h his objec i e in mind, we a emp a i s p o isional analysis o he his o iog aphy o he Inqué i o, iden i ying ch onologically he a ious con ibu ions and hei au ho s. 3 This p ojec , di ec ed by Ped o Viei a de Almeida and unded by FCT [Founda ion o Science and Technology] began in Ap il 2010 and will con inue un il Ma ch 2013. A p elimina y cla i ica ion o he de elopmen o his p ojec has been published by CEAA in Ap il, and i also ma ks he launch o he esea ch wo k (See Almeida, 2010). In his p ojec , he app oach o he su ey will be s uc u ed and s uc u ing in keeping he s udy in cons an c i ical dialogue wi h he a chi ec u e o oday and in cons an in e ac ion wi h heo e ical elemen s connec ed o he exp essi eness cha ac e is ic o some o he mode n e udi e languages, main aining in pa allel he e nacula and he con empo a y. TRADITION AND MODERNITY. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SURVEY ON REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE 118 Re e ences ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, “Ca los Ramos – uma es a égia de in e enção” in Ca los Ramos, Lisboa: Fundação Calous e Gulbenkian, 1986. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, A A qui ec u a No Es ado No o. Uma lei u a c í ica, Lisboa: Li os Ho izon e, 2004. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, Apon amen os pa a uma Teo ia da A qui ec u a, Lisboa: Li os Ho izon e, 2008. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, Dois Pa âme os de A qui ec u a Pos os em Su dina. O P opósi o de Uma In es igação, Edições Casei as / 14, Po o: CEAA, 2010. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de, e all., P ojec applica ion p esen ed o FCT in Feb ua y 2009. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de; CARDOSO, Alexand a, A naldo A aújo, A qui ec o (1925-1982), Edições Casei as / 1, Po o: CEAA, 2002. ALMEIDA, Ped o Viei a de; MAIA, Ma ia Helena, “As décadas pós-Cong esso. Os anos 50” in His ó ia da A e em Po ugal.14: A qui ec u a Mode na, Ed. by Ped o Viei a de Almeida and José Manuel Fe nandes, Lisboa: Al a, 1986. AMARAL, F ancisco Keil do, “Uma inicia i a necessá ia”, A qui ec u a, 2ª Sé ie Ano XX, nº 14, Ab il, 1947. ARAÚJO, A naldo, Fo mas do Habi a Ru al, No e de B agança. Con ibuição pa a a es u u a da comunidade, CODA, ESBAP, 1957. A ARQUITECTURA Popula em Po ugal. Sindica o Nacional dos A qui ec os, Lisboa, 1ª edição, 1961 (2 ol.) 2ª edição; Associação dos A qui ec os Po ugueses, 1980 (1 ol.); 3ª edição: Associação dos A qui ec os Po ugueses, 1988 (3 ol.); 4ª edição: Cen o Edi o Li ei o da O dem dos A qui ec os, 2004 (2 ol.). In his pape , all ci a ions e e o he 4 h edi ion. DIRECÇÃO da AAP, P e ace o he 2nd edi ion o A A qui ec u a Popula em Po ugal, Lisboa: Associação dos A qui ec os Po ugueses, 1979. FERNANDEZ, Sé gio, Pe cu so – A qui ec u a Po uguesa 1930/1974, Po o: Edições da FAUP, 2ª edição, 1988 (1985). FILGUEIRAS, Oc á io Lixa, “A Escola do Po o (1940/69)” in Ca los Ramos, Lisboa: Fundação Calous e Gulbenkian, 1986. FRANÇA, José Augus o, “Raul Lino. A qui ec o da Ge ação de 90” in Raul Lino, Lisboa: Fundação Calous e Gulbenkian, 1970. FRANÇA, José Augus o, A A e em Po ugal no Século XX, Lisboa: Be and, 1974. MENDES, Manuel, “Os anos 50 (En e a au onomia c ia i a do ‘no o’ e a c í ica ao espaço indi e enciado, ao modelo ans e í el – os comp omissos ealis as do ‘es ilo in e nacional’)”, RA – Re is a da Faculdade de A qui ec u a da Uni e sidade do Po o, yea I, n. 0, Oc obe , 1987. MENDES, Manuel, “Po o, The School and i s P ojec s 1940-1986” in A chi ec u es à Po o, B ussels: Pie e Ma daga, 1990, p. 42-84. OLLERO, Rod igo, “Le e o Raul Lino”. Cul u al Iden i y in Po uguese A chi ec u e. The “Inqué i o” and he A chi ec u e o i s P o agonis s in he 1960’s. PhD Thesis. Uni e si y o Sal o d, School o Cons uc ion and P ope y Managemen , 2001 (1 + 3 ols). PEREIRA, Nuno Teo ónio, “Re lexos Cul u ais do Inqué i o à A qui ec u a Regional” in J-A, n 195, Ma ch/Ap il, 2000, p. 69-71. PEREIRA, Nuno Teo ónio, P e ácio da 3ª Edição de A A qui ec u a Popula em Po ugal, Lisboa: Associação dos A qui ec os Po ugueses, 1987. ALEXANDRA CARDOSO AND MARIA HELENA MAIA 119 PORTAS, Nuno, “A E olução da A qui ec u a Mode na em Po ugal: uma in e p e ação”, in His ó ia da A qui ec u a Mode na o B uno Ze i, 2nd olume, Lisboa: Edi o a A cádia, 1978. PORTAS, Nuno, “A qui ec o Fe nando Tá o a: 12 anos de ac i idade p o issional”, A qui ec u a, 3 d se ies, 71, Lisboa, July, 1961. RIBEIRO, O lando, Po ugal, o Medi e âneo e o A lân ico, Lisboa: Li a ia Sá da Cos a, 7 h edi ion, 1998 (1945). TÁVORA, Fe nando, O P oblema da Casa Po uguesa, Lisboa: Cade nos de A qui ec u a, 1947. TOSTÕES, Ana, “Mode nização e Regionalismo 1948-1961” in A qui ec u a do Século XX. Po ugal, Ed. by Anne e BECKER, Ana TOSTÕES and Wil ed WANG. Po ugal-F ank u 97, 1997, p. 41-53. TOSTÕES, Ana, Os Ve des Anos na A qui ec u a Po uguesa dos Anos 50, Po o: FAUP, 1997 (1994). TOUSSAINT, Michel, Da A qui ec u a à Teo ia e o Uni e so da Teo ia da A qui ec u a em Po ugal na P imei a me ade do século XX, Doc o al Thesis in A chi ec u al Theo y, Lisboa: Uni e sidade Técnica de Lisboa – Faculdade de A qui ec u a, 2009. Acknowledgmen s This a icle was comple ed in 2010 as pa o he p ojec The ‘Popula A chi ec u e in Po ugal’: a c i i- cal look (FCT: PTDC/AUR-AQI/099063: COMPETE: FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-008832). TRADITION AND MODERNITY. THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SURVEY ON REGIONAL ARCHITECTURE 126 in he essay (De Solá-Mo ales, 1997:59). This is a posi ion co esponding o Gianni Va imo’s weak op imism om 1995: “Once he a chi ec is no longe he unc iona y o humani y, no he deduc i e a ionalis , no he gi ed in e p e e o a wo ld iew, bu he unc iona y o a socie y made up o communi ies, hen p ojec ion mus become some hing bo h mo e complex and mo e inde ini e.” (Va imo, 1997:147). Weak a chi ec u e like weak hough aces he loss o uni e sal alues and he di ec ing ole o heo y, bu does no gi e up he igh o heo y o in e p e , e lec o c ea e p ojec s. Cool Discipline The essay w i en by Robe Somol and Sa ah Whi ing was i s published in he a chi ec u al magazine Pe spec a in 2002.7 I s s uc u e is e y di e en om he p e ious one, as i is mo e didac ic in a gumen a ion. Somol and Whi ing a e p ac icing a chi ec s and hey w i e a mani es o no an academic s udy. The au ho s’ in en ion – o b eak wi h he heo e ical app oach o a chi ec u e – is sugges ed igh in he i le: No es a ound he Dopple E ec and o he Moods o Mode nism. Men ioning a physical phenomenon adumb a es a p agma ic app oach o he discipline, and he ex is ele an o his upbea . The p oposal – cool discipline – is desc ibed in con as o he dominan pa adigm (wi hin Ame ican academic ci cles) o a chi ec u al au onomy o c i icali y. The medium leng h a icle is di ided in o ou pa s, each ha ing a sub i le, exp essing he con as be ween he pas and he p oposed u u e: om c i ical o p ojec i e; om index o diag am; om dialec ics o Dopple ; om ho o cool. The s uc u e is adjus ed o he media ised e a o he 21 h cen u y – sho pa s, clea opposi ions – so i is no su p ising ha he au ho s’ cen al e e ence poin is Ma shall McLuhan, om whom hey also bo ow he concep o he discipline which mo es om ho o cool in i s cha ac e . 7 Due o i s p o oca i e cha ac e he essay was la e ep in ed in se e al collec ions and an hologies, and discussed in di e en o ums bo h in Eu ope and in he Uni ed S a es. MARIANN SIMON 127 Somol and Whi ing connec he a acked in e p e a ion o a chi ec u e o Colin Rowe, Man edo Ta u i and hei con empo a y ollowe s, K. Michael Hays and Pe e Eisenman.8 Acco ding o he au ho s Hays and Eisenman a e he p opaga o s o an a chi ec u e which is based on he au onomy o he discipline. They claim ha a chi ec u e is a cul u al p oduc , bu o p ese e he c i ical posi ion o a chi ec u e i mus ha e au onomy, consequen ly au onomy is he p econdi ion o a chi ec u al engagemen . This kind o a chi ec u e – as Somol and Whi ing in e p e – is based on ep esen a ion and signi ica ion, e en i he main p o agonis s o en y o con e i in o indexes which a e no de e mined cul u ally.9 The esul o his app oach is a ho discipline, which deals wi h a me hod-based way wi h de ails and conno a ions, while i s au onomy and c i icali y emo e i om a chi ec u al p ac ice. As a consequence his kind o a chi ec u e is wo ked, belabou ed, di icul and complica ed. Wha Somol and Whi ing p opose ins ead is cool discipline, based on pe o mance and p ac ice. Wi h his second pai ing – he way o me hod-ac ing as opposed o pe o mance ac ing – he au ho s u n again o ilm, pe o ming a s and o he media. The au ho s’ key concep is ha a chi ec u e belongs o he pe o ming a s. The ligh cha ac e o a chi ec u e as a cool discipline is he esul o his shi om c ea i e o pe o ming a . As a consequence cool a chi ec u e is ins umen al, p ojec i e and p agma ic. I does no ep esen , i is no o eading, bu i is o seducing, becoming, ins iga ing new e en s and beha iou s. Ins ead o indexes i wo ks wi h diag ams, which – he e he au ho s quo e Gilles Deleuze’s wo ds – “impose a pa icula o m o conduc on a pa icula mul iplici y.” (Somol-Whi ing, 8 This concen a ed a ack agains K. Michael Hays and Pe e Eisenman was in e p e ed by some la e e lec ions as eckoning wi h a he igu es, which migh explain i s adicalism. “I do no hink i is a coincidence ha so many o he p o agonis s o he cu en ly p o e ed al e na i es o ‘c i icali y’ a e o me p o égés o Eisenman, o a leas igu es a he edge o his ci cle.” Geo ge Bai d, ‘C i icali y and I s Discon en s’ in William S. Saunde s (ed) The New A chi ec u al P agma ism. A Ha a d Design Magazine Reade 5. Uni e si y o Minneso a P ess, Minneapolis – London, 2007, p. 140. Bai d’s essay was i s published in 2005. 9 They e e o he in e p e a ion o Mies an de Rohe’s Ba celona Pa ilion by K. Michael Hays om 1984, and o Pe e Eisenman’s analysis on Le Co buise ’s Dom-ino house om 1979. WEAK ARCHITECTURE - COOL DISCIPLINE 128 2010:196). The e e ence o he Dopple E ec – he pe cei ed change in he equency o a wa e ha occu s when he sou ce and ecei e o he wa e ha e a ela i e eloci y – ac s as he explana ion o his mul iplici y bu on a s ic ly a ional le el in une wi h he whole p agma ic u n. Cool a chi ec u e is elaxed and easy; i ne e looks like wo k. I has go id o knowledge and o ms is based on sha ed no ms, p inciples and adi ions, and as a “discipline i is no a ixed da um o en i y, bu a he an ac i e o ganism o discu si e p ac ice, unplanned and ungo e nable” (Somol-Whi ing, 2010:197). This p ojec i e p ac ice does no look back and does no c i icize he s a us quo, bu i looks o wa d and belie es in he in elligence o design – o design in elligence as Michael Speaks p opaga ed his shi la e in he same yea (Speaks, 2010). Design in elligence in ol es in o ma ion and impulses o a wide ange, i “ ocuses upon he e ec s and exchanges o a chi ec u e’s inhe en mul iplici ies: ma e ial, p og am, w i ing, a mosphe e, o m, echnologies, economics, e c” (Somol- Whi ing, 2010:196). The a chi ec , as a design expe , always eac s di e en ly acco ding o he ac ual inpu and ci cums ances; his c ea es he ligh ness and adap abili y o he pe o mance. Howe e some hing is missing: he di ec ing p inciples a e le hidden. E en i in he las sen ence o he a icle he au ho s y o ma k hemsel es o om “capi ula ion o ma ke o ces”, his es ic ion o a chi ec s’ compe ence o design can’ be in e p e ed o he han as an escape om esponsibili y.10 Ma ke o ces and he pi oue e o a balle ina Concep s o weak a chi ec u e and o cool discipline bo h b ing elie o a chi ec u e, because hey lea e behind ce ain o me p inciples, known and inhe i ed om he a an -ga de pe iod o mode ni y, which ha e become 10 “Se ing ou his p ojec i e p og am does no necessa ily en ail a capi ula ion o ma ke o ces, bu ac ually espec s o eo ganizes mul iple economies, ecologies, in o ma ion sys ems, and social g oups.” ibid. p. 202. MARIANN SIMON 129 obsole e o e ime: linea i y, homogenei y, uni e sal u h, o he a chi ec as a unc iona y o humani y. This new e a o mode ni y has eally changed he ole o he a chi ec , whose posi ion has been weakened since Le Co busie closed his mani es o wi h he wo ds – a chi ec u e o e olu ion – in 1923. This weakening has also had an e ec on he au onomy o he p o ession. In an essay which da es back o 1991 de Solá-Mo ales also deal wi h he opic o au onomy and concluded in he possibili y o a pa ial au onomy, p esen ed in he e en s o ime. He does no gi e up cul u al e lec ion as he au onomy and an aim o he p o ession, bu s esses i s pa ial and ola ile cha ac e . His example o his expe ience is he si ua ion whe e a pe o mance ouches us: “Like he ale old by he ac o on he s age, like he unexpec ed pi oue es o a g ace ul balle ina” (De Solá-Mo ales, 1997c:90). The edi o o de Solá-Mo ales’s collec ed essays was Sa ah Whi ing. In he in oduc ion she app ecia es de Solá-Mo ales who “ a o s humanism bu a noncon o ming humanism” (Whi ing, 1997:xi ) and de ines his posi ion in he ela ionship be ween heo y and p ac ice as succeeding “in es ablishing a c i ical collabo a ion wi h p ac ice.” (Whi ing, 1997:x ). The wo concep s – weak a chi ec u e and cool discipline – a e simila in cha ac e : bo h a e ligh , easy and elaxed. Howe e when compa ing hem we ind ha he second one is e en ligh e ; cool discipline lea es behind no only he uni e sal heo y, bu also he possibili y o any kind o ele an heo y in he name o p ac ice. Somol and Whi ing call o a p ojec i e p ac ice, which is e alua ed by i s pe o mance, bu hey do no men ion wha i is o he whole.11 This kind o cool pe o mance – wi hou au onomy and wi hou esponsibili y – is no ha o he a is , bu o he expe . And I go u he : i is no abou 11 In his essay Reinhold Ma in exp esses his de ici clea ly: “We migh ask he a i ma i e, p ojec i e p ac i ione s o he ’pos c i ical’ jus wha so o wo ld hey a e p ojec ing and a i ming in hei a chi ec u e and in hei discou se.” Reinhold Ma in, ‘C i ical o Wha ?’ in: William S. Saunde s (ed) The New A chi ec u al P agma ism. A Ha a d Design Magazine Reade 5. Uni e si y o Minneso a P ess, Minneapolis – London, 2007, p. 159. The essay was i s published in 2005. WEAK ARCHITECTURE - COOL DISCIPLINE 130 he a is o he expe . We may need expe s who do hei job in an easy and elaxed way, bu no wi hou au onomy, c i icali y and engagemen , e en i hey epea edly need o de ine hei goals and g oundings. The puzzles a e no elimina ed. MARIANN SIMON 131 Re e ences BAIRD, Geo ge (2007) C i icali y and I s Discon en s. In Saunde s W.S. (ed.) The New A chi ec u al P agma ism. A Ha a d Design Magazine Reade 5. Minneapolis – London, Uni e si y o Minneso a P ess, p. 136-149. The essay was i s published in 2005. DE SOLÁ-MORALES, Ignasi (1997) Weak A chi ec u e. In Di e ences. Topog aphies o Con empo a y A chi ec u e. W i ing A chi ec u e Se ies. The MIT P ess, p. 57-71. The essay was i s published in 1987. DE SOLÁ-MORALES, Ignasi (1997b) In oduc ion. In Di e ences. Topog aphies o Con empo a y A chi ec u e. W i ing A chi ec u e Se ies. The MIT P ess, p. 3-11. DE SOLÁ-MORALES, Ignasi (1997c) F om Au onomy o Un imeliness. In Di e ences. Topog aphies o Con empo a y A chi ec u e. W i ing A chi ec u e Se ies. The MIT P ess, p. 73-90. The essay was i s published in 1991. HAYS, K. Michael (2000) A chi ec u e Theo y Since 1968, Columbia Books o A chi ec u e, The MIT P ess. HELLER, Agnes (1990). Can Mode ni y Su i e? Camb idge: Poli y P ess. MARTIN, Reinhold (2007) C i ical o Wha ? Towa d a U opian Realism. In Saunde s W.S. (ed.) The New A chi ec u al P agma ism. A Ha a d Design Magazine Reade 5. Minneapolis – London, Uni e si y o Minneso a P ess, p. 150-161. The essay was i s published in 2005. SOMOL, Robe – WHITING, Sa ah (2010) No es a ound he Dopple E ec and o he Moods o Mode nism. In STYKES, A.K. (ed.) Cons uc ing a New Agenda. A chi ec u al Theo y 1993-2009. New Yo k: P ince on A chi ec u al P ess, p. 188-203. The essay was i s published in 2002. SPEAKS, Michael (2010) Design In elligence. In STYKES, A.K. (ed.) Cons uc ing a New Agenda. A chi ec u al Theo y 1993-2009. New Yo k: P ince on A chi ec u al P ess, p. 206-215. The essay was i s published in 2002. VATTIMO, Gianni (1997). The End o Mode ni y, he End o he P ojec ? In LEACH Neil (ed.) Re hinking A chi ec u e. A eade in cul u al heo y. London-New Yo k: Rou ledge, p. 148-154. The essay was i s published in 1995. WHITING, Sa ah (1997) Subjec i ying he Mode n. In Di e ences. Topog aphies o Con empo a y A chi ec u e. W i ing A chi ec u e Se ies, The MIT P ess, ix-x ii. WEAK ARCHITECTURE - COOL DISCIPLINE 132 133 ANA LÍDIA VIRTUDES Assis an P o esso , Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing and A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Bei a In e io . Resea che a CEAA | A naldo A aújo Resea ch Cen e (FCT uRD 4041) and a LISA (Lab. o In e disciplina y Spa ial Analysis). She is cu en ly p incipal esea ch o he ESAP P ojec Sma Plan (p e ious phase) – Su ey o he a chi ec u al ma ix o s il -houses o i e banks in Po ugal: alua ion oppo uni ies wi hin he u ban policies. (ESAP/2015/P27/CEAA). ALEXANDRA CARDOSO A chi ec (FAUP, 1994). In eg a ed esea che o Cen o de Es udos A naldo A aújo (CEAA), R&D uni 4041 (FCT); Di ec o o CEAA (2003-2010). Resea che o he p ojec s: The "Popula A chi ec u e in Po ugal." A C i ical Look (2010-2013); Po uguese Pa icipa ion in CIAMX (2014); Sou he n Mode nisms (2014-2015) and Pho og aphy, Mode n A chi ec u e and he "Escola do Po o": In e p e a ions on Teó ilo Rego A chi e (2014-2015). P incipal In es iga o o he p ojec A chi ec u e News. 70's (May 01 - Decembe 31, 2015). Las ela ed publica ions, include he books To and F o: Mode nism and Ve nacula A chi ec u e (ed.) and Dois Pa âme os de A qui ec u a Pos os em Su dina. Lei u a C í ica do Inqué i o à a qui ec u a egional. Cade nos 3 and 4 (all wi h M.H. Maia and J.C. Leal, 2013) and he pape s Po ugueses in CIAM X (wi h M.H. Maia, 2014); Sou he n AUTHORS A chi ec u es (wi h M.H. Maia, A. T e isan and J. Cou o, 2015) and Pa allel Pa hs (wi h M.H. Maia and A. T e isan, 2015) ANDRÁS FERKAI MSc A ch., d . Habil, DSc A His o y, is p o esso o he Ins i u e o Theo e ical S udies a Moholy-Nagy Uni e si y o A and Design Budapes . A e a decade in a chi ec u al p ac ice, he became he edi o o he Hunga ian A chi ec u e magazine hen a eelance esea che . F om 1993 he eaches a chi ec u al his o y cou ses on g adua e and pos -g adua e le els and ac s as a u o in doc o al schools. His ield o esea ch includes hemes o he A an -Ga de and Mode n Mo emen , in ellec ual his o y o mode n Hunga ian a chi ec u e, as well as p ese a ion o mode n monumen s. He published 13 books, con ibu ed o 36 edi ed books, he o al numbe o his publica ions is o e 170. He had been he membe o DOCOMOMO In e na ional (ISC- Regis e s) be ween 1996 and 2002. IVÁN I. RINCÓN BORREGO Is PhD a chi ec and p o esso o he Depa men o Theo y o A chi ec u e and A chi ec u al P ojec s a he Uni e si y o Valladolid since 2004. He is membe o he GIR A chi ec u e and Cinema a he Uni e si y o Valladolid. He is esea che in eg a ed o he CEAA – Cen o de Es udos A naldo A aújo ESAP, Po o. He 134 de ends his PhD Thesis en i led S e e Fehn: The Na u al Shape o Cons uc ion in 2010. He has collabo a ed wi h se e al publica ions; 12 Edi icios de A qui ec u a Mode na en Valladolid (2006); A e & Paisagem (2007); 21 Edi icios de A qui ec u a Mode na en Opo o (2010); A qui ec u a, Símbolo y Mode nidad (2014). Since 2006, he has also lec u ed in di e en na ional and in e na ional Uni e si ies. JOSEFINA GONZÁLEZ CUBERO A chi ec . Doc o a e in A chi ec u e in 1996. He PhD Thesis s udies he u ban wo k o Le Co busie . P o esso in A chi ec u al P ojec s since 1997 in he Depa men A chi ec u al Theo y and Designs a he Uni e si y o Valladolid's Technical School o A chi ec u e in Spain, whe e she eaches on g adua e and posg adua e le els. He esea ch in e es s a e he ela ionship be ween a chi ec u e and o he a s. Coo dina o o A chi ec u e an Cinema Resea ch G oup and colabo a o esea che o he Cen o de Es udos A naldo A aújo, CEAA. MARIA HELENA MAIA G adua e in His o y/A and A chaeology and PhD in Mode n A chi ec u e and Res o a ion. Cu en ly she is ull p o esso and depu y-di ec o o ESAP, di ec o o CEAA, FCT R&D uni 4041 and p incipal esea che o i s A chi ec u al S udies esea ch g oup. She was p incipal in es iga o o he FCT p ojec Popula A chi ec u e in Po ugal. A C í ical Look (2010-2013) and he ESAP p ojec Po uguese pa icipa ion in CIAM X (2014). Cu en ly she is esea che o he FCT p ojec s Pho og aphy, Mode n A chi ec u e and he "Escola do Po o": In e p e a ions on Teó ilo Rego A chi e (2013-2015) and Sou he n Mode nisms (2014-2015) and he 2015 ESAP p ojec s News o A chi ec u e. 60’s (p incipal in es iga o ) News o A chi ec u e. 70’s and D ama ic A chi ec u es. Las ela ed publica ions, include he co-edi ion o To and F o: Mode nism and Ve nacula A chi ec u e and he books Dois Pa âme os de A qui ec u a Pos os em Su dina. Lei u a c í ica do Inqué i o à a qui ec u a egional. Cade nos 3 and 4 (all wi h A. Ca doso and J.C. Leal, 2013). P izes: (1) José de Figuei edo 2008 o Po uguese Na ional Academy o Fine A s by he book Pa imónio e Res au o em Po ugal (1825-1880); (2) Ignasi de Lecea 2007- 2008 o Public A & Design Obse a o y – Uni e si a de Ba celona by he co-edi ion (wi h M. Acciaiuoli and J. C. Leal) o he books A e & Paisagem and A e & Pode . MARIANN SIMON MSc A ch, PhD d . Habil is associa e p o esso a he Depa men o U ban Planning and Design, Co inus Uni e si y o Budapes . A e eigh yea s in p ac ice she u ned o eaching and esea ch wo k ocusing on con empo a y a chi ec u e and heo y a he Budapes Uni e si y o Technology and Economics which she le in 2014. She eaches cou ses on g adua e, pos -g adua e le els and ac s as a u o in doc o al schools. She has o ganized se e al na ional and in e na ional symposia, and has led se en la ge esea ch p ojec s inanced by home and in e na ional unds. She has published mo e han 140 s udies and a icles. She was he membe o he in e na ional esea ch g oup ‘Theo y, C i icism and His o y o A chi ec u e’ g an ed by FCT be ween 2009 and 2012. NOEMÍ VICENTE MARTÍN A chi ec . Deg ee in A chi ec u e o he Uni e si y o Valladolid's Highe Technical School o A chi ec u e in Spain, 2006. Collabo a ed wi h se e al a chi ec u al o ices in Valladolid om 2006 o 2008. Wo king since 2008 as a local go e nmen a chi ec . PEDRO VIEIRA DE ALMEIDA Lisbon 1933-Ma osinhos 2011. A chi ec , PhD in A chi ec u e, P o esso o Theo y o A chi ec u e a he Escola Supe io A ís ica do Po o (ESAP). He was esea che (1999-2011) and di ec o (2010-2011) o A naldo A aújo S udy Cen e (uID 4041 FCT). He had an an ex ensi e wo k as a chi ec , u banis and in he ield o A chi ec u al Theo y and C i icism. RÉMI PAPILLAULT Doc eu en his oi e de l’EHESS e a chi ec e diplômé de l'Ecole des monumen s his o iques de Chaillo , Rémi Papillaul a pa icipé à des é udes e des p oje s en si es sensibles, comme l'é ude pou le sec eu sau ega dé de Toulouse, les aménagemen s des espaces publics du si e classé de Pie e onds, la c éa ion d'un bel édè e su Ga onne au pa c Raymond VI, ou la ans o ma ion des anciens Aba oi s de Toulouse en Cen e d'A Mode ne e Con empo ain. AUTHORS 135 AUTHORS Comme maî e-assis an à Ecole d'A chi ec u e de Toulouse e enseignan in i é à la Facul é d’A chi ec u e de Caglia i, il enseigne le p oje en deuxième e oisième cycle e en an que che cheu il a publié des eche ches e a icles po an p incipalemen su les appo s en e la ille e l'a chi ec u e au ing ième siècle, au ou des p oje s de Léon Jaussely pou Ba celone, de Candilis, Josic e Woods pou Toulouse le Mi ail e de Le Co busie , à Chandiga h, en Inde. Pa allèlemen à ses eche ches su le pa imoine du XXème siècle e à son implica ion en an qu’adminis a eu de la Fonda ion Le Co busie , il es en cha ge de l’é ude pou le G and P oje de Ville de Toulouse le Mi ail. Publica ions écen es : 2008 Le Mi ail, mémoi es d’une ille, a ec S éphane G ue , Ed. Poiesis. 450p. 2008 Le Team X. Les bâ imen s e les héo ies qui les on naî e : le cas des opé a ions de logemen collec i s à g ande échelle en Eu ope, Ac es du Colloque. A ec B. Fayolle Lussac, Reche ches e publica ion. Ed MSH Bo deaux. 200p. 2007 Jaipu une ille neu e en Inde, Ed Thalia, a ec Alain Bo ie e F ançoise Ca alàa, Pa is, 280 p. 2007 Chandiga h, Po ai de ille, Ins i u F ançais d’A chi ec u e, Ci é de l’A chi ec u e e du Pa imoine, 72 p., Pa is. ZOLTÁN BUN He ecei ed his MSc a chi ec u e (2005) and PhD (2012) om Budapes Uni e si y o Technology and Economics. He s udies a chi ec u al heo y linked di ec ly o p ac ice and in e disciplina y echniques especially om 1968. He pa icipa ed in se e al esea ch p og ams such as OTKA 72671 unde he i le ‘Ac i e heo y. The changing ole o a chi ec u al heo y in he Millenium’. His essay, ‘Be ween Analogue and Digi al Diag ams’ ecei ed EAAE Bes Pape awa d a he 2008 ’Changes o Pa adigms in he Basic Unde s anding o A chi ec u al Resea ch. A chi ec u al Resea ch and he Digi al Wo ld’ con e ence in Copenhagen. He is a senio a chi ec a Fi ka A chi ec u e S udio, Budapes . 142 1