Introduction

1 INTRODUCTION Da id Du and Ma c Po ée DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14712/2571452X.2024.68.1 Oa hs, Odes and O a ions: ou i ula iple is mean o echo ou p eceding Exiles, Émig és and Expa ia es in Roman ic-E a Pa is and London, also published wi h Li e a ia P agensia.1 Remo ely oulipian, he assonan ic cons ain comes wi h a sub- ex o i s own: ha o o ali y, he ac o common o oa hs, odes and o a ions; while he iple epe i ion – a s aple de ice o he o ic (i one whose e ec i eness has ne e been ully explained) poin s o ou co e subjec ma e , he powe o public speech and he li e a u e associa ed wi h i . In he his o ical pe iod we explo e he e, 1789-1830, ha discu si e associa ion acqui es a special signi icance and public u e ance i sel is p essed in o new se ice. The Tennis Cou Oa h o 20 June 1789 was he i s o e ly e olu iona y ac o he F ench Re olu ion and ma ked he beginning o an epoch in which public speech ac s ook on unp eceden ed poli ical signi icance. The ce emonial odes and hymns o he Fê e de la Fédé a ion we e ano he mani es a ion o his enascence o o ali y, es o ing he ancien Pinda ic adi ion o poe y as public pe o mance and gi ing new meaning o odic con en ions such as in oca ion, exho a ion and apos ophe. In he wo k o And é Chénie and o he s, his new ly ic unc ion p oduced majo poe y. Meanwhile, in he halls o he poli ical clubs, in he Na ional Con en ion and e olu iona y Commi ees, and om lec e ns, pulpi s and cou oom benches ac oss F ance, o a o y o all kinds shaped he cou se o his o y and decided he a e o indi iduals. E en on he execu ione ’s sca old, he o ical ampli ica ion became he p e e ed mode o add ess, a g im illus a ion o Baudelai e’s subsequen obse a ion abou “ he g andiloquen u h o ges u es on li e’s g ea occasions.”2 1 Da id Du and Ma c Po ée, eds., Exiles, Émig és and Expa ia es in Roman ic-E a Pa is and London, Li e a ia P agensia 29, no. 57 (2019). 2 “La é i é empha ique du ges e dans les g andes ci cons ances de la ie.” Roland Ba hes makes his connec ion in his discussion o he “ e olu iona y mode o w i ing” in Le Deg é zé o de l’éc i u e (Pa is: Seuil, 1953), 22. The ema k o Baudelai e’s ha he quo es Da id Du and Ma c Po ée 2 The e i aliza ion o pe o ma i e language was no con ined o he 1789 Re olu ion, no o F ance. B i ain expe ienced wha many s ill conside a golden age o poli ical eloquence, as o a o s o he calib e o Pi , Bu ke, Fox and She idan jous ed in pa liamen and ex ended hei o a ions h ough he medium o p in . Ou side pa liamen , he g ow h o he co esponding socie ies, o o he poli ical clubs and associa ions, and o poli ical lec u ing c ea ed nume ous oppo uni ies o public add ess, he communica i e p ac ices and clandes ine i uals o ce ain o ganiza ions a ac ing ep essi e measu es such as he Unlaw ul Oa hs Ac o 1797. Radical w i e s mimicked F ench e olu iona y s yles in odes o Libe y and on he Bas ille, while conse a i e sa i is s pa odied hei e o s in mock-odes o he guillo ine and pseudo-songs a es ying e olu iona y en husiasm. Se mons we e ano he on in he o al wa o ideas, using eligion and poli ics in p o oca i e ways. Educa ional lec u ing also unde wen a ema kable boom, in he new Royal Ins i u ion and o he ashionable lec u ing ins i u ions. The new o ali y, shaped by poli ical exigency bu wi h wide cul u al ami ica ions, le i s ma k on he w i ing no only o he e olu iona y decade and wa yea s bu also he pos -wa pe iod and beyond. I was, as Hazli said, “an age o alke s,”3 and Roman ic li e a u e bea s e e ywhe e he imp in o his. This special issue, based on an in e na ional symposium held in Pa is in Decembe 2022, assesses he li e a y signi icance o his mobiliza ion o o ali y and public u e ance, and explo es links be ween he speech ac s o poli icians, polemicis s and educa o s and he w i ings o poe s and o he au ho s. How is he Roman ic e alua ion o he ode which p oduced he amous ly ics o Kea s, Shelley, Hugo and Hölde lin – and he powe ul odes o less canonical igu es such as John Thelwall, Robe Me y and Ma y Robinson – connec ed wi h he e i al o ce emonial ode-w i ing and public i ual? How a e he speech gen es o e e yday li e in eg a ed in o he mo e complex gen es o imagina i e li e a u e? Can speech-w i ing, se monizing o oas -making be hemsel es a o m o li e a y ac i i y? Wha happens when legally, mo ally binding oa hs and commi men s a e b oken, o cing he swea e o ecan , in public again – a e such disa owals pa o he cul u e o apos asy and disenchan men posi ed by li e a y his o ians o Roman icism? And o wha ex en do hese pu posi e deploymen s o public speech en e he li e a y and he o ical heo y o he pe iod? was made à p opos Delac oix and elabo a es upon he no ion o “emphase” (o e - emphasis, bombas , g andiloquence): he ges u e in ques ion is one seized upon o media ed by a . See Cha les Baudelai e, “L’Exposi ion uni e selle de 1855,” Œu es complè es, ed. Claude Pichois, 2 ols. (Pa is: Gallima d, 1976), 2:592. 3 William Hazli , “M Cole idge,” The Spi i o he Age o Con empo a y Po ai s, ed. E.D. Macke ness, 2nd ed. (Plymou h: No hco e House, 1991), 54. In oduc ion 3 The a icles ga he ed he e add ess hese and o he ques ions, anging widely ac oss di e en gen es and media. F ancesco Buscemi opens he collec ion wi h an analysis o he pa adigma ic speech gen e and e bal i ual o he F ench Re olu ion: oa h- aking. Widely acknowledged by his o ians as cen al o he e olu iona y p ocess, he oa h has a ely been s udied in i s wo modali ies, as bo h a linguis ic ac and an a ec i e phenomenon. Buscemi shows how oa h- aking played a key ole in he o ging o e olu iona y iden i y and ma ked he eme gence o a new concep ion o poli ical loyal y. The swea ing o an oa h is an indi idual commi men , bu i is wi nessed publicly and o en pe o med collec i ely, as in he mass oa h- aking o he Fê e de la Fédé a ion. Ra he han simply imposing an ideology, oa h- aking enabled swea e s o eel on hei pulses he deep sense o change, o egene a i e possibili y and o unshackling om he pas ha we e a he hea o he e olu iona y expe ience. The ac ion induced he men ali y i exp essed, and was hus, like o he symbolic p ac ices o he F ench Re olu ion, a way o “becoming a e olu iona y,” in Timo hy Tacke ’s ph ase.4 This is ue bo h o oa hs hemsel es and o he hea ical o a is ic ep esen a ion o oa h- aking, also discussed by Buscemi. I is in hei a ec i e and pe o ma i e aspec ha he g andiloquen wo ds o e olu iona y oa hs gain hei meaning, a poin Buscemi b ings home by in oking and ex ending Aus in’s concep o he speech ac , echoed in his i le: “how o do hings wi h oa hs.”5 The a ec i e agency ha Buscemi a ibu es o oa h- aking is ex ended in o he a icles o o he speech ac s and o w i en o ms ha de i e om, mimic, o , in some cases, pa ody hem. Rémy Du hille examines he p ac ice o oas ing, a social i ual wi h a long his o y bu one ha acqui es new signi icance and isibili y in 1790s B i ain, whe e i se es as a ehicle o poli ical communica ion in bo h adical and conse a i e ci cles. Like he oa h, a speech ac i closely esembles bu wi h he addi ional pe o ma i e elemen o glass- aising and d inking, he oas is in ended o gene a e collec i e allegiance, whe he o a pe son, ins i u ion o cause. The clea es example o he la e was a adical poli ical banque s, whe e oas ing “was a cen al ool in he manu ac u ing o adical unanimi y.” Du hille has w i en elsewhe e abou he adical cul u e o oas ing; he concen a es he e on a li e a y byp oduc o his ib an o al cul u e, namely loyalis pa odies o adical oas s. The publica ion o poli ical oas lis s was a well-es ablished p ac ice 4 Timo hy Tacke , Becoming a Re olu iona y: The Depu ies o he F ench Na ional Assembly and he Eme gence o a Re olu iona y Cul u e, 1789-1790 (P ince on, NJ: P ince on Uni e si y P ess, 1996). 5 C . J.L Aus in, How o Do Things wi h Wo ds (Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 1962). Da id Du and Ma c Po ée 4 om he mid-eigh een h cen u y bu in he 1790s his ashionable newspape gen e spawned an equally popula a ian : he pa odic oas lis . Du hille analyzes se e al examples o his malleable subgen e, highligh ing he blu ing o o al and w i en o ms and he p omiscuous in e ex uali y ha could see an oa h pe o med a he Fê e de la Fédé a ion in Pa is become a oas a a adical banque in London and hen an objec o pa ody in he conse a i e li e a y p ess. Odes, oo, we e pa o his ansna ional in e ex ual ci cui , as Du hille illus a es wi h a sa i ical ode om he An i-Jacobin which combines a pa ody o he Duke o Yo k’s no o ious oas in a speech o 1798 o “Ou so e eign’s heal h – he majes y o he people” wi h an allusion o he 1793 dec ee o he F ench Na ional Con en ion making “TERROR he O de o he Day.” O he examples o he con e gence o o a o ical and odic discou se can be ound in he wo k o John Thelwall, he subjec o Judi h Thompson’s a icle. Thelwall, o Thompson, was he o emos heo is o he ode in his pe iod because he explo ed mos ully he declama o y quali y o odes, aking his analysis igh down o he physiological le el: he ode’s mobiliza ion o he o gans o speech and i s use o hy hmic pa e ns ha a e di ec ly ied o ou ana omy.6 Thelwall’s heo ies d aw on his ex ensi e expe ience o public speaking, i s as a i eb and poli ical lec u e o he 1790s and la e ly as a eache o elocu ion and speech he apy. The eci a ion and p osodic analysis o odes, his own and o he people’s, was a s aple ea u e o his educa ional lec u es, deli e ed o e many yea s a enues ac oss he Uni ed Kingdom. D awing on new esea ch o he o hcoming biog aphy o Thelwall, Thompson’s essay also examines ano he line o in luence on Thelwall’s elocu iona y heo ies and p ac ices: ha o wo F ench philosophes he me du ing his a els in F ance in 1814 o 1818. Like Thelwall, bo h men – one a p ominen jou nal edi o , he o he he di ec o o a amous School o he Dea and Dumb – we e poli ical su i o s who had na iga ed a shi ing poli ical si ua ion, a sha ed expe ience (cap u ed in Thompson’s i le by he me apho o he gi oue e, o wea he cock) ha made him e en mo e ecep i e o hei philosophical, medical and li e a y ideas. Once again, ad ances in he heo y and p ac ice o o ali y eme ge om Anglo-F ench engagemen . The ela ionship be ween spoken and w i en o ms comes unde u he sc u iny in wo a icles abou he F ench Re olu ion deba e in B i ain. Pie e Lu be analyzes a classic ex o he pamphle wa , Thomas Paine’s Righ s o Man (1791-1792), 6 No ci ed by Thompson o o he con ibu o s, bu o ele ance o ou opic is he b illian analysis o odic declama ion (and, mo e gene ally, he “o ien a ion” o li e a y gen es o speci ic modes o speech) by he Russian Fo malis c i ic Yu i Tyniano , “The Ode as an O a o ical Gen e” (1927), ans. Ann Shukman, New Li e a y His o y 34, no. 3 (2003): 565-96. In oduc ion 5 d awing a en ion o a neglec ed aspec o Paine’s polemic agains Edmund Bu ke: his delibe a e dis o ion o Bu ke’s punc ua ion in o de o exagge a e he his ionic quali y o Bu ke’s p ose and he eby unde mine his in ellec ual and poli ical au ho i y. To make his case, Lu be o e s a de ailed su ey o la e eigh een h-cen u y language heo y and shows how highly de eloped con empo a y awa eness o he pe o ma i e aspec o eading was, in pa icula “ eading aloud.” The ole o punc ua ion ma ks such as he comma, semi-colon and exclama ion ma k was an impo an s and in his heo y. By a ully modi ying Bu ke’s punc ua ion o make his w i ing seem e en mo e melod ama ic and un us wo hy, Paine was hus weaponizing well-es ablished heo ies and con en ions. His polemic agains Bu ke is no simply a c i ique bu an “o al/au al pe o mance o Bu ke’s ex ,” whose dis o i e me hod is analogous o isual ca ica u e. Robe Jones o e s a simila ly in ica e ex ual analysis o ano he key igu e o he F ench Re olu ion deba e, Richa d B insley She idan. Jones’s ocus is he dis o ions ha occu when a powe ul pa liamen a y speech is commi ed o p in , he speech in ques ion being he one She idan ga e on 20 Ap il 1798 o ouse he na ion agains he h ea o F ench in asion. The speech is known o Roman ic schola s as one o he p omp s o Cole idge’s poem “Fea s in Soli ude” (1798), which ca ies he da e o he speech in i s subsc ip and appea s o echo some o i s pa io ic he o ic. Jones se s aside he ques ion o She idan’s li e a y in luence o examine he minu iae o he ansmission p ocess, s udying he sub le a ia ions be ween di e en p in ed e sions o his speech. Compa ing mul iple e sions which appea ed in newspape s in he days a e he speech, Jones no es he poli ical bias which shaped he ansc ip ions, pa icula ly in passages whe e She idan weighs up he ela i e impo ance, a a ime o na ional c isis, o Pa liamen , he people and he King. As wi h he Duke o No olk’s oas , She idan’s p ecise choice o wo ds on such sensi i e opics is poli ically signi ican , and he a ia ions which en e in o he public eco d o his speech demons a e ha he poli ics o ansc ip ion is an in eg al pa o ou opic. In b oaching his subjec , Jones e lec s on he me hodological challenges o his o hcoming c i ical edi ion o She idan, a igu e whose o a o ical skills we e widely ecognized in his li e ime bu whose poli ical wo ks (mos o which we e o al in o igin) ha e ne e ecei ed he c i ical a en ion acco ded o his plays. A hi d pe spec i e on he poli ical con o e sy o he 1790s – and he place o o a o y wi hin i – is o e ed by Da ydd Moo e’s a icle on he cle gyman-poe and he o ical heo is Richa d Polwhele. Remembe ed oday by Roman ic schola s mos ly o his eac iona y, misogynis polemic The Unsex’d Females (1798), Polwhele was in ac a mo e complex igu e han i s appea s. Moo e ocuses on his engagemen wi h he long- unning and inc easingly augh deba e wi hin he Da id Du and Ma c Po ée 6 Anglican Chu ch abou he p ope o m o pulpi o a o y, a subjec Polwhele akes up in his e se ea ise The English O a o (1785-1791). Like he elocu ion manuals ci ed by Lu be and Thompson, Polwhele’s handbook, which anges ac oss many ypes o o a o y, ouches on linguis ic ques ions which had become inescapably poli ical. Based in u al Co nwall, Polwhele had o nego ia e he con lic ing demands o a conse a i e Anglican es ablishmen ehemen ly opposed o he populis me hods o En husias p eache s and a p o incial cong ega ion ha lacked he sophis ica ion o he me opoli an eli e and needed he emo ional s imulus ha Me hodis and E angelical p eache s p o ided. In a icula ing his ension and de eloping his dis inc i e posi ion, Polwhele can be seen bo h as an impo an playe in he con empo a y deba e on o a o y and a signi ican con ibu o o Loyalis Roman icism. The h ee inal a icles u n o be e -known Roman ic au ho s whose w i ing e eals in o he ways he o ien a ion o he spoken wo d ha is a ea u e o so much o he pe iod’s li e a u e. Ca he ine Bois in es iga es he pe o ma i e powe o wo ds in he “F ench” books o The P elude (1805/1850). No ing Wo dswo h’s ambi alen commen s on eloquence ha appea h oughou he poem, Bois aces he many in luences on his concep ion o public speech. These include his a endance a e olu iona y deba es in he Na ional Assembly and Jacobin Club in Pa is in 1791, which appea o ha e con inced him he was unsui ed o public speaking bu which none heless ins illed a desi e o in luence he cou se o he Re olu ion h ough he powe o wo ds. The main ocus o Bois’s a icle, hough, is he philosophical in luences – di ec and indi ec – ha shape Wo dswo h’s concep ion o o a o y, and she si ua es his heo y and p ac ice wi hin a b oade Roman ic eapp aisal o classical he o ic. I is, Bois a gues, he i s e m in he A is o elian iad o e hos, logos and pa hos – he h ee modes o pe suasion which de ine classical he o ic – ha unde goes he ulles ewo king in Roman ic poe ics. Wo dswo h’s adop ion o a newly de ined e hos is cen al bo h o his poe ic pe sona and o his c ea i e p ac ice. The F ench books o The P elude a e a ocal poin o his in es iga ion o he powe o public speech and o indi idual wo ds, and Bois shows how his sec ion o he poem also con ains some his mos s iking examples o he o ical e hos ha nessed o poe ic e ec . Da id Du discusses ano he au ho who, as a as we know, ne e deli e ed a public lec u e bu who p oduced a ious kinds o w i en public add ess. These include his p in ed p ospec us o 1793 announcing his new me hod o “illumina ed p in ing” and lis ing o sale his “illumina ed books;” his p e a o y no e “To he Public” (da ed 1804) a ached o Book 1 o Je usalem; and his unpublished “Public Add ess” (c.1810), which expands his “Can e bu y Pilg ims” p ospec us in o a de ailed s a emen o his a is ic ambi ions and a ehemen In oduc ion 7 c i ique o he a is ic es ablishmen . Du ’s a icle shows how Blake’s ans- o ma ion o he now la gely o go en gen e o he p ospec us mi o s ha o o he Roman ic au ho s, and how he p ospec us as a o m o public announcemen acqui ed new scope and signi icance in he wake o he F ench Re olu ion, when la ge numbe s o new books, jou nals, newspape s and lec u e se ies launched hemsel es wi h pamphle -like p ospec uses. Blake’s de elopmen o he “public add ess” elemen o he p ospec us is ano he example o he e alua ion o public u e ance in his pe iod, connec ed in impo an ways wi h he o eg ounding o speech ac s in his li e a y wo ks (as “The Voice o he Ancien Ba d,” “The Voice o he De il,” o some o he s ongly ocal pe sona). Ou special issue concludes wi h a wide- anging a icle by Paul Hamil on on he Eu opean Roman ic ode. Using examples om English, Ge man and I alian, Hamil on explains why he ode as a gen e – in i s Pinda ic, Ho a ian and Ana- c eon ic a ian s and in new hyb id o ms which eme ged in his pe iod – assumed such impo ance in Roman ic poe ics. I is, Hamil on a gues, a “ undamen ally aspi a ional” gen e, pa icula ly he Pinda ic ode, which specializes in he a o b inkmanship, as he poe - heo is Edwa d Young had spo ed a cen u y ea lie . As such, i o e ed in ini e oppo uni ies o he aspi an poe o es he limi s o imagina ion and poe ic exp ession. Ye he ode was also, o he Roman ics, a sel - e lexi e o m which enabled poe s o analyze hei own he o ical pe o mance. Once condemned as licen ious and chao ic ( he cha ge Young had answe ed wi h his heo y o b inkmanship and poe ic “logic”), odes we e now abou hei own licence. This p o ed an e en g ea e emp a ion o he Roman ic poe , who could simul aneously push poe ic language and emo ion o hei limi s while engaging in he “sel -wa ching” and “sub ilizing” (Cole idge’s e ms, om “F os a Midnigh ”) ha we e equally congenial o he Roman ic mind. Hamil on shows how he sel - e lexi e odes o Wo dswo h, Hölde lin, Leopa di and o he s b ing o a philosophical ocus he p eoccupa ions ha shaped he con empo a y deba e on public u e ance, doing so in a medium ha exempli ied he phenomenon hey desc ibed. I is no coincidence, hen, ha we ind embedded and c i ically sc u inized in he Roman ic ode so many o he speech gen es ha ma ked he new o ali y o he e olu iona y age, whe he i be he poli ical o a ion, he oas , he con e sa ion o he oa h. Cole idge’s “F ance: An Ode” (1798), no discussed in his issue bu dese ing o men ion he e, is a case in poin . No poem be e cap u es he symbolic impac o oa hs in his pe iod (as be i s an au ho who wen on o compose “lay se mons”). Cole idge opens his desc ip ion o he F ench Re olu ion wi h a e e ence o i s ounda ional speech ac , ecalling he momen “When F ance in w a h he gian limbs up ea ’d, / And wi h ha oa h which smo e ea h, ai , and sea, / Da id Du and Ma c Po ée 8 S amp’d he s ong oo and said, she would be ee” (22-24).7 The me apho o he oo -s amping gian ampli ies he Tennis Cou Oa h in o he wo ld-shaking e en i uly was. By he end o he poem he has ejec ed he implica ions o ha p imal ac , publicly eneging on he p o-F ench s ance he had aken a he ou se o he F ench Re olu ion ( he poem was o iginally en i led “Recan a ion: An Ode”). Ye , like Wo dswo h, he pe sis s in he cul o Libe y, a den ly eclaiming i om i s misuse and misapp op ia ion by he F ench a e he in asion o Swi ze land. Wha he odal mode o enuncia ion unde lines he e is ha , wha e e he dange s o poli ical eloquence and he abuses o g and-sounding wo ds like F eedom, high- lown pa lance, oge he wi h li e al and igu a i e b inkmanship (“on ha sea-cli ’s e ge,” 99), o m an in eg al pa o English iden i y, exposing, by way o con as , “sensual” F ance, as blasphemous and d yly Vol ai ean in i s ai h in secula ins i u ions and i s mocke y o Hea en (“adul ’ ous, blind, / And pa io only in pe nicious oils!” 78-79).” The poem exul s in he expe ience, no he ins i u ion, o F eedom, el as a li ing o ce blowing in he ai . Tha such o ces blew so s ongly du ing his pe iod is undoub edly one eason o he special kind o o ali y explo ed in his issue. The ene giza ion o public speech c ea ed by he unp eceden ed oppo uni ies and challenges o he e olu iona y age had an in ensi ying e ec on all o ms o public u e ance, including he “incan a ion” o odic e se, as Shelley e med i . Unde he p essu e o an excep ional his o y, speech and w i ing en e ed in o a new, mo e dynamic ela ionship, li e a y and ex a-li e a y o ms mingled and me ged, and in e ex uali y and in e mediali y accele a ed. The w i e s able o ha ness hose o ces and ene gies – o cap u e he ib ancy o he spoken oice a elling wi h unaccus omed eloci y and eaching zones o ou sensibili y ne e be o e eached – p oduced he “mo emen ” (in he ulles sense o ha wo d) we call Roman icism. Ine i ably, ou a emp o documen his explosion o o ali y is a om exhaus i e. Among he issues no co e ed, o example, is he impac o an iconic igu e such as “O a o ” Hun , a public speake o en s igma ized as a abble- ouse . His epu a ion is made o ely la gely on a speech ne e gi en, sa agely cu sho as i was on he in amous day o he Pe e loo massac e.8 The eyes (and ea s) o his o ians ha e ecen ly been opened o his impo ance as a libe a ian 7 Quo a ions a e om Cole idge’s Poe y and P ose, ed. Nicholas Halmi, Paul Magnuson and Raimonda Modiano (New Yo k: No on, 2004). Line numbe s in pa en heses. 8 The case o he non-speech aises u he an alizing ques ions, such as: was he e a d a o he planned speech, o did Hun mos ly ely on his ex ao dina y acul ies o imp o isa ion? On he subjec o sc ip ed and unsc ip ed speeches, and he b oade ela ion be ween o al and w i en gen es, see Gilles Philippe, ed., A an -Di e. Genèse éc i e des gen es o aux, Genesis 39 (2014). In oduc ion 9 democ a poin ing he way o wa d o he Cha is challenge.9 As edi o s o he p esen jou nal issue, Hun speaks o us, oo, albei o di e en easons. His undeli e ed speech o eg ounds, amongs o he hings, he cen ali y o he speech-ac , gene a ed by and con eyed in he spoken wo d, a icula ed by he human oice, and ansmi ed ac oss a as a ay o gen es and sub-gen es. May his conspicuous absence u he ou aim in his issue which is, p ecisely, o shed ligh on he ich, new and ib an cul u e o o ali y. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aus in, J.L. How o Do Things wi h Wo ds. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 1962. Ba hes, Roland. Le Deg é zé o de l’éc i u e. Pa is: Seuil, 1953. Baudelai e, Cha les. Œu es complè es, edi ed by Claude Pichois. 2 ols. Pa is: Gallima d, 1976. Belchem, John. “O a o ” Hun : Hen y Hun and English Wo king Class Radicalism (1985). London: B e ia y S u Publica ions, 2012. Cole idge’s Poe y and P ose, edi ed by Nicholas Halmi, Paul Magnuson and Raimonda Modiano. New Yo k: No on, 2004. Du , Da id and Ma c Po ée, eds. Exiles, Émig és and Expa ia es in Roman ic-E a Pa is and London. Li e a ia P agensia 29, no. 57 (2019). Hazli , William. “M Cole idge.” In The Spi i o he Age o Con empo a y Po ai s, edi ed by E.D. Macke ness, 54-67. 2nd ed. Plymou h: No hco e House, 1991. Philippe, Gilles, ed. A an -Di e. Genèse éc i e des gen es o aux. Genesis 39 (2014). Pi ock, Mu ay. “Hen y Hun ’s Whi e Ha : The Long T adi ion o Mu e Sedi ion.” In Commemo a ing Pe e loo: Violence, Resilience, and Claim-Making du ing he Roman ic E a, edi ed by Michael Demson and Regina Hewi , 84-99. Edinbu gh: Edinbu gh Uni e si y P ess, 2019. Tacke , Timo hy. Becoming a Re olu iona y: The Depu ies o he F ench Na ional Assembly and he Eme gence o a Re olu iona y Cul u e, 1789-1790. P ince on, NJ: P ince on Uni e si y P ess, 1996. Tyniano , Yu i. “The Ode as an O a o ical Gen e” (1927). T ansla ed by Ann Shukman. New Li e a y His o y 34, no. 3 (2003): 565-96. 9 John Belchem, “O a o ” Hun : Hen y Hun and English Wo king Class Radicalism (1985; London: B e ia y S u Publica ions, 2012), 9. See also Mu ay Pi ock, “Hen y Hun ’s Whi e Ha : The Long T adi ion o Mu e Sedi ion,” in Commemo a ing Pe e loo: Violence, Resilience, and Claim-Making du ing he Roman ic E a, ed. Michael Demson and Regina Hewi (Edinbu gh: Edinbu gh Uni e si y P ess, 2019), 84-99.