Political Consumption on Social Media in Portugal: Influence on political opinions and support for social movements

Mas e ’s Deg ee P og am in Da a-D i en Ma ke ing Poli ical Consump ion on Social Media in Po ugal In luence on poli ical opinions and suppo o social mo emen s Ma ia Inês Fialho Ma iz Coelho Mas e Thesis p esen ed as pa ial equi emen o ob aining a Mas e ’s Deg ee in Da a-D i en Ma ke ing NOVA In o ma ion Managemen School Ins i u o Supe io de Es a ís ica e Ges ão de In o mação MDDM NOVA In o ma ion Managemen School Ins i u o Supe io de Es a ís ica e Ges ão de In o mação Uni e sidade No a de Lisboa Poli ical Consump ion on Social Media in Po ugal In luence on poli ical opinions and suppo o social mo emen s by Ma ia Inês Fialho Ma iz Coelho Mas e Thesis p esen ed as pa ial equi emen o ob aining he Mas e ’s deg ee in Da a- D i en Ma ke ing, wi h a specializa ion in Ma ke ing In elligence. Supe ised by Ma lon Dalmo o, PhD. No a In o ma ion Managemen School July, 2024 i STATEMENT OF INTEGRITY I he eby decla e ha ing conduc ed his academic wo k wi h in eg i y. I con i m ha I ha e no used plagia ism, any o m o undue use o in o ma ion o alsi ica ion o esul s along he p ocess leading o i s elabo a ion. I u he decla e ha I ha e ully acknowledged he Rules o Conduc and Code o Hono om he NOVA In o ma ion Managemen School. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Fi s ly, I would like o hank my amily o belie ing in me, suppo ing me, and gi ing me he oppo uni ies o pu sue my academic and p o essional goals. To my iends o hei suppo and wo ds o mo i a ion. Special hanks o my iend Inês who, like me, was also wo king on he hesis. You company du ing his p ocess was necessa y and made he challenges easie . And las bu no leas , I would like o hank P o esso Ma lon Dalmo o o his guidance and uncondi ional a ailabili y h oughou he hesis. iii ABSTRACT Social media has become a subs an ial communica ion channel o ob aining poli ical in o ma ion, ans o ming he way in which his in o ma ion is ob ained and c ea ing dynamics o in e ac ion be ween poli ics, echnology, and ci izens. This s udy in es iga es how Po uguese people use social media o consume poli ical con en and how his consump ion can in luence hei poli ical opinions and hei suppo o social mo emen s. The s udy was conduc ed using a quali a i e me hodological app oach, using in e iews wi h ac i e consume s o poli ical con en on social media and ne nog aphic analyses o wo mo emen pages. The esul s showed ha social media can in luence he o ma ion o poli ical opinions, bu he e a e also o he ac o s such as amily, educa ion, o pe sonal expe iences. In addi ion, social media is seen as a key ool o ampli ying social mo emen s and mobilizing people, al hough he sha ing o adical ac ions by mo emen s can condi ion suppo o causes and hei legi imacy. This s udy hus con ibu es o explo ing poli ical consump ion on social media in he Po uguese con ex , o e ing an insigh in o he impac o his consump ion on poli ical pa icipa ion and public opinion. Finally, ecommenda ions o u u e s udies a e o e ed, in o de o ha e a mo e longi udinal and in-dep h iew o poli ical consump ion on social media in Po ugal. KEYWORDS Poli ical consump ion; Social media; Digi al poli ical ac i ism; Consume Cul u e Theo y; Social mo emen s; Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDG): i TABLE OF CONTENTS S a emen o In eg i y…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….i Acknowledgemen s……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….ii Abs ac …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….iii Lis o Figu es………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………….... ii Lis o Tables……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………….. iii Lis o G aphics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii Lis o Abb e ia ions and Ac onyms………………………………………………………………………………….….ix 1. In oduc ion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1 2. Li e a u e e iew……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...4 2.1. Theo ical app oach o poli ical consump ion on social media………………………………..…..4 2.1.1. Consume Cul u e Theo y and i s e olu ion…………………………………………………………4 2.1.2. The con ibu ion o Consume Cul u e Theo y o poli ical consump ion on social media…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5 2.2. The concep o poli ical consump ion, poli ical consump ion on social media and digi al poli ical ac i ism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….7 2.2.1. Poli ical consump ion on social media h ough he heo ical amewo k o Consume Cul u e Theo y…………………………………………………………………………………………...7 2.2.1.1. Digi al poli ical consump ion………………………………………………………….……10 2.2.2. Digi al poli ical ac i ism……………………………………………………..……………………….……12 3. Concep ual model …………………………………………………………………………………………………..…..….14 4. Me hodology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…15 4.1.Resea ch Me hod and Techniques…………………………………………………….………….............15 4.1.1. Semi-s uc u ed in e iews…………………………………………………………………….………15 4.1.2. Ne nog aphy……………………………………………………………………………………………….….18 5. Resul s……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………20 5.1. In luence o poli ical consump ion on poli ical opinions…………………………………………..20 5.1.1. Consump ion pa e ns o poli ical con en on social media…………………………….20 5.1.2. In luence o poli ical consump ion on opinion o ma ion………………….……………21 5.1.3. C edibili y and us o poli ical con en on social media…………………………..……22 5.1.4. Le els o engagemen and i s in luence on changing opinions………………………..23 5.1.5. Ne nog aphic analysis o "eu o o.p " Ins ag am page du ing janua y 2024 and ma ch 2024……………………………………………………………………………………………………...27 5.2. In luence o poli ical consump ion on suppo o social mo emen s………………………..32 5.2.1. Ne nog aphic analysis o "climaximo.p " Ins ag am page du ing janua y 2024 and ma ch 2024…………………………………………………………………………………………….………..35 6. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….37 6.1. Poli ical consump ion on social media and i s in luence on opinion o ma ion………..37 6.2. In luence o poli ical consump ion on social media on suppo o social mo emen s.42 7. Conclusion and u u e esea ch……………………………………………………………………………………….45 7.1. Limi a ions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….46 7.2. Fu u e esea ch………………………………………………………………………………………………………..46 Bibliog aphical Re e ences………………………………………………………………………………………………….49 Appendix A …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………54 Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56 i LIST OF FIGURES Figu e 1 – Po en ial change o opinion .................................................................................... 28 Figu e 2 – Example o opinion commen ……………………………………………………………………….…….29 Figu e 3 – Example o o ensi e commen …………………………………………………………………………..29 Figu e 4 – Example o cons uc i e deba e………………………………………………………………………….30 Figu e 5 – Example o pola izing deba e………………………………………………………………………………30 Figu e 6 – Example o suppo commen ……………………………………………………………………………..35 Figu e 7 - Example o cons uc i e commen ……………………………………………………………………….35 Figu e 8 - Example o condemning commen abou he mo emen ac ions…………………………36 Figu e 9 - Example o condemning commen abou he a emp o boyco he elec ions…..36 Figu e 10 - Suppo e and non-suppo e deba e…………………………………………………………………37 ii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 - In e iew analysis ca ego ies………………………………………………………………………………..15 Table 2 - In e iewees cha ac e iza ion……………………………………………………………………………….17 Table 3 - Ne nog aphy analysis ca ego ies…………………………………………………………………………..19 Table 4 - Resul s o he in luence o poli ical consump ion on poli ical opinions………………….24 Table 5 - Resul s o ne nog aphic analysis o "eu o o.p ” Ins ag am page……………………………30 Table 6 - Resul s o he in luence o poli ical consump ion on he suppo o social mo emen s…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..33 Table 7 - Resul s o “climaximo.p ” ne nog aphic analysis Ins ag am page………………………….37 5 and can be conside ed ex ensions o people's "sel " (Belk, Ex ended sel in a digi al wo ld, 2013). A he same ime, i can change he dynamics o powe and poli ics, as social mo emen s and poli ical campaigns can mobilize suppo , dissemina e in o ma ion, and allow in e ac ion wi h and om hei ollowe s h ough hese pla o ms (Benne & Sege be g, 2012). In conclusion, CCT o e s a comp ehensi e unde s anding o consump ion, de ailing i s e olu ion, mul idimensional app oach, and i s ela ionship wi h cul u e, consump ion, and socie y. 2.1.2. THE CONTRIBUTION OF CONSUMER CULTURE THEORY TO POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON SOCIAL MEDIA Johnson e al. (2019) poin o an app oach o he concep o poli ical consump ion ha guides his esea ch. The idea ha poli ical consump ion has a collec i e cha ac e , whe e ac ions a e molded by he in luence o o he s who sha e he same ideology, is con ibu ed by CCT. Acco ding o he de ini ion o A nould and Thompson (2005), indica ed abo e, CCT places cul u al meanings in he ela ionship be ween consume s and he ma ke . Thus, in poli ical consump ion, indi iduals end up being in luenced by he cul u al meanings associa ed wi h he ideologies hey sha e. Fo example, he meanings ha an indi idual a aches o he p inciple o equali y and eedom o o gende issues can de ine poli ical decisions ega ding he ideology wi h which hey iden i y. Thus, his de ini ion o CCT helps us o unde s and how indi iduals, h ough cul u al meanings, o ganize hemsel es in o g oups wi h he same ideology and hei consump ion beha io . In his sense, when hey see a ce ain poli ical commen , con en o a icle on social media ha mee s hei cul u al meanings, hese end up ha ing mo e in luence on he indi idual because hey sha e he same exp essed ideology. Conside ing Cheng e al. (2023), people's poli ical beha io can be in luenced by social media exposu e o poli ical in o ma ion, bu his also depends on how hey unde s and he issue being discussed and he p eexis ing belie s and meanings hey may ha e abou i . This is in line wi h Ga e (2009) who a gues ha al hough social media can in luence opinions, o en “when selec ing om a a ie y o news s o ies ep esen ing a ange o poli ical opinions, 6 indi iduals consis en ly seek suppo o hei own posi ions”, which may be based on hese belie s ha Cheng e al. (2023) e e s o. Fu he mo e, one o S olle, Hooghe and Michele i (2005) key indings was ha poli ical consump ion is mainly a ac ic used by people who dis us poli ical ins i u ions. They obse ed ha poli ical consume s “a e us a ed wi h mains eam poli ical ins i u ions and hey alue he e iciency o con en ional o ms o pa icipa ion less han we would expec ”. On he o he hand, poli ical consume s ha e highe le els o us in hei ellow ci izens. In his sense, conside ing ha CCT iews consume s as indi iduals seeking means o exp essing hei iden i y and alues, hey can choose poli ical consump ion me hods ha enable hem o exp ess hei belie s o dissa is ac ion like social media social mo emen s, social media poli ical o ums o deba es in commen sec ions. A he same ime, hese consume s end up us ing mo emen s o indi iduals on social media ha hey us and conside c edible and who can ha e an in luence on hem, emo ing he powe o in luence om he adi ional media (Chadwick, The hyb id media sys em: Poli ics and powe , 2017). Alongside his, acco ding o Boulianne (2022), people a e becoming mo e ac i e in e ms o hei poli ical consump ion h ough social media, i.e. people a e sel -mobilizing o engage wi h poli ical con en . Social ne wo ks play a key ole in enabling his p ocess o sel - mobiliza ion, p o iding people wi h a ange o poli ical consump ion op ions, including he abili y o sha e poli ical con en online, ake pa in online poli ical con e sa ions, p epa e mani es a ions and so on (Boulianne, 2022). This ac i e pa icipa ion h ough social ne wo ks ul ima ely demons a es how hese consume s a e cons uc ing meanings h ough he b oadcas o poli ical messaging, in he same way CCT emphasizes he p oduc ion o cul u al meanings. Fu he mo e, sha ing poli ical con en , pa icipa ing in poli ical deba es and o he o ms o poli ical consump ion end up being o ms o he social in luence men ioned by A nould and Thompson (2015) in he hi d axis o CCT. In his hi d axis, A nould and Thompson (2015) s udied how di e en social g oups can come in o con lic o e esou ces. T ansposing his o poli ical consump ion, his helps o unde s and how his con lic mani es s i sel in poli ical deba es on social media, whe e use s wi h di e en poli ical ideologies seek o suppo , disag ee wi h, o in luence o he use s. Fo 7 Suns ein (2018), hese disag eemen s on social media a e c ea ing pola iza ion and agmen a ion in socie y, as well as con ibu ing o he c ea ion o eco-chambe s. Fu he mo e, he ou h axis men ioned by A nould and Thompson (2015), can help explain he poli ical consump ion o Po uguese use s who a e om ce ain egions o he coun y ha a e cul u ally associa ed wi h ce ain poli ical ideologies and cul u al belie s. Fo example, he Riba ejo egion, which is s ongly in luenced by bull igh ing adi ions, will easily come in o con lic wi h people who a e ac i e and speak ou in de ense o animals and hei igh s. To summa ize, CCT o e s us a heo e ical lens o unde s anding poli ical consump ion p ac ices on social media. 2.2. THE CONCEPT OF POLTICAL CONSUMPTION, POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON SOCIAL MEDIA AND DIGITAL POLITICAL ACTIVISM 2.2.1. POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON SOCIAL MEDIA TROUGH THE THEORICAL FRAMEWORK OF CONSUMER CULTURE THEORY Fo Michele i (2003), he main p omo e behind s udies o poli ical consump ion, poli ical consump ion happens when consume s make conscious decisions abou wha hey a e buying o in luence poli ical, social, en i onmen al, o o he issues. She also cha ac e izes hese ac ions as "indi idualized collec i e ac ions" since hey se e he indi idual's "sel -in e es " as well as he "common good" (Michele i, Poli ical i ue and shopping: Indi iduals, consume ism, and collec i e ac ion, 2003). Howe e , while Michele i (2003) highligh s he indi idualize ac ion o poli ical consump ion, Bossy (2014) emphasizes he collec i e dimension, conside ing i a social mo emen . In his ega d, Bossy (2014) de ines poli ical consump ion as a poli iciza ion o he ac o buying in o de o seek ou and suppo new o ms o consump ion, ca ied ou by a g oup o indi idual and collec i e ac o s who c i icize and y o b eak away om adi ional o ms o consump ion. Meanwhile, Boulianne e al. (2022) highligh he powe o poli ical consump ion in a global con ex , de ining i as a o m o poli ical beha io ha goes beyond bo de s and c ea es oppo uni ies o in luence global poli ics. In an inc easingly globalized economy, his in luence 8 is conside ed impo an because he e a e no o mal spaces whe e people can exp ess hei poli ical opinions o di ec ly in luence en i onmen al and e hical business measu es (Boulianne, Copeland, & Koc-Michalska, Digi al media and poli ical consume ism in he Uni ed S a es, Uni ed Kingdom, and F ance, 2022). Fo his eason and acco ding o Johnson e al (2019), he li e a u e p esen s wo app oaches o de ine poli ical consump ion. The i s sees poli ical consump ion as an indi idual beha io ha is mo i a ed by he consume 's pe sonal alues. The second, as men ioned in he p e ious opic, sees poli ical consump ion as a collec i e ac ion, in luenced by o he people who sha e he same ideology (Johnson, Hall-Phillips, Chung, & Cho, A e you connec ed h ough consump ion? The ole o hash ags in poli ical consump ion., 2019). So, hese wo app oaches show ha poli ical consump ion can be bo h a pe sonal decision based on indi idual alues and a collec i e ac ion shaped by ex e nal in luences such as iends, amily o g oups ha sha e he same goals and hough s on ce ain issues. As men ioned abo e, he la e app oach guides his esea ch. In addi ion o his, we can also associa e poli ical consump ion wi h social mo emen s, as Bossy has al eady done (2014). Boulianne e al. (2022) by highligh ing he impac o poli ical consump ion in he global con ex , unde lining i s abili y o shape poli ical, e hical, en i onmen al and business issues wo ldwide, ends up indi ec ly linking i o in e na ional social mo emen s ha seek changes in hese issues h ough "poli ical beha io ". Michele i (2003), on he o he hand, conside s poli ical consump ion as "indi idualized poli ical ac ions", highligh ing ha al hough he ac ions a e ca ied ou indi idually, he aim is o b ing abou collec i e change, and ends up aligning he concep o poli ical consump ion wi h social mo emen s. Because acco ding o Weijo e al (2018), social mo emen s a e ini ia i es by o dina y ci izens who seek social change in a conscious and de e mined way. The ela ionship be ween hese wo pe spec i es lies in bo h au ho s ecogni ion o he po en ial collec i e impac ha can esul om indi idual e o s wi h sha ed goals, since e en in he con ex o collec i e mobiliza ion, e e yone has an indi idual mo i a ion and con ibu es o he o e all goal. When hese indi idualized collec i e ac ions become la ge mo emen s, hey a e mos ly o ganized h ough digi al media, he eby aligning wi h Ta ow (1998), who belie es in he undamen al ole ha he dissemina ion o in o ma ion can play in mobilizing 9 suppo e s o social mo emen s. Some imes by poli ical ins i u ions and some imes wi h masses using social media coo dina e he mo emen (Benne , 2012). Acco ding o King and Pea ce (2010), social mo emen s can play se e al oles: a ac ing he media, c ea ing new ma ke s, legi imizing new ca ego ies and encou aging new en ep eneu s. By a ac ing he media, ac i is s use he media o gain public in e es and suppo o hei causes. Th ough hese means, social mo emen s can ha e an e ec by a ac ing he a en ion o he media, since he media ansmi public e en s in o he public sphe e (Oli e & Mye s, How e en s en e he public sphe e: Con lic , loca ion, and sponso ship in local newspape co e age o public e en s, 1999). When i comes o c ea ing new ma ke o ms, social mo emen s seek o ans o m exis ing no ms and alues in ma ke s uc u es and es ablish new ideas and alues (Rao & Gio gi, Code b eaking: How en ep eneu s exploi cul u al logics o gene a e ins i u ional change, 2006), ha is, new ma ke al e na i es. These social mo emen s a e also essen ial o legi imizing hese new al e na i es, "p omo ing inno a ion and helping en ep eneu s o o e come ine ia" (King & Pea ce, The con en iousness o ma ke s: Poli ics, social mo emen s, and ins i u ional change in ma ke s, 2010). Thus, d awing pa allels wi h mo e poli ical and social issues, a social mo emen seeks new al e na i es o exis ing social and poli ical pa e ns, always ying o gi e a oice o hose who wan o make ha change. These mo emen s a e conside ed success ul in b inging abou social change i hey manage o aise he isibili y o he cause hey a e p omo ing and i hey manage o legi imize i (King & Pea ce, The con en iousness o ma ke s: Poli ics, social mo emen s, and ins i u ional change in ma ke s, 2010). In conclusion, he ela ionship be ween poli ical consump ion and social mo emen s is in insic and shows he ole ha consume s can play in con ibu ing o social change h ough hei choices. In his sense, in he con ex o poli ical consump ion, social mo emen s end up being a pla o m o collec i e exp ession in which indi iduals sha e he same discon en and in en ions o change. When hese social mo emen s manage o legi imize hei causes and 10 gain isibili y, he ine ia o social, en i onmen al, poli ical, o economic s uc u es and ins i u ions is o e come, b inging hem close o he ans o ma ions hey a e seeking. 2.2.1.1. DIGITAL POLITICAL CONSUMPTION Gi en he p e alence o social media in cu en imes, i 's essen ial o comp ehend how hey in luence poli ical consump ion. F om his pe spec i e, social media can be de ined as a collec ion o apps buil on Web 2.0 concep s and echnologies ha le use s p oduce and dis ibu e o iginal con en (Kaplan & Haenlein, Use s o he wo ld, uni e! The challenges and oppo uni ies o Social Media, 2010). Fu he mo e, indi iduals can access and use he in o ma ion a ailable on hese pla o ms, as well as pa icipa e by o e ing hei opinions (Hwang & Kim, Social media as a ool o social mo emen s: The e ec o social media use and social capi al on in en ion o pa icipa e in social mo emen s, 2015) and no only pos ideos and images. In his way, since social ne wo ks a e pla o ms o in e ac ion be ween people, he e is a e y a o able en i onmen o he exchange o in o ma ion ha acili a es people's in ol emen in impo an issues in oday's socie y (Hwang & Kim, Social media as a ool o social mo emen s: The e ec o social media use and social capi al on in en ion o pa icipa e in social mo emen s, 2015). In his sense, elec o al campaigns a e becoming inc easingly dependen on social media, as ci izens and poli icians include hem in hei o ms o communica ion (Vacca i e al., 2013). This is becoming inc easingly ele an o democ acy, as a g owing numbe o ci izens use social media o ind ou abou poli ics, ge in ol ed in he poli ical p ocess and ake pa in nume ous la ge and small-scale public mobiliza ions (Vacca i e al., 2013). In addi ion, by sha ing hei poli ical iews on social media, indi iduals end up p omo ing poli ical deba e and exposing hemsel es o new pe spec i es and in o ma ion ha can shape hei iews (Cheng, Zhang, & Gil de Zuniga, An eceden s o poli ical consume ism: Modeling online, social media and Wha sApp news use e ec s h ough poli ical exp ession and poli ical discussion, 2023). Acco ding o he esul s o he s udy ca ied ou by Boulianne e al (2022) abou F ance, he Uni ed S a es and he Uni ed Kingdom, ac i i ies such as discussing poli ics online, joining g oups on social ne wo ks and sea ching o in o ma ion on hese pla o ms ha e a s ong co ela ion wi h he beha io associa ed wi h poli ical consump ion. 11 In his way, by being in eg a ed in o use s' daily li es and acili a ing he managemen o a ious social ela ionships, social media can di ec ly and indi ec ly p omo e poli ical pa icipa ion and in o ma ion, ac ing as ca alys s o online and o line dialogues be ween ci izens (Vacca i e al., 2013). Benne (2012) also emphasizes he ole o social media as acili a o s o collec i e ac ion, as i is o en om hem ha la ge-scale mo emen s o bo h poli ical ins i u ions and indi iduals a e bo n. Th ough he s udy ca ied ou by Bimbe and Copeland (2013) in he Ame ican con ex , we can see how he ela ionship be ween poli ical consump ion and he in e ne has e ol ed o e he yea s. Be ween 1996 and 2004, hese wo au ho s concluded ha he use o he In e ne o ob ain poli ical in o ma ion had no in luence on poli ical pa icipa ion. Howe e , be ween 2000 and 2008, his ela ionship a ied depending on poli ical ac i i y. Fo example, acco ding o he esul s, he e was a s ong co ela ion be ween he use o he In e ne o ob ain poli ical in o ma ion and he abili y o pe suade o he people poli ically. In o he wo ds, indi iduals who sea ched o poli ical in o ma ion on he in e ne we e be e able o in luence o he people's poli ical opinions h ough a ious pe suasi e means. Howe e , his ela ionship was less clea in poli ical ac i i ies such as o ing, wo king on campaigns, o a ending poli ical e en s. The yea 2008 s ands ou wi h he in luence o social media since he au ho s no ed a signi ican co ela ion be ween iewing poli ical in o ma ion online and aking pa in poli ical ac i i ies. This is explained by he expansion and consolida ion o social media a he ime and he Obama campaign, which ook ad an age o social media o mobilize o e s and ge i s message ac oss, ma king a u ning poin be ween social media and poli ical pa icipa ion. Thus, acco ding o Cheng e al. (2023), access o online news allows ci izens o con inuously s ay in o med abou hei go e nmen , companies, and public ins i u ions, making hem mo e likely o ake poli ical ac ion in he con ex o poli ical consump ion. In his sense, ci izens a e mo e likely o be awa e o essen ial in o ma ion when using social media, which can igge ac i is ac ions. In his way, he ole o social media in he poli ical sphe e is becoming inc easingly impo an , ans o ming he dynamic be ween ci izen in ol emen in poli ics and poli ical consump ion. By allowing use s o c ea e, sha e and discuss con en , hese pla o ms ha e 12 become essen ial o he exchange o poli ical in o ma ion and he ac i e pa icipa ion o ci izens. The abili y o social ne wo ks o p omo e poli ical deba es, expose indi iduals o di e se poli ical pe spec i es, mobilize collec i e ac ion and in luence elec o al campaigns shows he impo ance o hese pla o ms in oday's democ acy and hei impac on shaping public opinion, poli ical beha io and mobilizing ac i is ac ions in he digi al sphe e. 2.2.2. DIGITAL POLITICAL ACTIVISM Gene ally speaking, he e m "ac i ism" is used o desc ibe ci izen-led in e en ions in he public space ha aim o imp o e socie y h ough poli ical, economic, en i onmen al o social change (Neumaye , Ac i ism, 2020). Fo Ma che i (2016), ac i ism is an ac ion ha suppo s o opposes a pa icula poli ical o social issue. Al hough ac i ism is ypically associa ed wi h si -ins, s ikes, io s, iolen con on a ions and a ious o ms o ci il disobedience, he e a e o he al e na i es o p essu izing go e nmen s and policymake s (Neumaye , Ac i ism, 2020), such as he ac ions aken by he su age es. The o igin o he wo d "ac i ism" da es o 1915, when a pe i ion o end Sweden's neu ali y in he Fi s Wo ld Wa was p esen ed by Swedish ac i is s (Ma che i, 2016). Howe e , i is belie ed ha his e m was used be o e his wi h he eme gence o cinema og aphic ac i ism (Ma che i, 2016). An example o his is he 1913 ilm "Wha 80 million Women wan " by Will Lewis, which b ough he su age e mo emen men ioned abo e o he big sc een. Since he newspape s o he ime epo ed hei ac ions e y a ely and poli icians e used o lis en o hei demands, hese women decided o expe imen wi h a new medium and in e up ed a TV news eel, ge ing hei message ac oss o he audience hey wan ed, wo king class women (Hu chinson, 2015). Howe e , in he s udies o ac i ism, he media played a educed ole, no being he main ac o s in he o ma ion and p omo ion o social mo emen s, bu a he acili a o s o his o ma ion and p omo ion (Neumaye , Ac i ism, 2020). Wi h he eme gence o he In e ne , Web 2.0, social media and o he digi al media, s udies began o ocus on how hese new ways o communica ing and dissemina ing in o ma ion could be used o mobilize suppo o ce ain causes and enable ci izens who a e no associa ed wi h any speci ic o ganiza ion o ac oge he (Neumaye , Ac i ism, 2020). Wi h his ansi ion o digi al, he e m "Digi al 13 Ac i ism" was also bo n, used o desc ibe di e en o ms o ac i ism ha use digi al echnologies as a ehicle (Ge baudo, F om cybe -au onomism o cybe -populism: An ideological analysis o he e olu ion o digi al ac i ism, 2017). Acco ding o Ge baudo (2017), we can dis inguish be ween wo s ages o digi al ac i ism. The 1990s saw he ise o he in e ne and an i-globaliza ion mo emen s du ing he i s phase, while he ise o social media and hei impac on online o ganizing and mobiliza ion, along wi h he expansion o hacke mo emen s, de ined he second phase (Ge baudo, F om cybe -au onomism o cybe -populism: An ideological analysis o he e olu ion o digi al ac i ism, 2017). The au ho a gues ha he discussion a ound digi al ac i ism o en akes a echno-de e minis ic app oach, iewing echnology as he p ima y d i e o social change and ac i is e o s. Howe e , Hu chinson (2019) conside s ha we can’ limi he e m "digi al ac i ism" in his sense and s a es ha "digi al ac i ism is, in many ways, a combina ion o a ious app oaches o p o es , isibili y, mobiliza ion and ac i i y". By his, he au ho means ha his phenomenon in ol es a combina ion o p o es s h ough digi al channels, hei isibili y ampli ied by hese channels and he mobiliza ion o ac i e membe s who also p omo e he mo emen in ques ion. Fu he mo e, Ka a zogianni (2015) analyses he e olu ion o digi al ac i ism in ou phases ins ead o wo like Ge baudo (2017). Fo his au ho , each phase is associa ed wi h speci ic mo emen s be ween 1994 and 2014. Like Ge baudo (2017), he i s phase is associa ed wi h an i-globaliza ion mo emen s be ween 1994 and 2001, he second phase encompasses mo emen s agains he I aq wa be ween 2001 and 2007 and he hi d phase is ela ed o he B azil, India, Russia and China (BRICs) mo emen as ha ing an impo an ole in digi al ac i ism (Ka a zogianni, Fi eb and wa es o digi al ac i ism 1994-2014: The ise and sp ead o hack i ism and cybe con lic , 2015). The ou h phase is ma ked by he consolida ion o digi al ac i ism wi h he Snowden and Wikileaks mo emen s, which is compa able o Ge baudo's (2017) second phase wi h he eme gence o hacke mo emen s ha challenge powe s uc u es, hei secu i y sys ems and da a p i acy wi h he disclosu e o con iden ial in o ma ion. 14 In his way, since he In e ne and social media ha e become mo e p e alen in communica ion, ac i ism, which used o be mainly linked o di ec ac i i ies such as s ikes, p o es s, o io s and using adi ional media as message ehicles, has begun o include new channels o dissemina ing in o ma ion. In his way, Neumaye (2020) conside s ha he way people exp ess hei ac i is iden i y and o ganize g oups online and he mobiliza ion o people o ake pa in campaigns o p o es s can be ac i is o ms o digi al ac ion. So, by using he po en ial o digi al media o mobilize, communica e and p omo e causes, adi ional ac i ism has adap ed o he digi al sphe e. Wi h his adap a ion comes he e m "digi al ac i ism", which o some sugges s ha echnology is he main d i e o social change and echnological ac i ism is an ine i able consequence o echnological ad ancemen . Fo o he s, social change is he esul o a complex collabo a ion be ween human ac ions and echnology. Thus, he e m ac i ism can be unde s ood oday as a o m o esis ance ha akes place h ough di e en media, bo h adi ional and digi al, which ha e he powe o ansmi he na a i es, alues and in o ma ion ha a e associa ed wi h a pa icula cause o social mo emen (Neumaye , Ac i ism, 2020). In addi ion o his, we ealized wi h Weijo e al. (2018) ha hese social mo emen s happen when people sha e simila conce ns and o ganize hemsel es, mobilizing di e en esou ces in o de o b ing abou change. In his sense, ac i ism comes om indi iduals. In o he wo ds, i is an indi idual mo i a ion, which uni es wi h o he s and o ms hese collec i e mo emen s. In summa y, poli ical ac i ism has changed subs an ially wi h he eme gence o he in e ne and social ne wo ks, compa ed o i s con en ional o m o p o es in he pas . The way ac i is s ha e begun o o ganize hemsel es in he digi al age has changed he way social mo emen s o ganize, mobilize and communica e, e lec ing no only echnological ad ances in socie y, bu also he collabo a ion be ween human ac ion and echnology. 3. CONCEPTUAL MODEL Poli ical Consump ion on Social Media in Po ugal In luence on poli ical opinions Suppo o Social Mo emen s Shaping opinions In ol emen and Ampli ying Causes Consum ion pa e ns C edibili y and us Deba es 21 poli ical con en and unde s and how ha consump ion a ec s hei poli ical ideas and suppo o social mo emen s. 5.1. INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON POLITICAL OPINIONS 5.1.1. CONSUMPTION PATTERNS OF POLITICAL CONTENT ON SOCIAL MEDIA Conside ing he dimension o consump ion pa e ns, he e a e ou aspec s o highligh om he in e iews. Fi s ly, he use o social media o consume poli ical con en seems o be equen among he in e iewees, wi h many indica ing ha hey consume poli ical con en on social media on a daily o almos daily basis. Secondly, hey seek ou and a e impac ed by di e en ypes o con en such as opinion a icles, news, pos s by poli ical pa ies, and also ollow he opinions o poli ical commen a o s on social media, as well as indi iduals wi h some no o ie y. Fu he mo e, he p o iles and pages hey ollow a e also di e se, anging om he pages o poli ical pa ies wi h pa liamen a y sea s o he pages o Po uguese newspape s, poli ical pe sonali ies, humo is s, non-pa isan mo emen s and indi iduals wi h equen poli ical opinions. Rega ding he impac o social media on poli ical consump ion, many poin ed o he way in which hese pla o ms ha e democ a ized access o in o ma ion, “wi h mo e in o ma ion o sha e wi h mo e people” (Ri a), “as con en is much mo e accessible, quicke and easie o consume” (Ped o). This change “ he way people consume and expe ience poli ics because be o e, ci izens mainly had access o adi ional sou ces such as newspape s and ele ision, bu now, h ough social media, hey can ge a a ie y o pe spec i es and opinions in eal ime” (Ma a). This democ a ic ole poin ed ou by some in e iewees can be suppo ed by Cheng e al. (2023), men ioned ea lie , abou how access o online news allows ci izens o s ay in o med abou a ious poli ical issues, showing he democ a iza ion o access o in o ma ion. Howe e , hose in e iewed also showed some conce n ha social media also allow easy access o alse in o ma ion and “help pola ize poli ics, in which people al eady ha e some lack o powe o e lec ” (Ma alda) due o “… e y as consump ion, o en decon ex ualized” (Ma alda). Fu he mo e, hese pla o ms also help o “ agmen public opinion, as people a e o en only exposed o poin s o iew ha con i m hei own ideas” (Ma a). This can happen 22 due o algo i hms, ha “o en highligh s sensa ionalis con en ha can a o en e ainmen o e he poli ical deba e i sel ” (Raquel) and “echo chambe s, ha can cause people o become adicalized on ce ain issues” (Joana). This is in line wi h he Suns ein (2018) and wi h he il e bubble heo y de eloped by Pa ise (2011) , which heo izes ha algo i hms expose use s o in o ma ion ha only ein o ces wha hey al eady hink, wi hou any con adic ion. 5.1.2. INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON OPINION FORMATION Rega ding he in luence ha he consump ion o poli ical con en on social media can ha e on people's poli ical opinions, he in e iewees' esponses show di e en pe spec i es. While some admi o being in luenced a ce ain imes by wha hey consume, o he s a ibu e his in luence on o he ac o s as well, such as amily and hei educa ion, social ci cles, hei li e expe iences, o he communica ion b oadcas on ele ision. Nine o he in e iewees also admi o econside ing hei opinions as a esul o hei consump ion o poli ical con en . The easons highligh ed a e he ac ha hey a e o en p esen ed wi h “di e en pe spec i es o he ones hey had” (Raquel), which end up making sense o hem, especially i hey don' ha e “much knowledge abou he subjec ” (Diogo) and hey ealize ha he ideas hey had on a ce ain subjec may no be so igh . I should also be no ed ha he in e iewees alue he ac ha di e en poin s o iew a e submi ed on social media, as hey belie e his helps hem o ha e a mo e “sus ained and in o med opinion” (Raquel) on he issues unde discussion. 5.1.3. CREDIBILITY AND TRUST OF POLITICAL CONTENT ON SOCIAL MEDIA When e alua ing he in e iewees' answe s o he ques ion o he c edibili y o he con en , a common p ac ice was no ed. Many o he in e iewees check he con en o he in o ma ion p esen ed o hem on social media, consul ing di e en sou ces in o de o ealize he au hen ici y o he in o ma ion. Fu he mo e, Ma alda highligh s he impo ance o he con ex o he image, o he quo es men ioned in he pos s, ideos... Fo he , “i is impo an o unde s and he si ua ion and ci cums ances o ce ain images, ce ain speeches” in o de o e alua e he c edibili y. I is also no iceable ha many men ions mains eam media (CNN Po ugal, SIC No ícias, BBC, Exp esso, Público, ...) as c edible sou ces because hey belie e hem o be media ha p esen eliable in o ma ion. Ana, Ped o, Ma alda and Raquel o example, made i clea ha hey 23 p e e sou ces wi h his o ical accu acy, “mainly eliable news media wi h a his o y o accu a e epo ing and con ex -app op ia e co e age”, men ioning pages om adi ional media and p o iles o academics in he case o Ma alda. O he s also add p o iles o jou nalis s and p ominen indi iduals in he ield since hey alue hei app oaches and pe spec i es on poli ical issues. Rega ding he in luence o his c edibili y on he o ma ion o opinions, all in e iewees ag ee ha i will always ha e an impac because “c edible in o ma ion leads o an in o med and ac -based opinion, bu alse in o ma ion leads o an un ounded opinion and misin o ma ion” (Raquel), again showing conce ns abou hese nega i e impac s wi h Ma ga ida men ioning he dange ha “lack o in o ma ion can shape opinions”. These esul s ul ima ely e u e he indings o Flanagin and Me zge (2000) which indica ed ha people gene ally don' check he in o ma ion hey ind on he in e ne , wi h esponden s answe ing ‘ a ely’ o ‘occasionally’. The ew people who check ocus on aspec s ha a e easy o assess, such as whe he o no he in o ma ion is cu en o incomple e. Fac o s such as he sou ce, which ou in e iewees poin ou as being impo an , a e no conside ed by hese esponden s. 5.1.4. LEVELS OF ENGAGEMENT WITH POLITICAL CONTENT AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHANGING OPINIONS Rega ding he in e ac ion hey make wi h poli ical con en on social media, di e en ypes o engagemen a e p esen ed such as sha ing, liking, commen ing and in he case o Ma alda publishing pe sonal e lec ions/opinions, “I' e done a li le ex , a li le e lec ion in a s o y, bu i 's a e. Bu I don' know, I eel like now maybe I'll s a doing mo e…”. In e iewees, such as Ana and Ped o, a e mo e ac i e consume s, sha ing and commen ing on con en , “I usually sha e and commen ”, “I eac o some imes commen on Ins ag am”, as well as Miguel, “I hink wha I do mos o en is likes and commen s on pos s” and Ri a, “I in e ac in he commen s sec ion o pos s, I like a lo o pos s, I sha e, almos always on Twi e ”. O he s such as Joana (“I ne e in e ac wi h any hing and I don' like any hing apa om publica ions ela ed o mobili y policies”), and Ma ga ida (“only like and sha e wi h iends”) p e e o consume mo e passi ely wi hou in e ac ing so ac i ely. Inês and Diogo o en p e e s p i a e 24 g oup cha s o sha e poli ical con en and commen on hem he e, p o ing he ange o poli ical consump ion op ions poin ed ou be o e by Boulianne (2022). When i comes o pa icipa e in poli ical deba e on social media, he answe s a y. Ana and Ma a, o example, i in hese deba es hey ind opinions ha di e g ea ly om hei own, hey “ eel he need o commen o o e a di e en pe spec i e” and Ri a chooses o pa icipa e when she “disag ees wi h he poin s o iew p esen ed”. On he o he hand, Ma alda hinks “i 's e y exhaus ing because he e a e people who hide behind ce ain p o iles and don' ha e a cons uc i e opinion” and Joana sees hese deba es as “dange ous because hey can ge in o echo chambe s and can become adicalized on ce ain issues”, choosing no o pa icipa e in public deba es on social media, showing some conce n abou he nega i i y in hese o ums, he lack o cons uc i e dialogue and he po en ial o con e sa ions ha a e no p oduc i e a all. Diogo only do i “in p i a e g oups o amily and iends”, whe e he eels “mo e com o able discussing ma e s”, Miguel “don' eally like o pa icipa e in commen boxes because he people who li e he e quickly escala e he discussion o pe sonal a acks” and p e e s “ o alk and discuss in pe son and in con olled spaces”. Inês ne e pa icipa ed “publicly”, jus “in p i a e o ums wi h iends and amily”. On he impac o hese deba es on changing he poli ical opinions o hose in e iewed, he answe s also a y. Ana, Ped o and Ma a don' emembe changing hei minds a e a deba e. Ana because she belie es ha wha she eads in commen s is “a lo o pe sonal opinion ha a ies acco ding o ideology”, which is in line wi h Joana's opinion who don´ pa icipa e in deba es and doub s abou he impac ha hese deba es can ha e on changing opinions due o he p e alence o echo chambe s. Ped o, because he says ha when he pa icipa es, he al eady has his own opinion on he subjec (“when I ake pa , i 's because I al eady ha e an opinion.”) and Ma a, al hough she doesn' change he mind, she alues he di e en pe spec i es she can ind in hese discussions, “some con e sa ions can p omo e g ea e unde s anding and e en show di e en poin s o iew on he same subjec ”. Diogo and Raquel admi ha ing al eady changed hei minds a e a poli ical deba e and he easons a e he expose o “di e en pe spec i es” and new in o ma ion on he subjec and due o a lack o knowledge o he opics, in Diogo's case speci ically, “yes, i has happened, especially in deba es on inancial ma e s ha I ha e less knowledge o ”. Miguel doesn' admi ha ing changed his mind, bu he does admi ha ing “become sensi i e o ce ain a gumen s”. 25 Addi ionally, he in e iewees exp essed hei iew on he impo ance o aking pa in hese deba es and he esponses we e pola ized in wo ways. While some alue hese deba es as hey o e an exposu e o di e en pe spec i es and allow misin o ma ion o be co ec ed as men ioned by Cheng, Zhang and Gil de Zuniga (2023), o he s doub hei ole, as hey belie e i is a space whe e he e a e no cons uc i e dialogues and whe e people who li e in echo chambe s come in o con lic . Dimension Ca ego y Resul s Consump ion Pa e ns F equency o consump ion Daily o almos daily Type o con en consumed Opinion a icles, news, poli ical pa y pos s, opinions o poli ical commen a o s, opinions o indi iduals wi h some no o ie y in poli ics Poli ical pages and p o iles ollowed Poli ical pa ies, Po uguese newspape s, poli ical igu es, comedians, non-pa isan mo emen s, pe sonali ies Changes and impac s o poli ical consump ion caused by social media Posi i e: democ a iza ion o access o in o ma ion, mo e accessible and as e con en Nega i e: easy access o ake news, poli ical pola iza ion, agmen a ion o public opinion In luence on poli ical opinion In luence on poli ical opinion Some admi o being in luenced by wha hey consume, o he s a ibu e his in luence on o he ac o s: amily, educa ion, social ci cles, li e expe iences, communica ion b oadcas on ele ision Table 4 – Resul s o he in luence o poli ical consump ion on poli ical opinions 26 Fac o s o in luence Exposu e o di e en pe spec i es leads o econside a ion, especially i hey ha e li le knowledge in he a ea unde discussion Exis ence o change o opinion by poli ical con en consumed on social media Nine ou o ele en in e iewees admi o ha ing al eady changed hei mind because o some hing hey saw on social media C edibili y and T us C edibili y Assessmen The e is an assessmen by he in e iewees T us ed Sou ces P o iles o adi ional media ou le s, p o iles o poli ical igu es who a e e e enced and academics In o ma ion Ve i ica ion Ve i ica ion o in o ma ion is unanimous Impac o C edibili y on Opinion Fo ma ion All in e iewees ag ee ha ha e an impac because c edible in o ma ion leads o an in o med opinion, alse in o ma ion leads o an un ounded opinion and misin o ma ion Engagemen Types o in e ac ion Sha es, likes, commen s and in he case o Ma alda publishing pe sonal e lec ions/opinions Pa icipa ion in poli ical deba es on social media Some pa icipa e o o e di e en pe spec i es; o he s a oid due o nega i i y and lack o cons uc i e dialogue Exis ence o change o opinion a e aking pa in poli ical deba es on social media Ana, Ped o and Ma a don' emembe changing hei minds a e a deba e. Joana, Inês e Ma ga ida don´ pa icipa e in deba es. Ped o, when he pa icipa es, he al eady has his own opinion on he subjec 27 and Ma a, al hough she doesn' change he mind, she alues he di e en pe spec i es she can ind in hese discussions. Diogo and Raquel admi ha ing al eady changed hei minds a e a poli ical deba e. Miguel doesn' admi ha ing changed his mind, bu he does admi ha ing become sensi i e o ce ain a gumen s. Impo ance o poli ical deba es on social media Some alue he exposu e o di e en pe spec i es and allow misin o ma ion o be co ec ed, o he s doub hei ole, as hey belie e i is a space whe e he e a e no cons uc i e dialogues and whe e people Who li e in echo chambe s come in o con lic . The esul s, p esen ed in summa y in able 4, showed ha he consump ion o poli ical con en on social ne wo ks among hose in e iewed is daily and ha wha hey consume can indeed in luence hei opinions, bu he e a e also o he ac o s. Ul ima ely, he democ a iza ion o access o in o ma ion and exposu e o di e en pe spec i es a e seen as bene i s. Howe e , misin o ma ion, he pola iza ion o opinions ha hese pla o ms can p o oke, as well as he isk o echo chambe s a e challenges o be conside ed. To be e unde s and how poli ical con en on social media can in luence Po uguese people, he nex chap e p o ides a ne nog aphic analysis o he Ins ag am page o he non- pa isan mo emen "eu o o.p ". 5.1.5. NETNOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF “EUVOTO.PT” INSTAGRAM PAGE DURING JANUARY 2024 AND MARCH 2024 In e ms o he equency o publica ions, he page was assiduous in i s con en o e he h ee mon hs in ques ion, wi h almos daily publica ions. In acco dance wi h he pe iod o 28 analysis, a me iculous analysis was also made o he commen s made on he pos s o see i any changes o opinion could be e i ied in ela ion o he published pos s. In his sense, he e was only one po en ial change o opinion ( igu e 1) in one o he pos s ha deal wi h pa y o es on measu es p esen ed in he assembly. In one o hese pos s, a lady exp essed he disappoin men wi h he Po uguese Communis Pa y (PCP), as she ealized ha he pa y had p esen ed a measu e and hen o ed agains i , condemning i o doing so. Howe e , ano he ollowe ook he ini ia i e o cla i y ha he p oposed policy was no longe he same, bu had unde gone changes, leading he pe son o unde s and why hey o ed agains i . Despi e his occu ence, he e we e ha dly any ins ances o people econside ing hei poli ical opinions h ough he page's pos s. Howe e , he e was no sho age o deba es in he commen s h oughou he publica ions analyzed. Ac ually, he deba es p o e o be a kind o peace ul exchange o opinions, in which people y o unde s and he easons o ce ain o es exp essed in he publica ion, a gue ci illy agains commen s ha in hei iews don' make sense o de end hei poin o iew on he issues p esen ed. In his ype o deba e, you can see alid and s uc u ed a gumen s on he subjec unde discussion. Figu e 1 – Po en ial change o opinion 29 In o he deba es, he one o he discussion escala ed due o a lack o consensus in opinions, in e e ing wi h he quali y o he deba e and a ec ing mu ual unde s anding. In many, he e we e o ence commen s agains he pe son who disag eed, which ein o ces Suns ein’s (2018) s udy and Pa ise (2011). Fo example, in an in o ma i e pos wi h in o ma ion on he days and schedules o he poli ical deba es p io o he elec ions, a ollowe exp essed his opinion in a p o oca i e way, sugges ing ha “... o ing in le -wing pa ies is being a clown”. This s a emen igge ed an equally p o oca i e esponse om ano he ollowe , who eplied ha “ o be a clown is o o e o he igh -wing pa ies...”, escala ing in o a mo e hea ed ideological deba e, bu wi hou showing much a gumen a ion. Simila ly, ano he deba e in which o ence was shown was in a pos p esen ing he elec o al p og am o "Bloco de Esque da" pa y, in which a pe son wi h an openly igh -wing poli ical o ien a ion exp essed dissa is ac ion wi h he p og am p esen ed, esul ing in he ollowing esponse om ano he use : “... I know ha you g oup o igh -wing pigs has no se ious p oposals o he coun y...”. In his sense, he e a e wo main ypes o commen s iden i ied: opinion commen s ( igu e 2) and o ensi e commen s ( igu e 3). Opinion commen s e ol e a ound ce ain app o ed and unapp o ed measu es, elec ion esul s and esponses o o he commen s. These a e impo an commen s o unde s and public opinion on impo an poli ical opics, hus exp essing he iews and ideals o he ollowe s, whe he hey a e in a o o agains wha is being p esen ed. As he exchange o opinions is impo an o unde s anding public pe cep ion, i is impo an o dis inguish opinion commen s om hose wi h agg essi e language, insul s, o Figu e 2 – Example o opinion commen Figu e 3 – Example o o ensi e commen 30 pe sonal a acks. O ensi e commen s, such as hose iden i ied on he "eu o o.p " page, as men ioned by he in e iewees, do no con ibu e o a cons uc i e deba e, and can gene a e a nega i e a mosphe e. Gi en hese commen s, deba es a e also di ided in o cons uc i e ( igu e 4) and pola izing ( igu e 5). In cons uc i e deba e, whe e he exchange o ideas is done wi h espec , he ideas ha a e ansmi ed end up showing di e en poin s o iew, en iching he deba e, and can lead o lea ning be ween he pa icipan s and also o he people who ead hem. Pola izing deba es a e ma ked by unnecessa y o ences and a lack o a gumen a ion o eally discuss he issues. In his way, he esul s o he analysis o his page a e in line wi h he nega i e and posi i e aspec s o poli ical deba es on social media poin ed ou by he in e iewees. 37 E en so, wi h ega d o he eac ions ha he pos s igge ed, i is possible o iden i y h ee ypes o commen s: suppo o he mo emen and i s ac ions (Figu e 6); cons uc i e commen s ( igu e 7) in which many people ques ion he e ec i eness o he ac ions o block oads, pain h own a people and buildings and sugges al e na i es ha in hei iew a e less e asi e; and condemning commen s abou hese wo ac ions men ioned ( igu e 8) and he a emp o boyco he elec ions ( igu e 9), encou aging people no o o e. This is because in he mo emen 's opinion, he e is no pa y ha is genuinely conce ned abou he clima e. In his sense, he main opic o deba es in he commen s sec ion a e abou hese ac ions conside ed mo e adical by he condemne s, leading ollowe s ha a e agains hese ac ions o ques ion hei e ec i eness. Many o he commen s agains conside he ac ions o be “ andalism” and poin ou ha he e a e “o he o ms o ac i ism” o “p o es ”, conside ing hese o ms o p o es o be “w ong o ms o s uggle”. Howe e , suppo e s say ha “ he igh agains clima e change can' go on doing he same old hing, i has o be adicalized”. Figu e 8 – Example o condemning commen abou he mo emen ac ions Figu e 9 – Example o condemning commen abou he a emp o boyco he elec ions 38 They also add ha “when peace ul o ms ail, hey u n o non-peace ul o ms” o s and a chance. An example o his kind o deba e can be seen in igu e 10. In his way, h ough hese esul s, summa ized in able 7, i ’s possible o unde s and ha he "climaximo.p " s ands ou o he impac i has on public opinion. Al hough he mo emen 's ac ions a e conside ed adical, hey end up pu ing he clima e cause a he cen e o discussions, helping o mobilize suppo e s, bu also hei opponen s o de end he cause wi h less adical ac ions. Dimension Ca ego y Resul s Consump ion Pa e ns Types o con en Images and ideos o he ac ions, e en s and p o es s. Many also highligh clima e jus ice, wi h pos s Figu e 10 – Suppo e and non-suppo e deba e Table 7 – Resul s o “climaximo.p ” ne nog aphic analysis Ins ag am page 39 denouncing social inequali ies and de ending a ai e and mo e sus ainable sys em F equency o con en The numbe o pos s a ied h oughou he analysis pe iod, wi h an inc ease in he numbe o pos s in Feb ua y and Ma ch In luence on Poli ical Opinion Examples o opinion change The analysis o pos s om he es ablished pe iod did no ind any kind o change o opinion Engagemen Type o eac ion and commen s Th ee ypes o commen s: suppo o he mo emen and i s ac ions, cons uc i e commen s and condemning commen s Pa icipa ion in discussions The main opic o deba es in he commen s sec ion a e abou hese ac ions conside ed mo e adical by he by he condemne s, leading ollowe s ha a e agains hese ac ions o ques ion hei e ec i eness 6. DISCUSSION 6.1. POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON SOCIAL MEDIA AND ITS INFLUENCE ON OPINION FORMATION By analyzing he esul s o he in e iews and he ne nog aphic analysis, i is possible o poin ou he ollowing insigh s. Rega ding consump ion pa e ns, acco ding o he da a collec ed, social media is a equen sou ce o consump ion o poli ical con en and poli ical in o ma ion, which ein igo a es he s udies o Newman, e al. (2021) highligh ing he ole o online pla o ms, including social media, in news consump ion, wi h news con en being he mos men ioned by he in e iewees in he ype o con en hey a e impac ed by o seek ou . As well as news, his consump ion includes o he ypes o con en such as opinion a icles, pos s by poli ical pa ies, 40 opinion pos s by poli ical commen a o s o well-known pe sonali ies, among o he s This di e si y o con en , whe e use s can be impac ed by in o ma ion in di e en ways and om di e en pe spec i es, e lec s he democ a iza ion o access o in o ma ion and he dissemina ion o in o ma ion ha social media p o ide, also men ioned by some in e iewees, and is in line wi h wha Chadwick (2017) obse ed in ela ion o new o ms o powe . Acco ding o his au ho , media powe has decen alized om adi ional media and indi iduals o g oups ou side adi ional ins i u ions can in luence a la ge audience h ough digi al pla o ms. Howe e , as no ed in he analyzes, he e is s ill a use o adi ional media o communica ion o in o ma ion. Howe e , some in e iewees also exp essed some conce n abou he disin o ma ion and pola iza ion o opinions ha social media can gene a e, la gely as a esul o ake news and echo chambe s espec i ely. This iew is in line wi h Suns ein's (2018) wo k on he like-minded g oups ha social media can c ea e. Toge he wi h ake news, hese wo nega i e poin s ha he in e iewees poin ou e eal he dual na u e o social media wi h a democ a izing o ce, bu a he same ime pola izing opinions. While some admi o being in luenced by he con en hey consume, o he s also gi e impo ance o o he ac o s such as amily, educa ion and pe sonal expe iences, which co obo a es he conclusions o Ga e (2009) and Cheng e al. (2023) ha indi iduals' belie s and posi ioning also help o o m opinions and no jus wha hey see on social media. Despi e hese conce ns, some in e iewees alued he abili y o social media o show mul iple poin s o iew in online deba es, indica ing ha exposu e o di e en pe spec i es on a gi en issue can help lead o mo e in o med and sus ained poli ical opinions. This iew hus suppo s he delibe a i e po en ial ha Dahlbe g (2001) sugges s, indica ing ha his exposu e can p omo e g ea e a ionaliza ion o issues, since use s can analyze he a gumen s p esen ed, which can lead o a mo e hough ul discou se. Howe e , e en hough some app ecia e his exposu e, when i comes o pa icipa ing in hese deba es, some a e dissuaded by he nega i i y, ex emism and lack o cons uc i e dialogue ha hey poin ou exis s in hese o ums, hus suppo ing he wo k o Suns ein (2018), men ioned abo e, which shows how he In e ne oday is os e ing poli ical di ision, ex emism and pola iza ion. 41 This ype o in e ac ion wi h he con en , such as sha es and likes, a ied be ween he in e iewees, wi h some assuming ha hey ac i ely pa icipa e and o he s saying ha hey p e e a mo e passi e consump ion. So, we can see ha in digi al poli ical consump ion he e a e wo ypes o use s: hose who ac i ely pa icipa e, commen ing and eac ing o pos s, and o he s who pa icipa e mo e quie ly, p e e ing p i a e o ums o commen and eac o con en . This a ia ion in he le els o in ol emen shown by he in e iewees e e s o he di e en ypes o social media use s iden i ied by B and zaeg (2012) who a y exac ly be ween highly ac i e consume s and passi e consume s. C edibili y was ecognized as an impo an ac o in he con en ha is p esen ed, among he in e iewees who admi ha hey check he in o ma ion hey ecei e h ough he con en wi h c edible sou ces, bu when i is al eady published by a media o ganiza ion ha hey al eady conside c edible, hey don' do so. Among hese c edible sou ces, many men ion enowned media companies in Po ugal (CNN Po ugal, SIC No ícias, Exp esso, Público, ...) and ab oad (BBC), belie ing ha hese news media p esen eliable in o ma ion, con i ming he da a om he epo by Newman, e al. (2023) which places Po ugal as one o he bes - anked ma ke s in e ms o us in news. Howe e , he e a e also hose who poin o o icial poli ical pa y websi es as c edible, which ends up e u ing he a gumen s o S olle, Hooghe and Michele i (2005) ha poli ical consump ion is a ac ic used by hose who don' us poli ical ins i u ions. The impo ance o con ex in e alua ing he c edibili y o con en , as poin ed ou in he analyses, i ’s also impo an and e lec s he issue o media ichness s udied by Da and Lengel (1986). These au ho s de ine ichness, in he con ex o communica ion, as he capaci y ha a medium can ha e o ansmi de ailed and con ex ual in o ma ion. This ichness can a y om medium o medium. Looking a he esul s o he analysis o he “eu o o.p ” page, hey o e an insigh in o how poli ical con en is consumed on social ne wo ks in Po ugal and end up e ealing bo h he posi i e and nega i e sides o hese pla o ms as a space o poli ical in ol emen and opinion o ma ion. 42 The egula i y o pos s on he page and he di e si y o ypes o con en show an e o on he pa o hose unning he page o in o m, once again demons a ing he powe o social ne wo ks o dissemina e in o ma ion. Analyzing he commen s doesn' e eal any majo conclusions ega ding changes in opinion h ough poli ical deba es in hese o ums, wi h only one po en ial change being obse ed. Howe e , his po en ial change o opinion, whe e one ollowe ends up cla i ying o ano he he con ex o a PCP o e, ends up e lec ing ha indi iduals being exposed o mo e con ex and addi ional in o ma ion can, in some cases, make hem econside opinions, once again ein o cing he powe o he ichness o communica ion (Da & Lengel, O ganiza ional in o ma ion equi emen s, media ichness and s uc u al design, 1986), wi h he con ex ha is gi en o he in o ma ion dissemina ed on social media. As o he poli ical deba es in he commen s, hey a y in e ms o ci ili y and quali y. In some cases, he e is a ci ilized and cons uc i e exchange o opinions and a gumen s, which is posi i e o he public discussion o poli ics. Howe e , many deba es end up descending in o o ence and a lack o alid a gumen a ion, e lec ing a hos ile and pola ized en i onmen ha does no hing o enhance deba e and poli ical pa icipa ion. Thus, his duali y in he deba es goes hand in hand wi h he hi d axis de ended by A nould and Thompson (2015) explained in he li e a u e e iew o how di e en social g oups can clash while ha ing di e en ideologies. In his sense, al hough social ne wo ks ha e hei posi i e side and po en ial o os e quali y and in o ma i e poli ical deba es, his analysis also shows ha he opposi e can happen, in line wi h he esponse o some in e iewees and he s udies by Sus ein (2018). This duali y o oles shows he need o in e en ion mechanisms on social media o p e en and discou age ha e speech and g a ui ous o ences and o p omo e a ci ilized en i onmen . These insigh s help us unde s and ha social media can indeed in luence he poli ical opinions o Po uguese people, bu hey do no ac alone, and he e may be o he in luencing ac o s. Gi en his powe o in luence, he e needs o be mo e media li e acy, comba ing disin o ma ion and pola iza ion, and p omo ing cons uc i e deba es. As o media li e acy, his can be done h ough educa ional p og ams ha each people o e alua e sou ces, iden i y ake news, and c i ically e alua e he con en p esen ed o hem. As o disin o ma ion and 43 pola iza ion, social media pla o ms should in es in ac -checking mechanisms, o example he abili y o p o ide con ex o wha is w i en, as is al eady he case on X, o me ly Twi e , as well as in mode a ion mechanisms o commen s boxes o ideo and image con en o help educe he sp ead o ake news and ha e speech. In ela ion o p omo ing cons uc i e deba es, awa eness campaigns a e needed o ci ilized deba es, as well as egula ion in social media. I a pe son o ends, de ames, publicly a acks someone and is punished, hese punishmen s mus also be egula ed on social ne wo ks so ha he e is no eeling o impuni y, and ools on social ne wo ks hemsel es ha acili a e his ci ili y. 6.2. INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL CONSUMPTION ON SOCIAL MEDIA ON SUPPORT OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS The esul s p esen ed abo e ega ding he in e iewees' in ol emen wi h social mo emen s on social media o e a b oad iew o hei pe cep ions and expe iences. The inding ha hal o he in e iewees do no ollow social mo emen s on social media, despi e ecognizing hei impo ance, e eals he di e si y o deg ees o in ol emen wi hin a popula ion, which sugges s ha pa icipa ion in social mo emen s and he consump ion o con en can be in luenced by indi idual ac o s. A ac al eady add essed in he li e a u e e iew o his s udy on he indi idual na u e o poli ical consump ion and social mo emen s (Johnson e al.,2019; Michele i, 2003; Weijo e al., 2018). Benne and Sage be g (2012) a gue ha “people may s ill join ac ions in la ge numbe s, bu he iden i y e e ence is mo e de i ed h ough inclusi e and di e se la ge-scale pe sonal exp ession”, a guing ha his a ia ion in he le el o in ol emen wi h social mo emen s may be linked o he ac ha indi iduals ela e and exp ess hei iden i y in a ious ways on social media, a he han ha ing a commi men o he cause. We can he e o e suppo he ac ha no all in e iewees a e in ol ed wi h social mo emen s on social media, bu s ill ecognize hei social impo ance. As o he in luence o he con en o he mo emen 's pages, he in e iewees who usually ollow hei mo emen s say ha hey a e in luenced when i comes o aking ac ion. This esul is in line wi h Ta ow (1998) who a gues in his wo k ha he dissemina ion o in o ma ion is undamen al o mobilizing suppo o social causes. The ac ha some in e iewees admi ed o ha ing al eady aken pa in ac ions p omo ed by social mo emen s h ough social media sugges s ha hese pla o ms a e e ec i e as mobiliza ion ools, 44 con i ming wha Benne (2012) also highligh ed in his s udy abou social media being acili a o s o collec i e ac ion and whe e majo mo emen s a e o en bo n. The in e iewees' gene al pe cep ion o he abili y o social media o help ampli y social mo emen s s eng hens he e ec i e ole o hese pla o ms, hus helping mo emen s o each a egional, na ional o e en global scale. In his sense, he in e iewees' belie in he con ibu ion o social media o poli ical and social change in Po ugal e lec s a pe cep ion ha mo emen s on hese pla o ms can in luence public opinion and pu p essu e on poli ical decision-make s. Howe e , as poin ed ou , hese demons a ions on social media mus be complemen ed by o line ac ions. By analyzing he Ins ag am page o he ‘climaximo.p ’ social mo emen , he main con en iden i ied was images and ideos o p o es s, ac ions and e en s, e ealing he mo emen 's desi e o ge i s message ac oss. The emphasis hey place on he u gen need o impac ul measu es, he p oposed solu ions and hei p o es s show he u gency hey ha e in mobilizing people o hei cause. This, once again, con i ms he wo k ca ied ou by Benne e Sege be g (2012) whe e hey a gue ha social media os e s new o ms o ac i ism ha a e cha ac e ized by he possibili y o indi iduals o engage wi h he con en sha ed in a pe sonalized way. The inc ease in he numbe o pos s in Feb ua y and Ma ch shows he mo emen 's abili y o ake ad an age o speci ic poli ical con ex s, such as he legisla i e elec ions. In his sense, he e was a s a egic use o he elec o al calenda o maximize he impac o hei messages and implemen ac ions wi h isibili y, such as in e up ing an elec o al deba e. Howe e , despi e his s a egic use, he e has been no change in opinion owa ds he mo emen , showing ha opinions owa ds his g oup a e pola ized. Those who like i suppo i , hose who don' , make cons uc i e o disapp o ing commen s. This pola iza ion, which is also e lec ed in he deba es, ul ima ely e eals pe cep ions o he s a egies adop ed by he mo emen . In his sense, he nega i e eedback on he p o es s ha his social mo emen makes and he lack o legi imacy ha non-suppo e s gi e i is equen in mo emen s wi h mo e adical and less peace ul s a egies, as documen ed by Chenowe h e S ephan (2011), which ends up becoming a ba ie o inc easing he suppo base o he cause. As seen abo e, hese 45 mo emen s only become success ul i hey gain legi imacy om he people (King & Pea ce, The con en iousness o ma ke s: Poli ics, social mo emen s, and ins i u ional change in ma ke s, 2010). On he o he hand, he de ense by some ollowe s o hese mo e adical ac ions wi h a gumen s such as ‘” he igh agains clima e change can no con inue wi h he same ac ic” shows ha he e is dissa is ac ion among some people wi h he ine ec i eness o adi ional o ms o ac i ism. Thus, wi h his analysis, i is possible o see ha he use o social media by social mo emen s has s eng hs such as ampli ica ion and he abili y o mobilize people, bu also encoun e s challenges in he public's pe cep ion o he ac ions o a ce ain mo emen . Howe e , i is up o he o ces mo i a ing he cause o conside s a egies ha balance hese duali ies. In his sense, he esul s show ha he consump ion o con en on social ne wo ks can in luence suppo o social mo emen s in a posi i e o nega i e way, conside ing he ac ions o he mo emen and he way in which he mo emen communica es wi h he audience. A he same ime, his consump ion has di e en le els o in ol emen , being linked o he di e en ways in which people exp ess hemsel es online, which can call in o ques ion he commi men hey gi e o causes, e en i hey a e in a o o hem. The eby, he e a e bo h posi i e and nega i e implica ions o his consump ion. The consump ion o con en such as ha on "climaximo.p " can quickly inc ease he isibili y o he cause and e en i some do no ag ee on he way o ac ing, i ends up making buzz a ound he opic and he opponen ’s exp essing less adical o ms o ac i ism ha can also help o p essu e o change and in ol e people in inding solu ions, e en i only o mo e peace ul o ms o p o es . On he o he hand, his adicaliza ion helps pola izing en i onmen s, ending up delegi imizing he cause in he eyes o hose who do no ag ee wi h he ac ions. The e o e, o ha e a highe quali y o engagemen , mo emen s can explo e ways o pe sonalize hei messages and legi imize hei cause, o example using con en ha use s can see hemsel es e lec ed in. A he same ime, o mi iga e con lic s, mo emen s may engage in building b idges wi h hei non-suppo e s. This may in ol e p omo ing cons uc i e dialogue and aluing di e en pe spec i es. The issue o adicaliza ion ha is p esen ed in his 46 analysis can be esol ed in his sense, bu also h ough he sel - esponsibili y o hese ac ions by hese mo emen s. 7. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH By analyzing he consump ion o poli ical con en on social media by Po uguese people and he in luence his consump ion can ha e on shaping hei opinions and he suppo hey gi e o social mo emen s, his s udy con i med ha social media a e p esen in hei li es and can play a signi ican ole in in luence hei poli ical opinions bu no alone. O he ac o s may also unde lie poli ical opinions. The esul s show ha he consump ion o poli ical con en on social media by he Po uguese people is equen and di e si ied in e ms o he ype o con en , including news, opinion a icles, pos s by poli ical pa ies o pe sonali ies linked o poli ics, commen s by pe sonali ies linked o poli ical commen a y, among o he s. The democ a iza ion o access o in o ma ion and he possibili y ha social ne wo ks gi e people o be exposed o di e en poin s o iew we e alued. Howe e , some conce ns we e also highligh ed, such as he misin o ma ion and pola iza ion o opinions ha social media can also p o ide, showing ha he chosen in e iewees a e igilan abou wha appea s o hem on social media and ha e a c i ical spi i owa ds i , as he c edibili y o in o ma ion sou ces was highligh ed as some hing c ucial o ake in o accoun . The in e iews show ha while some in e iewees admi o being in luenced by he poli ical con en hey consume on social media, o he s men ion he impo ance o o he sou ces o in luence, such as amily, educa ion, and li e expe iences. A he same ime, he s udy also showed ha exposu e o poli ical con en on social media can help ein o ce exis ing ideas and, in some cases, mold opinions. Howe e , i was no possible o ind a signi ican numbe o examples in which he poli ical con en seen on social media led he pe son o change hei opinion, especially in deba es, which leads us o conclude ha people en e hese poli ical discussions wi h hei opinions and ideals al eady well de ined. Howe e , wi h he examples ha exis bo h om he in e iews and om he ne nog aphic analysis, i can be seen ha hese changes occu because he e is o al o pa ial igno ance o he subjec being add essed o i s con ex . 53 PT&l =&id=OU 6EAAAQBAJ&oi= nd&pg=PR10&dq=Ta ow,+S.+(1998).+Powe +in+Mo emen :+Social+Mo emen s+and+Con en ious+Poli ics+(2+ed.).+Camb idge:+Camb i dge+Uni e si y+P ess.&o s=jGd AUII X&sig=0j0mBq OgX-Cz6jXHxyh SPMFY& ed Vacca i, C., Vale iani, A., Ba be á, P., Bonneau, R., Jos , J. T., Nagle , J., & Tucke , J. (2013). Social media and poli ical communica ion. A su ey o Twi e use s du ing he 2013 I alian gene al elec ion. Ri is a i aliana di scienza poli ica, 43(3), 381-410. h ps://d i e.google.com/ ile/d/18pxXiGbmuWn76my_bTKWEcn qSOIy0qS/ iew Weijo, H. A., Ma in, D. M., & A nould, E. J. (2018). Consume mo emen s and collec i e c ea i i y: The case o es au an day. Jou nal o Consume Resea ch, 45(2), 251-274. h ps://doi.o g/10.1093/jc /ucy003 Zhu a skaya, E., Pe o a, M., & Enikolopo , R. (2020). Poli ical e ec s o he in e ne and social media. Annual e iew o economics, 12, 415-438. :h ps://doi.o g/10.1146/annu e - economics-081919-050239 54 APPENDIX APPENDIX A - INTERVIEW SCRIPT Dimension Ques ions Consump ion pa e ns 1. How o en do you use social media o consume poli ical con en ? 2. Wha ypes o poli ical con en do you look o o a e impac ed by on social media? 3. Do you ollow speci ic pages o p o iles ela ed o poli ics on social media o news? I so, which ones? 4. How do you hink social media has changed he way people consume poli ics? 5. Do you hink his change has been posi i e o nega i e? 6. Wha do you hink a e he bigges impac s o social media on poli ical consump ion? In luence on poli ical opinion 1. Do you hink ha he poli ical con en you consume on social media in luences you opinions on poli ical issues? I so, in wha way? 2. Do you belie e ha you poli ical opinions a e mainly in luenced by he poli ical con en you consume on social media, o do o he ac o s ha e a g ea e in luence? 3. Ha e you e e changed you mind abou a poli ical issue a e consuming poli ical con en on social media? Can you gi e me an example? 55 C edibili y and us 1. How do you a e he c edibili y o he poli ical con en you ind on social media? 2. A e he e any pages o p o iles ha you ind pa icula ly us wo hy? 3. Do you usually check he e aci y o poli ical in o ma ion sha ed on social media be o e o ming an opinion? 4. Do you belie e ha he c edibili y o poli ical con en on social media plays a signi ican ole in he o ma ion o poli ical opinion? Why do you hink so? Engagemen 1. Do you usually in e ac wi h he poli ical con en you consume on social media? I so, wha kind o in e ac ion do you do mos ? 2. Apa om simply liking o sha ing, do you usually ake pa in poli ical discussions on social media? How do you decide o pa icipa e in hese discussions? 3. Ha e you e e changed you mind abou a poli ical issue a e aking pa in a poli ical discussion o deba e on social media? 4. How impo an is i o you o ake pa in poli ical discussions online? Do you hink ha con ibu ing o hese discussions can lead o a g ea e unde s anding o change o opinion? 5. How do you see he ole o poli ical discussions on social media in shaping people's poli ical opinions? 56 Suppo o social mo emen s 1. Do you ollow o pa icipa e in g oups o pages on social media ela ed o social mo emen s? I so, which ones? 2. How do you hink he con en you consume on social media in luences you suppo o social mo emen s? 3. Ha e you e e aken pa in a social mo emen ac ion o demons a ion inspi ed by some hing you saw o ead on social media? Can you sha e ha expe ience? 4. Do you eel ha he poli ical con en you consume on social media helps o ampli y he oices o speci ic social mo emen s? Why? 5. Do you belie e ha engaging wi h social mo emen s on social media can e ec i ely in luence poli ical o social change in Po ugal? Why do you hink so? APPENDIX B – ETHICS COMMITTEE REPORT 57 8.