Green paper on teacher education in Europe: high quality teacher education for high quality education and training

GREEN PAPER ON TEACHER EDUCATION IN EUROPE Thematic Network on Teacher Education in Europe Fakultetsnämnden för lärarutbildning, Umeå universitet ISBN 91-973904-0-2 Edited by F. Buchberger, B. P. Campos, D. Kallos, J. Stephenson High Quality Teacher Education for High Quality Education and Training Further copies may be ordered at a cost of 20 Euro from the editorial office in Umeå: Marie Kårebrand ([email protected]) TNTEE Editorial Office SE-901 87 Umeå Sweden This publication can also be found at http://tntee.umu.se/publications/greenpaper.html Copyright © 2000 TNTEE and the Editors Technical Editor: Peter Eriksson, LITU Printed in Umeå, Sweden Fakultetsnämnden för lärarutbildning, Umeå universitet ISBN 91-973904-0-2 The production of this publication has received financial support from the European Commission (DG XXII, action scheme SOCRATES, Thematic Network Project Initiative). TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I High Quality Teacher Education for High Quality Education and Training - Aims, Context and Overview 1. “Towards a Europe of Knowledge” – New Priorities of Education Policy 2 2. The Key Role of Teachers and High Quality Teacher Education 2 3. Substantial Changes of the Context of Education – Substantial Changes of Teacher 3 Education? 4. Teacher Education as an Open and Dynamic System, and as a Continuous Process 4 5. TNTEE – a European-Wide Professional Network for Teacher Education 5 6. The Green Paper – Outcomes of Networking, Research and Development 6 7. The Green Paper – Scenarios for “Problem-solutions” 7 8. Structure of the Green Paper 8 PART II Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union 9. Teacher Education in Europe – a Case of Crisis? 10 10. Teacher Education as a Mass Enterprise 11 11. Diversity as the Salient Feature of Teacher Education in Europe? 11 12. Common Patterns and Trends 13 13. Contemporary Teacher Education – Bound by Traditions? 13 13.1 Primary School Teacher Education and a “Normal School Tradition” 14 13.2 Secondary School Teacher Education and an “Academic Tradition” 15 13.3 A Rich Variety of Other Traditions 16 14. Static Conceptions of Teacher Education and a “Rucksack – Philosophy” 16 15. Professionalisation – a Predominant Leitmotif? 17 16. Minimum-Competency Models of Teacher Education – the Renaissance of 20 Old Models? 17. Evaluation – a New Leitmotif? 21 18. Common Curricular Components in Teacher Education Programmes 21 19. Common Trends: the Past Thirty Years 23 PART III The Challenge of Change - Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts 20. Relationships between Changes in Society, the Education Sector and 28 Teacher Education 21. Three “Factors of Upheaval” 28 22. Some Major Changes and Challenges 29 23. Changing Perceptions of the Role of the State in the Education Sector 31 24. Increasing Economic Rationality 32 25. Structural Changes in the Higher Education Sector 33 26. “State of the Art” or “State of Practice”? 35 27. Challenges for the Teaching Profession 36 28. New Challenges for Teachers 39 PART IV Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform 29. Coherent Goals for the Education of Teachers 45 30. Providing Powerful Learning Environments – the Central Task for Teachers and 46 Teacher Education? 31. The Potential of Fachdidaktik or Subject-matter Didactics 47 32. Developing Collaborative Problem-Solving Capacity 49 33. Research and Development as a Component of Teacher Education 51 34. New Partnerships between Institutions of Teacher Education and Schools 52 35. Induction into the Professional Cultures of Schools 54 36. Systemic Conceptions of In-Service Education and Continuous 54 Professional Development 37. The Diversification of Professional Tasks of Teachers and the Relevance of 56 Further Education 38. Teacher Education for Teacher Educators 57 39. Accreditation of Teacher Education Programmes 58 PART V Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform 40. Measures at the Level of Member States of the European Union 63 40.1 Committees for Teacher Education Reform 63 40.2 Concrete Reform Projects 63 40.3 Coherent Programmes for Research and Development Related to Teacher 64 Education and Teacher Work 40.4 Action Plans for In-service Education and Further Education 64 40.5 Establishing Partnerships 64 40.6 Comprehensive Knowledge-Resource-Centres for Education and Training 65 40.7 High Quality Teacher Educators 65 40.8 Autonomous Professional Organisations 66 41. Measures at the Level of the European Commission 66 41.1 The Relevance of Action Schemes 66 41.2 A Committee for Teacher Education Reform 68 41.3 Cross-European Knowledge Centres for Teacher Education 68 41.4 Research on Teaching and Teacher Education 68 41.5 Cross-European Masters Programmes 69 41.6 Fostering Mobility 69 41.7 Developing the European Dimension 69 Notes 71 References 87 Annex Systems and Models of Initial Teacher Education in Europe 93 1 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part I - High Quality Teacher Education PART I HIGH QUALITY TEACHER EDUCATION FOR HIGH QUALITY EDUCATION AND TRAINING - AIMS, CONTEXT AND OVERVIEW 2Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part I - High Quality Teacher Education 1. “Towards a Europe of Knowledge” - New Priorities of Education Policy Over the past few decades European societies have been confronted with substantial social, cultural, economic and technological changes and challenges. There seems to be widespread agreement that education and training will have to play a key role in order to meet •these changes adequately and •the challenges pro-actively (1)*. Since the early nineties education and training (2) have again become policy priorities in most Member States of the European Union. By focusing on human capital theories (3), which stress the relevance of both comprehensive and coherent human resource development for the economic and social prosperity of post-industrial information societies, education (policy) has increasingly become an integral part of economic and social policy. “High Quality Education and Training” has become a powerful leitmotif (4), in discussions about a “Europe of Knowledge” (cf. European Commission 1997). Such education and training has to be a lifelong provision covering all components in the broad spectrum of human capabilities (5). High quality education and training are thus regarded as being indispensable •in establishing a “Europe of Knowledge”, •in transforming European societies into dynamic learning societies, •in assisting the process of European integration for •economic prosperity and •social cohesion. 2. The Key Role of Teachers and High Quality Teacher Education In establishing a “Europe of Knowledge” the important role of teachers and their education is stressed frequently by •the European Commission, •Ministries of Education of the Member States of the European Union as well as by •a large number of educationalists. High quality teachers and teacher education are central components, within a heterogeneous pool of measures necessary to make high quality education and training and a “Europe of Knowledge” a reality (e.g. reform of organisational structures of the education and training sector, reform of curricula, making effective use of new information and communication technologies for learning processes). 3 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part I - High Quality Teacher Education Due to the many new and rapidly changing tasks and roles teachers are expected to fulfil, substantial improvements and reforms of teacher education are seen as imperative. Thus “High Quality Teacher Education for High Quality Education and Training” must be another leitmotif of education policy. 3. Substantial Changes of the Context of Education – Substantial Changes of Teacher Education? There is a close relationship between the importance attached to teachers and their education, and attempts over the past few years of the European Commission and a number of Member States to improve teacher education (6). Perceived anxieties about the ability of teachers´ competence to meet new tasks, challenges, and expectations pro-actively underlie these changes. Emphasising “professionalisation” of teaching and teacher education, the measures taken to improve teacher education in a number of Member States of the European Union seem primarily to have been guided by modification strategies influenced by changing perceptions on the role of the state within the education sector. These measures follow •a “more of the same - rationale” (7), •although at the same time some reluctance •and even controversial strategies can be seen in other Member States, although •all the strategies adopted seem to reflect a number of uncertainties. While some modifications of teacher education have been made (primarily the lengthening of initial teacher education and its incorporation into the higher education sector) in most Member States of the European Union the core of teacher education has not yet been changed. Substantial changes of the context of education and training (e.g. changed values, globalization of life and economy, organisation of labour, the new information and communication technology) have an impact on the professional tasks and roles of the teaching profession and call for more substantial reforms of •education and training in general (e.g. curricula and contents of teaching and learning, patterns of organisation), and •teacher education in particular (e.g. aims, curricula, learning environments, structures). 4Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part I - High Quality Teacher Education 4. Teacher Education as an Open and Dynamic System, and as a Continuous Process There is general agreement that teacher education has to be conceived as •an open and dynamic system, and as a •part of a continuous process. As an open and dynamic system teacher education •is embedded in different spheres (e.g. “society in general”, the state, universities, colleges of education, schools) •with a large number of different actors (e.g. teacher educators, teachers, politicians, administrators and school inspectors, quality assurance agencies). Regarding core issues of teacher education and the teaching profession (e.g. curricula and the knowledge base of teaching and learning, quality controls, resources or conditions of practice of education staff) the actors may have different views, interests and power (8). Teacher education has to support the professional development of teachers during all phases of their professional career. The process of Continuous Professional Development (CPD) starts with the recruitment process for initial teacher education, and consists of the closely related components •initial teacher education, •induction, •in-service teacher education, and •further education (9). Continuous professional development has to be connected to educational innovation (e.g. school development and school improvement) and educational research. Despite a general agreement on the need for dynamic conceptions of teacher education in principle most systems and models of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union have been organised along traditional lines (cf. static conceptions of teacher education): •They focus on a relatively short period of initial teacher education, •while neglecting the relevance of continuous professional development. •Another characteristic of inertia has been the strict separation of initial teacher education, in-service and further higher award work of teachers. •Similarly there has been little systematic connection between initial teacher education, schools, staff development, school development and improvement, and educational research. 5 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part I - High Quality Teacher Education 5. TNTEE – A European-Wide Professional Network for Teacher Education The important role teacher education has to play in achieving a “Europe of Knowledge” was recognised by the European Commission in commissioning a comprehensive crossEuropean study (the Sigma project). The aim was •to provide an evaluation of the current state of teacher education in the Member States of the European Economic Area and •to develop appropriate perspectives to enable teacher education to meet changes and new challenges (10). The foundation of the Thematic Network on Teacher Education in Europe (TNTEE) within the Thematic Network Project initiative of the European Commission (DG XXII, action scheme SOCRATES) in 1996 had close parallels to the Sigma project (11). From the very beginning TNTEE has aimed at •the coherent integration of •research-based knowledge of high quality teacher education with •the many rich experiences of those concerned with and involved in teacher education (the professional community). The aim is to raise both the problem-awareness and the problem-solving capacity within teacher education in order to contribute to high quality teacher education leading to high quality education and training. This has been attempted through adopting a networking strategy on a European-wide scale. Since 1996 TNTEE has become a meeting place for •approximately 300 institutions of teacher education, •thousands of teacher educators, •important professional as well as research organisations and associations (e.g. British Education Research Association, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Erziehungswissenschaften), •decision makers and •teachers all over Europe, and thus •contributed to develop a coherent voice for teacher education. As a Pan-European professional network TNTEE has had frequent requests from various Ministries of Education, committees responsible for teacher education reforms, professional organisations and universities all over Europe dealing with teacher education, to provide input for reforms and improvements of teacher education. The recognition of teacher education as both an open and dynamic system and a continuous process has meant that TNTEE has taken an integrated approach to the different, but related components of teacher education. Initial teacher education, in-service, advanced further 12 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union At a structural and organisational level differences can be seen •between the different Member States of the European Union (e.g. the considerable differences of the structure and organisation of initial teacher education between the neighbouring countries of Belgium and France, or different patterns of organisation of teacher education in English speaking and Nordic contexts) as well as •within them (e.g. the different systems and models of initial teacher education in the sixteen Länder of Germany). •Within different Member States initial teacher education is usually split up into different systems and models for different categories or types of teachers (e.g. primary school teachers, secondary school teachers, teachers for the vocational school system). It could be argued that differences between teacher education for different categories of teachers within Member States of the European Union are sometimes larger than those between the same category of teachers across the European Union. The presence of diversity at the structural level of teacher education is mainly a reflection of the fact that pragmatic changes have been made. •These were governed by circumstances (e.g. industrial revolution and the need for a qualified skilled working force, conditions of economic prosperity) •prevailing at the time (e.g. predominance of certain fashionable policies, times of major social changes). •Teacher education systems were shaped in particular cultural and national contexts (e.g. relating different perceptions on the role of the state with their impact on the roles of schools, teachers and teacher education in British, French, German or Nordic contexts), and •have been strongly influenced by political arguments (e.g. conservative, socialdemocratic or neo-liberal ideologies). •Additionally, diversity reflects distribution of power enjoyed by the players between the state and governments, teacher education institutions, schools in the different Member States of the European Union and its subsequent influence on structures, curricula and contents of teacher education, forms of quality control or conditions of teacher work. It could be argued that the most prominent role in the construction and development of models of teacher education has not been played by theoretical and research based arguments, rational planning or by the expertise of practitioners. The collaborative involvement of all actors involved in teacher education (e.g. politicians, administrators, teacher educators, teachers) in tackling these problems seems to be indispensable to improve the quality of teacher education. Arguments and empirical evidence put forward by many researchers and observers suggest that the big differences, detectable mainly at a structural level, do not necessarily correspond to variations in curricula and cultures of teacher education. They hold that the teacher 13 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union education programmes provided by most institutions across the European Union are strongly influenced by similar traditions and hidden curricula (“impression of sameness in content”). Diversity is perceived by these observers as being largely a surface phenomenon (20). However, diversity at a structural and organisational level may be regarded as a big advantage. Diverse patterns in teacher education might provide rich material for (re-)defining “problemspaces” and for developing “problem-solutions” for reforms and improvements of teacher education believed to be necessary in the different cultural and social contexts of Europe (21). 12. Common Patterns and Trends Although diversity may be seen as a salient feature of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union, there are also a number of common patterns and trends. •Some of the traditions common to most of the systems and models of teacher education and their influence on contemporary teacher education will be considered in the next chapter (chapter 13). •A rationale common to most European systems and models of teacher education will be described in chapter 14. The following chapters will deal with •the leitmotif professionalisation of teaching and teacher education (chapter 15), •minimum-competency models of teacher education (chapter 16), •issues of evaluation and quality (chapter 17), and •curricular components common to most models of teacher education in Europe (chapter 18). •Finally, major common trends in European teacher education over the past thirty years are described in chapter 19. 13. Contemporary Teacher Education – Bound by Traditions? Contemporary teacher education in the Member States of the European Union seems to be strongly influenced by some long-standing traditions. These traditions are made up of •a blend of •not always consistent and sometimes hidden •• •• • assumptions, beliefs and opinions on the professional role of teachers and on the acquisition of professional expertise. 14 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union These long-standing traditions may account for the segmentation and divisions between different categories of teachers and the corresponding models of initial teacher education. They mirror the sharp distinction in schools, specifically that between public elementary education on the one hand and secondary education provided only for a privileged minority throughout the last century and well into this on the other. The influence of these traditions can still be seen in the organisational and institutional patterns as well as the curricula of teacher education. 13.1 Primary School Teacher Education and a “Normal School Tradition” Teacher education for teachers at the primary school level has been strongly influenced by a “normal school tradition” (“Seminarium” or “Ecole normale tradition”). The focus of this tradition is on •• •• • “practical training” in the form of methodology courses closely related to curricula and subject matters and/or learning areas taught in schools and on •supervised teaching practice frequently organised in special training schools, while •the importance of educational theory, academic and scientific knowledge and researchbased knowledge on teaching, studying and learning is devaluated. •Categories like “ethos” or the “personality of the teacher” (“Lehrerpersönlichkeit”) form integral parts of this tradition and •in rather rigid learning environments prospective teachers should learn to “model the master” (teacher) and to acquire some basic skills of teaching following an apprenticeship-model. •To a large extent this tradition builds upon untested “craft” knowledge developed by practitioners and could be defined as a “celebration of experience”. At an institutional level the “normal school tradition” was originally a part of the programme in schools at upper secondary level. Most of these teacher training schools at upper secondary level have gradually been transferred into single-purpose institutions at post-secondary level (e.g. Pädagogische Akademie in Austria), non-university institutions of higher education (e.g. Seminarium in Denmark) and later, in many Member States of the European Union, integrated into universities. Even today at an organisational level the “normal school tradition” can be closely identified with a concurrent model of teacher education: •Parallel programmes in •methodology, •some basic subject studies, •some educational studies (e.g. “Didaktik”, educational psychology, educational sociology) and •supervised teaching practice are followed by the students over the whole of the course. 15 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union Although in most Member States of the European Union teacher education for primary school teachers has been transferred into the higher education sector, the “normal school tradition” still exerts an influence (e.g. on matters such as the culture of teaching, studying and learning and on the importance attached to methodology courses and teaching practice). To some extent the tendency to neglect educational research can be seen as a legacy of this tradition. A certain lack of coherency in the goals of primary school teacher education may reflect general problems concerning the identification of a knowledge base for teaching and the teaching profession and reflect the “normal school” influence. 13.2 Secondary School Teacher Education and an “Academic Tradition” In contrast an “academic tradition” has had a very strong influence on teacher education for teachers at schools at the (upper) secondary level. This tradition emphasises the overriding importance of scientific knowledge in academic subject disciplines for teaching and the teaching profession. In the “academic tradition” it is assumed that •knowledge of the scientific structures, contents and methodologies of particular academic disciplines, •the competencies (e.g. general problem-solving capacity) and •attitudes learned during the processes of knowledge acquisition (“academic habitus”) are sufficient to enable teachers to perform the tasks of teaching and education competently. Reference is frequently made by representatives of an “academic tradition” to the Humboldtian principle of “Bildung durch Wissenschaft” (literally interpreted as education or erudition through dealing with science) or the concept of liberal education. The importance of educational theory, methodology and teaching practice is only partly recognised within the “academic tradition”. While scientific studies in a small number of academic disciplines frequently comprise more than 80-90% of the programmes, professional studies and teaching practice are restricted to the remaining percentage. This implies that •(prospective) teachers are socialised as subject specialists in a small number of academic disciplines (or in only one academic discipline in some Member States), and that •• •• • main tasks of teachers and the teaching profession (e.g. “providing powerful learning environments” or “supporting students´ learning”) are discounted as goals and contents of initial teacher education (22). While the “normal school tradition” may be identified as “celebrating experience”, an “academic tradition” of teacher education may be defined as “celebrating the academic discipline”. 16 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union At an institutional level , historically, the “academic tradition” of secondary school teacher education has been a part of the various faculties of universities (23). At an organisational level it is mostly identified with the consecutive model of teacher education in which •scientific studies in academic disciplines at university are followed •by (some) professional studies and/or •a (short) probationary period at schools. Similar conditions apply in the sector of higher education teachers. While being highly qualified in their academic disciplines, teachers in higher education do not get adequate, if any education for teaching. 13.3 A Rich Variety of Other Traditions In some cases there are somewhat different traditions of education and training for other categories of teachers and groups of education staff (24), e.g. for •teachers of “practical subjects” (e.g. sports, arts and music), •teachers in vocational and technical education and training, •teachers in economic and/or business education and training, •teachers in special needs education, •school managers and administrators, •curriculum developers, •kindergarten and preschool teachers, •teachers in adult education and •day care staff or social workers. Different from a “normal school tradition” and an “academic tradition” these other forms may be seen as examples of the diversity to be found in the education of teachers and education staff in Europe. While these other traditions have frequently been neglected in discourses on teacher education, consideration of their potential could provide an additional input for reforms and improvements of teacher education (25). 14. Static Conceptions of Teacher Education and a “Rucksack-Philosophy” Most systems and models of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union adopt a static “rucksack-philosophy”. Static conceptions of teacher education •• •• • stress the importance of initial teacher education, 17 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union •• •• • disregard the need for continuous professional development of teachers, and •• •• • neglect the importance of in-service education and further education of teachers, and •• •• •little or no attention is given to creating systemic relationships between teacher education, staff development, school development and educational research. The hidden assumption behind this concept is that initial teacher education has the ability •to equip prospective teachers with all those competencies that seem to be necessary to competently fulfil the tasks of the teaching profession over a life-long career, and •at the same time to develop the problem-solving capacity necessary to meet rapidly changing tasks of teaching and the teaching profession. While these assumptions may, to some extent, have been valid in static societies, they are inappropriate in the dynamic and rapidly changing contexts of the today. In addition a characteristic of this conception of teacher education is the strict separation between the different phases of teacher education. No connections are made between initial and in-service provision or from initial phases into school development and improvement activities. There can therefore only be limited transfer of knowledge and experience across the areas limiting the potential for development and improvement. A recognition of the shortcomings of static conceptions has led to the introduction of sometimes comprehensive models of in-service education in most Member States of the European Union. However, the majority of these can be regarded as simply “add-ons” to the pre-service programmes. The in-service education of teachers taking place in different institutions, sometimes in single-purpose in-service institutions, and the aims and contents of in-service education have in most cases not been related coherently to the curricula of initial teacher education and to school development (26). There is still a lack of the more systemic reform of teacher education perceived to be necessary in a dynamic learning society (27). 15. Professionalisation – a Predominant Leitmotif? The emergence of the movement for the “professionalisation” of teaching and teacher education in the nineteen-sixties could be due to a number of factors. Among these are: •the perception of severe shortcomings within traditional models of teacher education (e.g. the “normal school tradition” and the “academic tradition”) with regard to both effectiveness and efficiency, 18 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union •a strong need to improve and reform education and training (cf. “school reform movement”), •new challenges for education and training (e.g. providing equality of education opportunity, secondary education for all), and •a belief in the benefits of modernity (e.g. the potential of scientific knowledge and scientifically validated educational practices and technology to improve all education and training in general, and teacher education as a necessary condition for high quality education in particular). •Added to this were a number of sociological factors. The move towards introducing all forms of teacher education as university education being one factor in the transformation of the teaching profession into an academic profession comparable to medicine, law or engineering (28). “Professionalisation” like many other movements may be seen as a rather heterogeneous concept with different meanings both within and between the different cultural contexts of the European Union (29). In the discourse on teacher education and the teaching profession the broad concept professionalisation comprises amongst others the concept of “pedagogical professionality” (30) and sociological aspects of “professionalism”. Both aspects of professionalisation seem to require •a comprehensive research-based knowledge base on teaching, studying and learning validated by research, and •a rich repertoire of empirically validated practices for promoting the processes of teaching, studying and learning effectively, and imply •• •• • autonomous and •• •• • competent professional teachers acting as •• •• • critical intellectuals •in the interest of their clients (e.g. students), and with a •responsibility to (an) autonomous professional organisation(-s) of the teaching profession and •its/their code of ethics. Teachers who are professionals might then be conceived as those who •adopt cogent and justifiable transformations of •research-based knowledge and validated practices of education, teaching, studying and learning •to particular cases (e.g. learning situations, students) •as specially educated and/or trained persons (education staff) •considering the interests of the clients (e.g. students) involved. Inspired by the concept of a “new professionalism” (31) and considering developments of other academic professions such as the medical profession (32) activities in many European 19 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union countries have aimed at increasing the quality of teaching and teacher education by professionalisation. The main components of a professionalised teacher education programme might be •studies in the sciences of the teaching profession (e.g. educational sciences, Didaktik/ Fachdidaktik literally translated as didactics and subject matter didactics, educational psychology, educational sociology), •all of these closely conncected to educational research and aiming at the development of •professional problem-solving capacity, •a broad repertoire of validated practices to promote and support learning, and •a professional code of ethics. Other components are: •coherent and supervised practical and/or clinical studies, •in-depth studies in a number of academic fields relevant for curricula of schools and teaching, studying and learning particular cases and/or topics, and •an integration of studies in the sciences of the teaching profession, other academic studies and clinical and/or practical studies would also form part of such a programme. Reforms of teacher education in Germany and England and Wales in the seventies, in France with the introduction of Instituts Universitaires de Formation des Maitres (I.U.F.M.) at the beginning of the nineties, the permanent reform and improvement of Finnish teacher education the past two decades, innovations in some other Nordic countries and recently in Portugal, work along this line. Similar developments can be observed in the USA. There is evidence that the attempts to professionalise teacher education have brought about •a large number of improvements and positive effects both on teacher education and teaching at school level in most Member States of the European Union (33). •At the same time these attempts did not lead to substantial reforms of structures and curricula of initial teacher education in a majority of the Member States, and •the nucleus of traditional models of initial teacher education has not been subjected to more fundamental changes. The incorporation of initial teacher education into the higher education sector as one component of the process of professionalisation may be seen as a necessary condition for pedagogical professionalism. In no way can it be seen as a sufficient condition for successful teacher education and teaching (34). 20 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union 16. Minimum-Competency Models of Teacher Education – the Renaissance of Old Models? In sharp contrast both to •traditional models of teacher education (“normal school” and “academic”) and to •the approach of a professionalised teacher education outlined above attempts have been made mainly in English speaking cultural contexts to (re-)introduce different forms of teacher preparation based on a minimum-competency concept (35). Attempts to (re-)introduce “school-based teacher training” in England and Wales and socalled “alternative routes into teaching” or “standards-based teacher training” at State level in the USA are examples of this (36). The notion of minimum-competency can be understood in two quite opposite ways: •as an absolute minimum of competencies necessary to fulfil basic tasks of teaching to be acquired in teacher education, or •as a certain standard of competence that has to be guaranteed by teacher education in every case. Although greatly heterogeneous in nature minimum-competency models of teacher education often have the following characteristics: •a short duration of professional studies, •a focus on (short) periods of practical training in schools (“apprenticeship”), •a disregard of or low priority for educational theory and educational research, as well as of •scientific knowledge of academic disciplines. Furthermore •teachers are conceived as “doers” and are supposed to execute certain externally predefined tasks (e.g. teaching basics in a prescribed format). It is perceived as rather problematic by most experts in the field of teacher education, that there is some evidence that the minimum-competency models might lead to a deprofessionalisation of teaching and teacher education. High quality education and training might not be achieved by teachers trained this way. Additionally, minimum-competency models of teacher training seem to have limited potential for the development of •professional problem-solving capacity, •critical thinking and •pro-activity necessary to meet rapidly changing tasks of the teaching profession. This needs to be investigated further. However, minimum-competency models of teacher training have to be regarded as a challenge to both traditional and professionalised forms of teacher education. 21 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART II - Remarks on the Current State of Teacher Education in the European Union 17. Evaluation – a New Leitmotif? The evaluation of institutions, programmes and courses as a mechanism and strategy for reform, development and control of education and training in general and of teacher education in particular may be seen as another and very persistent strategy. The introduction of evaluation measures was one response to demands on e.g. accountability and efficiency, which grew during the seventies and eighties. The development and introduction of systematic external and internal evaluation of universities, programmes, courses, staff or students at a national and local levels were called for. Evaluation strategies should enable national and local actors to •justify the allocation and use of economic and other resources, •provide data concerning standards and outcomes attained, •ensure accountability, and •encourage staff and programme development (37). It is important to note that in the early nineties and onwards the emphasis on evaluation within the education sector became coupled to concepts originally developed within the industrial sector like “quality”, “quality assurance”, or “total quality management” mainly as part of neo-liberal policies. The need and importance to develop and introduce models and techniques of evaluation is evident. This need is further accentuated e.g. in connection with recent attempts to accredit teacher education programmes and by demands to introduce new models of teacher certification. This also emphasises the necessity to try to identify the specific characteristics of teacher education and teacher work in the development and refinement of evaluation strategies and methods (38). 18. Common Curricular Components in Teacher Education Programmes The different systems and models of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union with their goals, contents, learning cultures, assessment procedures and structures of organisation might be seen as more or less tightened conglomerates consisting of components of very different origins. However, some curricular components seem common to most of the models of initial teacher education: •studies in education and/or in educational sciences (e.g. Didaktik, educational history and philosophy, educational psychology, educational sociology evaluation), 28 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts 20. Relationships between Changes in Society, the Education Sector and Teacher Education Various groups in the society that hold different interests and power seem to be interconnected in a number of complex systemic relations to the education and training sector, and to teacher education (46). Changes in society may influence the education sector •because the education sector may provide (already or through changes) answers and solutions (partially or even fully) to new challenges and problems, •by producing changed relations between the education sector and other sectors of society, •by questioning the monopoly of the education sector, •by shaping new divisions of labour in educational matters (e.g. between home and school, between education institutions and informal learning environments), and/or •by placing new demands on the education sector. In their turn these changes are presumed to influence teacher education. They become visible as changes in one or more of the following areas: •the aims and goals of teacher education (e.g. orientation on key qualifications instead, on knowledge products, learning to deal with complexity and uncertainties in unstable contexts); •the contents of curricula (e.g. knowledge management instead of learning scientific structures of academic disciplines), •the cultures and methodologies of teaching and learning (e.g. focus on problem-, projectand research-oriented learning), •the allocation of resources to various components of teacher education programmes, •the division of tasks between the different components of teacher education (initial teacher education, induction, in-service education and further education), •the structure of organisation of teacher education and •its institutional location. 21. Three “Factors of Upheaval ” “Among the many complex changes taking place in European society, three major trends, three “factors of upheaval”, are manifest. These are • the internationalisation of trade (impact of internationalisation), • the dawning of the information society (impact of the information society), and • the relentless march of science and technology (impact of the scientific and technical world)” (European Commission 1995, pp. 5-6). 29 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts As solutions that “education and training might provide in eliminating the pernicious effects (of) these three sources of upheaval” the White Paper “Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society” of the European Commission suggests •“a reintroduction of the merits of a broad base of knowledge”, and •“building up employability”. While the three trends mentioned by the European Commission circumscribe some major changes at a level of symptoms, more comprehensive descriptions and analyses of changes (e.g. shift of values) and profound sociological analyses are required to gain a deeper understanding of these changes, their conditions and implications. The focus of the European Commission on economic, social and subsequently on education aspects seems to be of highest relevance. At the same time it is debatable, whether the rather narrowly conceived focus adopting traditional paradigms and measures should be enlarged and take into account alternative paradigms for “problem-solutions” that are perceived to be necessary (47). 22. Some Major Changes and Challenges Education and training in the next century must contribute to equip citizens, organisations and structures of the community with knowledge and skills to deal pro-actively and effectively with the many challenges of change with which European societies are confronted. Without going into detail at a level of symptoms a large number of both diverse and interrelated changes of the context of education may be observed that are challenges for education and training. Some major changes may be described at a geo, social, political, technological and material level. Despite the number and diversity of changes, three common features should be analysed: •the rapid speed of changes, •their impact on most spheres of human life, and •an ever increasing complexity of social, cultural and economic issues with which European citizens are confronted. At a geo, social and political level the following main issues of change should be described: •the phenomenon of internationalisation and globalization of all aspects of life, •the process of European integration closely related to an increasing mobility of the citizens of the European Union, •increasing immigration into the European Union. Both the mobility within the European 30 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts Union and the immigration into it have close relationship to the issue of multiculturalism and racism, •changes of values (e.g. a shift from solidarity to autonomy and individualism) and a degree of collapse of old social mores, •changed structures of family and partnership, •longer life expectancy and an ageing population, •changed structures of labour and employment (48) and •social unrest and disenfranchisement. At a technological level e.g. the following phenomena are observable: •an ever increasing explosion of information and knowledge coupled with an increasing complexity both of social and technological issues, •the impact of new information and communication technologies on all aspects of life, •the rapidly increasing impact of new technologies (e.g. biotechnology), •an ever increasing complexity of work-place skills, and •demands of industry for flexibility in work-force. At a material level the issues of •higher standards of living on the one hand and of •a new poverty (cf. social exclusion) on the other, •pressures on world commodities and •an increase in leisure time have to be taken into account as changes as well as challenges. Differences between and within countries in these respects have to be taken into account. Some of these changes that affect the role and tasks of education and training, schools, teachers and teacher education have been placed high up on the education policy agenda. These include •integrating information and communication technologies into teaching, studying and learning processes, •gender issues, •foreign and/or Community language learning, •increasing the “employability” especially of youth, •combating failure at school, and •establishing new partnerships between the education sector and the sectors of labour and economy. Other important changes and challenges (e.g. European integration, citizenship education, values education, multiculturalism) with their implications for the (re-)definition of the aims of education and schooling and to the teaching profession and teacher education have only received limited attention in education policy. 31 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts 23. Changing Perceptions of the Role of the State in the Education Sector Since the early nineties perceptions as to which role and tasks the nation state, government and administration ought to fulfil have changed in most Member States of the European Union. The introduction into the political discourse of such concepts as globalization and/ or inescapable market forces and principles such as subsidiarity the State has reduced its responsibility in a large number of fields of policy such as economic affairs, health care, social security, traffic, environmental protection and education and training (49) in many of the Member States. The vision of a social welfare state providing equal education opportunities for all has come under heavy attack by neo-conservative and neo-liberal policies on the one hand and by post-modernist ideologies on the other. In most Member States of the European Union it was perceived to be advantageous to reduce the responsibility of the democratically legitimate State in the areas of education and training and either to complement it with, or to replace it by new structures and mechanisms such as New Public Management (50). Devolution, deregulation, autonomy choice as well as privatisation and private initiatives have become new formulae frequently used in political discourses on education and training. But, in the different Member States of the European Union and for different groups of society these concepts have different meanings: •Deregulation or autonomy may be seen as a next and necessary step in the development of democratic societies in which an increasing number of citizens will have to take increasing responsibility. •Neo-conservative and neo-liberal ideologies or a “New Right” see these formulae as programmes where control is relocated to the private or market sphere. Although highly heterogeneous in nature these changed perceptions on the role of the State have implications for education and training in general and for teacher education in particular. Implications relate to structural and curricular problems as well as to organisational, administrative, managerial and financial issues. As regards school education •an increasing demand on parents to become active partners in education and training matters may be seen as a symptom. •Similar considerations apply to the move towards more autonomy of schools in curricular and organisational affairs. •In addition, the attempted professionalisation of teaching and the teacher work may be interpreted as a need for more professional autonomy. As regards teacher education most Member States of the European Union have adopted the following policies: 32 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts •A policy of devolution and deregulation. Mechanisms of governance have changed from so-called “rule-directed models” making use of sometimes rather narrowly conceived guidelines (e.g. national curricula) to so-called “goal and outcome-directed models”. •Responsibilities and tasks of the state have been reduced to issues of strategic planning and strategic management. •More autonomy has been given to institutions of teacher education as regards responsibilities both for curricula and the administration of material and human resources. •At the same time many Member States have begun to establish professional agencies for the accreditation of teacher education programmes and the certification of teachers (e.g. Portugal) aiming at high quality teacher education programmes and a professional monitoring of the quality of programmes of teacher education. In contrast to these trends mentioned a small number of Member States of the European Union has increased the responsibilities for teacher education programmes at a central state level (51). However, a certain trend towards convergence may be observed. Governments and Ministries of Education seem to take more responsibilities for the strategic planning of teacher education and less for curricular issues, administration and management, while responsibilities for the latter increase at an institutional level (52). While the trends mentioned seem to have a strong influence on teacher education and its organisation, they also imply that teacher education curricula have to provide learning situations in which teachers may acquire those qualifications necessary to act competently in the new context of increased autonomy at school and classroom level. Teacher education has to prepare teachers to deal competently with the increasing relative autonomy of schools both regarding curricular issues (e.g. development of school action plans and curricula specific to particular schools) and managerial issues. An orientation of teacher education towards a “new professionalism” might become a necessary condition to realise school autonomy. 24. Increasing Economic Rationality Economic rationality and economic thinking have gained an increasing influence in society even in the field of education and teacher education (53). Especially since the early nineties these issues seem to dominate education policies in general and on teacher education in particular in a number of Member States. Aimed at a reducing of public expenditure for (teacher) education new forms of financing 33 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts (teacher) education have been introduced in some Member States of the European Union based on •somewhat narrowly conceived criteria (cf. problems in regard to performance indicators) and on •outcomes produced. While public expenditure for teacher education has been reduced in most Member States, institutions of teacher education have increasingly been made accountable for an optimal economic use of both material and human resources. As a result e.g. changes in the studentstaff ratio had to be made in a number of teacher education institutions and/or the teaching load of staff had to be increased. It should further be noted that teacher education – initial teacher education as well as in-service teacher education – has become subject to market forces and an increased competition between different providers of teacher education may also be detected. This applies particularly to providers of in-service education. At the same time education and training are seen as commodities by an increasing number of parents and students. A “value for money” attitude is winning ground (54). This changing attitude may have a number of repercussions on education as well as on teacher education. 25. Structural Changes in the Higher Education Sector In most Member States of the European Union teacher education has become an integral part of the sector of higher education (55). Thus, teacher education shares both the general changes of the context of the higher education sector and the challenges with which the sector is confronted. “Secondary education for all” was a catchword of the sixties and “life-long learning for all” or “higher education for all” have become formulae of the political discourse in the nineties. Five components are included in this rhetoric: 1. From an economic perspectives it is argued that highly developed post-industrial information societies depend on the optimal development of all their human resources (cf. human capital theories). This would call for the development of qualifications at the highest level possible, and higher education and training for a large number of persons. 2. The speed of technological changes and social developments would imply, that the higher education sector has to assume more responsibility for the continuous education and training of a large number of persons. In addition, institutions of higher education and training had to be developed into comprehensive knowledge centres responsible for •the production of scientific knowledge, •the development of problem-solutions in close partnership with enterprises (cf. issues 34 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts of knowledge transfer and knowledge transformation), •the initial education and training of an increasingly heterogeneous population of learners (students) and •the continuous education and training for different groups of persons. 3. At the same time an ever increasing number of persons have developed a pressing need for the highest possible quality of education and training (56). 4. New information and communication technologies and their adoption for education and training processes have opened up access to higher education and training (cf. open and distance learning, tele-learning, virtual universities and attempts to establish a virtual teacher college). 5. Working parallel to providers of formal higher education the presence of providers of non-formal higher education and training may be perceived as an additional challenge (57). All these factors outlined have led to an expansion of the higher education sector in all Member States of the European Union and mass higher education has become a reality. Closely related to the expansion of the higher education a process of diversification has taken place. New types of institutions have been established in the sector of higher education (58). In a number of Member States changes of the structures of higher education programmes, of the mechanisms of approval of programmes and of the structures of certification have been made. An European-wide trend towards convergence to the following structures of programmes and certification may be observed (cf. the Joint declaration of the European Ministers of Education convened in Bologna on the 19th of June 1999 - “The European Higher Education Area”): •undergraduate studies, •postgraduate studies, •doctoral studies and in addition, •institutions of higher education and training are supposed to provide programmes of short duration leading to certain diploma. These developments have challenged traditional conceptions of higher education and especially of university education in a number of Member States of the European Union. A number of universities have failed to be sufficiently pro-active in dealing with changing contexts and this has accentuated the current problems (59). All these factors and general trends within the higher education sector will affect teacher education as an integral component of the higher education sector: •Changes in the institutional location of initial teacher education (cf. the discussions in some Member States of the European Union whether initial teacher education for teachers at primary school level should be (re-)located to institutions of higher vocational education 35 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts or remain at universities, and problems with establishing and running virtual teacher education colleges). •Changes concerning the structures of programmes and •certification of teacher education studies (cf. trends towards a modularisation of initial teacher education). •Problems in regard to the location of in-service education, continuous professional education and further education of teachers as well as educational research. •Problems with the organisation of these, and/or •problems with an increasingly heterogeneous teacher education student population. •Changed and changing tasks of the higher education sector call for qualified teaching staff. Surely, an essential element of high quality higher education and training is a welleducated and professional staff in the higher education sector. This might well be a new and important task for teacher education. 26. “State of the Art” or “State of Practice”? “State of the art-knowledge” can be defined as the knowledge gathered from the huge amount of research and the scientifically validated practices for improving teaching and learning and teacher education submitted both by research on teaching and research on teacher education in recent years (60). At the same time the “state of practice” of teacher education may be identified by a number of persisting problems (e.g. curricula, relationships with schools). Although new insights from research on teaching or research on teacher education do not occupy the most prominent role in the social arena of teacher education (reform), these insights have to be regarded as another component of a rapidly changing context of teacher education, and as a challenge to existing programmes and practices of teacher education. Some main insights produced by research on teaching and research on teacher education are: •Experiences from a number of concrete reform and development projects (61) or crossEuropean curriculum development projects some of which have been supported by the action scheme ERASMUS of the European Commission. •Increased knowledge on the effects and efficiency of different models and methodologies of teacher education. •Insights into the conditions and effects of models of reflective teacher education, action research as well as from the “teacher as researcher” movement. •Improved knowledge about the professional development of teachers. •Progress in developing a research-based knowledge base for teaching and 36 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts •insights into the phenomenon of teacher responsibility, its conditions and development. Research on teaching and teacher education indicates that in schools as well as in teacher education “powerful learning environments” should be attempted. Powerful learning environments may be defined as •situations that elicit in students active and constructive processes of knowledge and skill acquisition, and •that offer ample opportunities for interaction, communication and cooperation. Powerful learning environments in addition aim at •stimulating students to set their own goals, and •guide them to assume responsibility for their own learning activities and processes. In other words, in powerful learning environments students and student teachers progressively become agents of their own learning activities and processes. The observation that the “state of the art-knowledge” to be found in dynamic teacher education courses, is only used to a limited extent by the different actors (e.g. education politicians, teacher educators) in the different spheres of teacher education calls for careful analysis. Furthermore the lack of a coherent research component in many curricula of initial teacher education programme correlates with a suboptimal use of “state of the artknowledge”. At the same time many teacher education programmes based on a “normal school tradition”, an “academic tradition” or on minimum-competency models have, as yet, only reluctantly developed a clear commitment to educational research and to adopt the “best practice” possible based on the ”state of the art-knowledge”. 27. Challenges for the Teaching Profession The different social position of the teaching profession in the Member States of the European Union as well as the changing conditions of the labour market for teachers exert a strong influence on teacher education. Large differences exist in regard to the status of teachers. If income is used as an indicator teachers usually rank lowest among the academic professions. Frequently secondary school level teachers receive higher salaries than primary school teachers (62). In many Member States teachers have the status of civil servants or of a public employee. The tendency seems to be to change the civil servant status into a public or private employee status. The status of teachers of course affect the developments towards professionalisation of the teacher force. Teaching is regarded as a lifelong career and a full-time employment in most Member 37 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part III - The Challenge of Change – Teacher Education in Rapidly Changing Contexts States of the European Union. Moves to change this are observable e.g. when teaching as part-time and/or life-phase specific employment become a reality. Until recently differentiations within the teaching profession have largely been centred around •the teaching certificates obtained in initial teacher education for different types or levels of school, •different subjects taught at school and if subjects are taught by subject teachers or class teachers, •teaching, administration and/or management, and •seniority. A limited number of other forms of differentiation may also be observed. The forms of differentiation mentioned arise from tradition and demonstrate the rather flat career structures within the teaching profession. Over the years this have been regarded as problematic in certain social contexts. Considering the diversification of competencies requested complementary and alternative forms of differentiation of the teaching profession might become necessary, in which criteria such as •different tasks (e.g. teaching, curriculum development, management, cooperating teacher in initial teacher education, mentor in induction, “school innovator”, open and distance learning tutor, “lifelong learning supporter”), •responsibilities (e.g. teacher – head of department – school manager) and/or •subject areas following a thematic approach (e.g. gender studies – environmental studies – peace education – information and communication technology) will have to be taken into account. Teaching and to some extent teacher education has become increasingly feminised in most Member States of the European Union. Developments regarding gender have been achieved in identifying, on the one hand, shared assumptions and understandings about the goals and roles of teacher education, and on the other, increasing complexity resulting from changes in global and national material conditions, cultural expectations, and group and individual identity. If an inclusive gender perspective for teacher education is indeed feasible, teacher educators will need to prioritise the following: •The necessity to claim an ideological space in which they can mount a challenge to male hegemonic theories and practices. •An understanding of the specificity of gender and feminist discourses in different countries, and in particular, the interaction between local gender concerns and priorities and wider feminist movements and ideas. •An appreciation of variations in experience of gender depending on history and culture of the country or region involved, relationship to political systems or political movements, and the material conditions of individuals and groups. 44 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe task of teaching and the teaching profession. Implications of this proposition for the knowledge base of the teaching profession as well as in regard to the curricula of teacher education and their reform will be discussed in chapter 30. •Chapter 31 deals with the potential of Fachdidaktik or subject-matter didactics to develop pedagogical professionalism. •In chapter 32 the development of professional problem-solving capacity will be elaborated. •Research and development are indispensable components of teacher education and will be discussed in chapter 33. •Chapter 34 deals with the practice component of teacher education programmes and issues related to a close co-operation between initial teacher education institutions and schools as a necessary condition of effective teacher education. •Problems of the induction of beginning teachers into professional cultures of schools are discussed in chapter 35. •In chapter 36 issues of in-service education and the continuous professional development of teachers are taken up. •Chapter 37 is devoted to issues of the further education of teachers; •Questions of staff development in teacher education is the subject of chapter 38. •Issues of accreditation of teacher education programmes and the certification of teachers are the focus of chapter 39. 45 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform 29. Coherent Goals for the Education of Teachers Teacher education in general and initial teacher education programmes in particular may be described by some as having unclear, unrealistically ambitious, incoherent and sometimes even conflicting goals. It seems to be necessary to (re-)define the goals and tasks of the entire system of teacher education. The goals and tasks of teacher education, and the systemic relationships of its components as well as their contributions to the professional development of teachers need to be clarified. Without devaluing the high relevance of comprehensive initial teacher education it seems to be necessary to clarify which competencies and attitudes prospective teachers may be able to develop during initial teacher education. Both in professionalised and traditional models of teacher education it seems to be a widely accepted goal that teacher education has to support (prospective) teachers so that they can develop those abilities and attitudes that seem to be necessary to meet the professional tasks of the teaching profession competently, reflectively, and by considering recent scientific knowledge. Realising this goal calls for •analyses of the professional roles teachers are expected to fulfil depending on normative decisions within particular cultural and social contexts (66), •analyses of professional tasks of teachers such as teaching, educating, counselling, evaluating, administrating and innovating (67), •analyses of qualifications necessary to fulfil professional roles and tasks, •explicit models of how these qualifications may be acquired, and •the orientation of programmes of teacher education on tasks and qualifications analysed. It is debatable in what ways traditional models of teacher education may be able to meet these requirements: •The potential of minimum-competency models for initial teacher education seems to be limited. Most minimum-competency models focus on rather narrowly conceived conceptions of the roles and tasks teachers are expected to fulfil. Analyses of qualifications necessary to fulfil professional roles and tasks as well as the model adopted for the acquisition of professional competence based on minimum-competency strategies give the impression of superficiality (68). •Traditional models of teacher education seem to be in great need of substantial changes. The enrichment of traditional models of teacher education both for primary and secondary school teachers to include some professional components has brought about a number of improvements but at the same time it may have contributed to unclear and conflicting goals of teacher education. The potential of an enrichment strategy seems to be restricted. •Models of initial teacher education centred on professionalisation seem to have a high potential to meet the requirements outlined and to improve teacher education. Evidence 46 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform in support of this proposition may be found in teacher education models of most Nordic countries and in a number of concrete teacher education-improvement projects in different Member States of the European Union. 30. Providing Powerful Learning Environments – the Central Task for Teachers and Teacher Education? Problems related to the current state of the knowledge base of teacher education and the teaching profession seem to be numerous. While research on teaching and teacher education have sometimes led to substantial progress, problems in regard to programmes and curricula of teacher education seem to have become even more obvious. A well developed knowledge base for teacher education and the teaching profession seems to be a missing but indispensable link, in making substantial improvements to teacher education and the professional service to be provided by the teaching profession. Teaching, studying and learning may be perceived as the central content areas of the knowledge base of/for the teaching profession. These activities and/or processes always •take place in particular contexts (environments), •have to be interpreted primarily as intentional actions of the actors involved •are directed towards aims and objectives, •have substance (content), and •may be supported by different media (e.g. teaching and learning aids). The focus is on the studying and learning processes of students and on the design of learning situations (cf. the concept of “powerful learning environments”) in which students can find ample opportunity to develop structures of meaning, knowledge and action. Supporting the development and construction of meaning, knowledge and action on the one side and the transmission of academic knowledge on the other may be seen as rather different entities. Which science(-s) and contents that might form the scientific knowledge base(-s) still remains an unresolved problem in regard to the teaching profession and teacher education. Concerning teacher education for the secondary level of the school systems in most of the Member States of the European Union, prospective teachers most frequently receive •their education in one or two academic disciplines. •Education and preparation for the main tasks of the teaching profession (e.g. providing powerful learning environments) are often perceived to be of minor importance (69). •Additionally, in most Member States prospective teachers do not graduate in education or educational sciences but in other academic subjects, which may have an impact on the development of their professional identities of teachers. 47 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform In common with many curricula in schools, teacher education and its programmes are split up into different and, in many cases, unrelated academic disciplines: •In most cases these academic disciplines focus on the development of scientific knowledge, explanatory models and theories. •They do not consider the teaching, studying and learning of particular topics. •Neither do they deal with the transformation of scientific knowledge structured in a propositional and systematic format into human knowledge structures following different patterns of organisation (e.g. holistically, episodic, cases, schemata). Most academic disciplines have defined the production of explanatory knowledge as their most important aim and do not deal coherently with the transformation of explanatory knowledge produced for learners. •Additionally, a number of academic disciplines seems to devaluate the relevance of scientifically validated practices. This fact can raise problems when it comes to teaching, studying and learning phenomena analysed by these academic disciplines. •The complex relations existing beteween school subjects and academic disciplines are in most instances not analysed. The problem of transforming and relating the knowledge structure of the academic disciplines to the structure of the school subject is accordingly in most cases a neglected area. The problems highlighted have become increasingly obvious and a number of measures to tackle them have been taken in some Member States. More integrated curricula of teacher education have been developed focusing on a thematic approach. Thematic studies e.g. in multicultural education and in European studies dealing in a comprehensive way with the process of European integration have been woven into some teacher education curricula. However, measures taken have, in most cases, been complementary to existing patterns of teacher education, while the basic structures of teacher education programmes have not been subject to change. Comprehensive efforts seem to be necessary to develop a coherent knowledge base for teacher education and the teaching profession to make necessary reforms, at both the level of schools and teacher education, possible. 31. The Potential of Fachdidaktik or Subject-matter Didactics In a number of European cultural contexts Fachdidaktik(-en) (literally translated as subjectdidactics, subject-matter didactics or subject specific methodologies) in/of various subject matters taught at schools, and Bereichdidaktik(-en) (literally translated as methodologies of certain cross-curricular fields of study at school level such as social studies, environmental studies, civics education or learning with new information and communication technologies) 48 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform have been established as academic disciplines and have sometimes made remarkable progress (e.g. Finland, France, Germany). Various Fachdidaktik(-en) and Bereichsdidaktik(-en) have recently provided scientifically based knowledge and empirically validated practices for teachers to establish effective teaching and learning situations in their respective fields. The foundation of both national and European-wide associations in subject-didactics (e.g. mathematics, foreign languages and natural sciences), the foundation of research and development institutes for different Fachdidaktik(-en) (e.g. Institut für die Didaktik der Mathematik) and for different Bereichsdidaktik(-en) (e.g. Institut für die Didaktik der Naturwissenschaften) or the introduction of professorships for various Fachdidaktik(-en) (e.g. in the Nordic countries) and Bereichsdidaktik(-en) may be seen as catalysts for a number of improvements in teaching and teacher education. However, the tendency to isolate particular Fachdidaktik(-en) (e.g. mathemathics) even from neighbouring ones as well as a certain lack of integration can be observed. The learning and developing student may be abandoned, while expectations of a particular Fachdidaktik related to an academic discipline and its structures might become predominant. This may also apply to the holistic personality development of students. In addition, a frequently given justification of particular Fachdidaktik(-en) – the argument that subject didactics have to provide scientifically validated knowledge for different school subjects as these have been defined by education politicians for national sylabusses and curricula – would need careful consideration. Bereichdidaktik(-en) focussing on a thematic approach and concrete problems seem to have more potential than various Fachdidaktik(-en). More coherent efforts to establish Bereichdidaktik(-en) as fields of research and development seem to be called for. The production or design of scientifically validated practices and education software (e.g. textbooks, multimedia products) can be regarded as a rather neglected field of the educational sciences in general and of teacher education in particular. Designing education software and exploring its effects and efficiency call for co-operation in collaborative problem-solving groups comprised of experts in a number of different fields (e.g. Didaktik, Fachdidaktik, Bereichsdidaktik, linguistics, communication sciences, telematics) and teachers. In most Member States of the European Union institutions of teacher education have adopted the development, production and design of education software only to a limited extent. Free reign has been given to a marketisation of this field which has resulted in products that are sometimes rather disappointing (70). It is suggested that teacher education institutions should deal more coherently with the production and design of scientifically validated practices and education software (cf. 49 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform developments in Nordic countries). It may be expected that such efforts •might lead to more efficient teaching and learning aids, and •help to reduce technological deficits obvious in the field of teaching, studying and learning (71). Establishing structures for research and development on Fachdidaktik(-en) and Bereichsdidaktik(-en) at institutions of teacher education seems to be an important issue in teacher education reform, with a potentially enormous impact on teacher educators, (prospective) teachers, the teaching profession, and students. It might contribute effectively to the reduction of problems both of traditional models of teacher education and of minimum-competency models. 32. Developing Collaborative Problem-Solving Capacity To be able to act effectively and efficiently in dynamic environments characterised by rapidly changing tasks teachers, like all other professionals, need professional problem solving capacity. It seems to be necessary for professionals •to be able to define “problem-spaces” and to formulate questions, •to possess a broad and developed repertoire of problem-solving skills, which enables them •to solve particular problems (72). Teaching is a complex activity needing simultaneous thought and action on a wide number of fronts. While some relatively homogeneous and standardised tasks and problems of teaching may be present (“well-defined tasks and problems”), teaching may at the same time be described as having a large number of unstructured and “ill-defined” tasks and problems. When they are teaching, teachers permanently have •to interpret complex situations, •to define “problem-spaces”, •to adapt different routines, •to develop problem-solutions for particular situations and cases in order to provide high quality education and training and •to develop communicative skills and a rich and varied behaviour repertoire in order to be able to cope with the multitude of different interactions taking place in a classroom. Most models of teacher education seem to be able to provide a number of standardised solutions and practices for well defined professional tasks: •One of the strengths of models of teacher education based around a “normal school tradition” might be, that they may provide a number of routines which enable (prospective) teachers to master standardised tasks and well defined problems of teaching. This also 50 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform seems to apply at least to some extent to minimum-competency models. •In contrast an “academic tradition” of teacher education, by self-definition, aims at the development of problem-solving capacity. Considering that problem-solving capacity to a large extent is domain-specific, an “academic tradition” may not always be able to meet this aim, especially when the focus is put on the acquisition of scientific domainspecific knowledge structures. At the same time sometimes serious misgivings have been expressed as to whether teacher education based on these two models is able to provide learning situations appropriate for the development of both competence and readiness to define problem-spaces. Further questions are raised concerning their ability to foster the problem-solving capacity necessary to meet both newly identified ill-defined problems of teaching and future problems which are bound to arise. Competence in collaborative problem-solving and competence for co-operation and teamwork are perceived as other domains that seem to be of utmost relevance in highly developed information societies. As regards education and training the move towards more autonomy for schools and an increasing necessity for teacher team-work makes the acquisition of these competencies vitally important. Teachers from various backgrounds will need to be placed in situations where they are able to acquire strategies and understandings for the development of school-specific curricula through collaboration and co-operation. The “problem-spaces” they encounter may not be well-defined. Our query should be how well do present models of teacher education with predominantely individualistic cultures provide learning experiences for the development of these competencies, which are essential for each form of school improvement and professional learning? It appears that the future programmes and curricula of teacher education will be oriented more on •process-, •problem-, •projectand •research-oriented learning environments and that •inquiry-oriented cultures have to replace rather rigid and re-active cultures of teaching, studying and learning (cf. the potential of models of reflective teacher education or of educational action research), if the desired change is to be accomplished. 51 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform 33. Research and Development as a Component of Teacher Education In most Member States of the European Union the relationships between teacher education, the teaching profession and educational research and development need to be redefined (73). As in all other (and not only academic) professions a close relationship between •(educational) research and development, and •the (teaching) profession seems to be indispensable. An increasing recognition of the high relevance of research for high quality education in general and high quality teacher education in particular has led to a certain expansion and cultivation of research and development related to and relevant for teacher education (74). However, in most Member States of the European Union •institutions of teacher education and their staff as well as student teachers and teachers have, until recently, been separated from research and development. •Many institutions of teacher education do not have a clear responsibility to take part in, nor adequate resources for, research and development. While coherent and targeted research and development seem to be essential for the improvement of all forms of teacher education, it cannot be denied that models of teacher education based on a “normal school tradition”, and especially minimum-competency models of teacher education, encompass different opinions on this issue. A characteristic of secondary school teacher education is that (student) teachers are usually confronted with research in certain academic disciplines which may not always be of relevance for teaching and the teaching profession. Initial teacher education as well as in-service teacher education need to find a clear profile in regard to •research and development, and •an active involvement of teachers in it (cf. the contributions of TNTEE subnetwork F on reflective practice in teacher education, or the promising concepts of “teachers as researchers”, or action research). A development in this direction implies that all institutions and/or departments involved in teacher education programmes must themselves be actively involved in research and in doctoral programmes specifically related to teacher education, teaching and teacher work. 52 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform 34. New Partnerships between Institutions of Teacher Education and Schools Active systemic relations and mutual partnerships between institutions of teacher education, teachers and schools are extremely important in all forms of teacher education. Close cooperation in areas such as •the teaching practice component of programmes of initial teacher education, •research and development, and •school improvement activities between institutions of teacher education, teachers and schools are important in establishing and maintaining professional cultures of learning and development in schools as well as in institutions of teacher education. This development of “partnerships” is taking place in most countries of the European Union, although progress is by no means uniform. Unlike the medical or other academic professions the relations between teacher education, teachers and schools has not yet reached an optimum level. Examples of teacher education on the one side and schools and teachers on the other working completely independent of one another can be found. At the same time comprehensive attempts have sometimes been made to establish close partnerships between schools and institutions of teacher education (e.g. in Denmark, England and Wales, and Sweden). There are many statements stressing the high importance of practice in initial teacher education, the extent to which this is borne out is however variable. While in many models of secondary school teacher education a comprehensive practice component is not undertaken, most models of primary school teacher education provide practice in different formats, such as •short-term teaching serial practice (e.g. once a week over a period of time) in schools attached (cf. model and training schools, Modelland/or Übungsschulen) or related to institutions of teacher education (e.g. Praxisschulen), •teaching practice of a longer duration at schools (e.g. block practice often in a variety of schools throughout the programme to provide a selection of different contexts and challenges), •microteaching at institutions of teacher education and/or •experience in non-school settings with an educational and/or social focus. A comprehensive account and analysis of current practice in specific institutions in Member States of the European Union can be found in the first issue of the TNTEE Journal (http:// tntee.umu.se/publications/journals.html). The issue reflects a three years project undertaken by members of TNTEE Sub-network B. Research on practice (the practicum) in teacher education programmes has highlighted a host of unresolved and often suppressed problems. Many models of teacher education do not provide a coherent practice component (75). It seems as if 53 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part IV - Scenarios for Teacher Education Reform •outdated “apprenticeship models” or •highly debatable models of learning to teach by experience are predominant. Professionalised models of teacher education aim at •the development of a broad repertoire of professional actions, which teachers may use •in a justified and •flexible way adapted to individual learners, goals, tasks, contents and situations. The development of a broad repertoire of professional actions/action structures seems to call for a broad knowledge base as well as for coordinated and coherent practice in which (prospective) teachers may find learning situations appropriate to promote the development of competent, reflective and theory-based action. It seems to be necessary to integrate practice coherently into all models of teacher education. In integrating practice and the other components of teacher education into specific programmes prominent factors will include •the development of a strong, mutually beneficial, partnership with schools, •differentiation and understanding of the division of work and responsibilities between the partners, •high quality teachers specially educated to fulfil the demanding tasks of co-operating supervisors, mentors and partners (76). The concept of Professional Development Schools developed by the Holmes Commission (1990) in the USA provide one example on how to integrate practice of student teachers, academic studies, research and development in schools, and initial teacher education and in-service teacher education. The concept of Professional Development Schools focuses on mutual partnerships in a number of areas: •High quality teachers with an additional education to fulfil the tasks of a co-operating teacher or mentor are integrated into the teaching practice component of initial teacher education programmes •providing in-service education for teachers in close co-operation with Professional Development Schools (e.g. on integrating new information and communication technologies into powerful learning environments), •who are actively involved in research and development projects (e.g. development of innovative methodologies) done in close co-operation of all actors. •Teacher educators and educational researchers are at the same time actively involved in innovative work done in schools, and •as a concequence permanent partnerships between institutions of (initial) teacher education and schools have to be established (77). Following the conception of Professional Development Schools outlined above, institutions of teacher education might develop themselves into knowledge resource centres and professional meeting places. They might then be able to integrate effectively initial teacher 60 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe 61 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe PART V SOME PROPOSALS FOR CONCRETE MEASURES RELEVANT TO TEACHER EDUCATION REFORM The scenarios of teacher education reform described in the preceding chapters aimed at •fostering the dialogue between all the actors involved in teacher education and its reform (e.g. the professional community, decision makers and politicians) at an all-European, national, regional and local level, •enriching definitions of the problem-space for reforms and improvements of teacher education •in order to support informed decision making, and •providing input for problem-solving processes in reforming teacher education. The scenarios presented challenged traditional conceptions of teacher education with their static rationale, sometimes hidden assumptions and segmentation, but at the same time pose questions that will have to be answered, within the realities of the development of teacher education in the different cultural and social contexts of the European Union. Based on comparative conceptual analyses of the current state of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union, on analyses of challenges in rapidly changing contexts of education and teacher education, and on analyses of the “state of the art-knowledge” of successful teacher education the scenarios presented described and analysed options relevant for reforms and improvements of teacher education at macro-, mesoand micro-level in different social and cultural contexts. As a supplement to those scenarios some proposals for relevant concrete measures to support teacher education reform will be brought forward in this final part of the Green Paper. Recognising the legal framework defining 62 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe the responsibilities of the European Commission and the Member States of the European Union in education and training (cf. Treaty of Maastricht and Treaty of Amsterdam) the proposals will focus on measures to be taken ·either primarily at the level of the Member States of the European Union (chapter 40) ·or at the level of the European Commission (chapter 41). This focus should in no case be misinterpreted as a devaluation of the importance and high potential of problem-solving at local and institutional levels. Being aware of the many interdependent relations of problemsolving processes at local, regional, national and all-European levels in reforming teacher education, particular proposals submitted should be regarded as components of a complex system with a number of repercussions. 63 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform 40. Measures at the Level of Member States of the European Union Differences in regard to the current state of teacher education between the Member States of the European Union, as well as differences of the quality of discourses on education in general and teacher education in particular, imply that the eight proposals to be presented here will have different relevance for teacher education reform in the fifteen Member States of the European Union. 40.1 Committees for Teacher Education Reform While some Member States of the European Union already have discussed or even started substantial reforms of teacher education, others seem to be reluctant to change. Attempts to reform teacher education did not always consider the “state of the art – knowledge” of successful and effective teacher education. Against this background it is proposed that national committees or task forces for teacher education reform representing all actors and spheres involved in teacher education are established. 40.2 Concrete Reform Projects The degree of autonomy given to institutions of teacher education to develop curricula of their own differs greatly between the different Member States of the European Union. Sometimes rather narrowly conceived national guidelines do not permit •the implementation of concrete reform projects, •the change of programmes and curricula even when current problems are obvious, and/ or •the use of highly developed human resources and expertise available at institutions of teacher education. Due to such constraints progress and possible improvements are hindered. Against this background it is proposed that the •professional autonomy and responsibility of institutions of teacher education should be increased and that •coherent support (human and material resources) for concrete projects to reform teacher education programmes and curricula should be provided. In previous chapters several areas within teacher education have been mentioned where development and change are needed. These concern for example the effective use of modern information and communication technologies for teaching, studying and learning processes, multicultural issues and gender issues. 64 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform In some countries opportunities for local development projects of the kind mentioned above already exist. 40.3 Coherent Programmes for Research and Development Related to Teacher Education and Teacher Work Problems concerning the knowledge base of teacher education and the teaching profession have become obvious. It seems to be necessary to try to develop coherent profiles of research and development for teacher education institutions. Progress could be assisted by establishing appropriate structures for research and development at institutions of teacher education. In previous chapters it has been noted that it seems necessary to emphasize that such research should be the concern of all institutions engaged in teacher education and thus not be restricted to education (or pedagogy) as a discipline. 40.4 Action Plans for In-service Education and Further Education Convincing arguments have been submitted stressing the absolute necessity of in-service education and continuous professional development of teachers as well as their further education so that schools and teachers may meet the challenges of change pro-actively and competently. However, some reluctancy may be detected in a number of Member States of the European Union to make effective provision of in-service education and further education. Against this background the proposal is made to develop coherent national action plans for the in-service and further education of teachers. Such plans should also take into account the necessity of challenging existing divisions of labour between initial teacher education programmes, in-service education and the continuous professional development of teachers. 40.5 Establishing Partnerships Close co-operation between the teaching profession, schools and teacher education with its different components (initial teacher education, induction, in-service education and continuous professional development, further education, school development and research and development) may be seen as a necessary condition for high quality education and training. However, in a number of Member States of the European Union separation and fragmentation are characteristics of teacher education and possible and necessary effects of synergy are not realised. 65 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform Without devaluating the relevance of co-operation among all actors in all the spheres of teacher education mentioned above, it seems to be of special importance to reconsider forms of co-operation as regards the practice component of initial teacher education programmes and the induction of beginning teachers. This leads to the proposal to establish partnerships between institutions of (initial) teacher education and schools focusing on the practice components and on the induction of beginning teachers. Different models of such partnership have to be considered as well as provisions for staff development programmes. 40.6 Comprehensive Knowledge-Resource-Centres for Education and Training In most Member States of the European Union the education and training sector, as well as teacher education, are split up into a large number of loosely coupled and sometimes even unrelated systems. As regards teacher education a large number of negative effects related to this state of affairs have been described in the preceeding chapters. It seems to be necessary to emphasise the need to integrate different forms of teacher education, school improvement and research and development in order to enhance synergy. Against this background it is proposed that comprehensive knowledge-resource centres for education and training at the higher education (university) level dealing in a coherent manner with the initial teacher education for all categories of teachers, induction, in-service education, further education, school improvement, and research and development should be established. 40.7 High Quality Teacher Educators High quality teacher education depends on high quality teacher educators. However, in most Member States of the European Union rather low formal qualifications are required to work as a teacher educator, particularly when compared to other fields of professional education. Coherent initial education for teacher educators or measures for an induction into the professional cultures of teacher education do not generally exist. Provision has been made only in some Member States for the support and continuous professional development of teacher educators and/or for other teachers in higher education institutions. It is proposed that the professional qualifications of teacher educators should be reviewed and raised and that coherent staff development programmes for teacher educators should be introduced. 66 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform 40.8 Autonomous Professional Organisations To foster compatability with other academic professions the establishing of autonomous professional organisations for the teaching profession (cf. teaching councils) may be supported at (nation) state level. These autonomous professional organisations might take responsibilities •for guaranteeing and increasing the quality of the professional services provided by teachers, and teacher education, •by participating with other social partners in the approval and accreditation of teacher education programmes, and/or •in the certification of professional qualifications. 41. Measures at the Level of the European Commission In this chapter we discuss seven clusters of proposals for measures to be taken at the level of the European Commission. 41.1 The Relevance of European Commission Action Schemes Within the legal framework defined by the Treaty of Maastricht and the Treaty of Amsterdam the European Commission has been able to contribute to a number of reforms and improvements of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union in two parallel ways: •• •• • indirectly by submitting policy documents as Green Papers or White Papers (e.g. on the relevance of new information and communication technologies for the education sector, or on early language learning), and •• •• • directly by supporting concrete European-wide curriculum development projects and the mobility of teacher education students, teachers as well as staffs of institutions of teacher education (cf. the action scheme SOCRATES and its components such as ERASMUS for higher education, COMENIUS for school education and the in-service education of teachers, LINGUA for the learning of Community languages, the chapter on Open and Distance Learning and the Thematic Network Project Initiative). Although financial support provided by the European Commission is rather low (especially when compared to other items of the budget of the European Commission), substantial improvements could sometimes be made mainly at an institutional level. •Curricula of teacher education have become subject to reform, •new fields of study have been introduced into programmes of teacher education (e.g. European studies) and 67 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform •networks of high quality teacher education institutions have been established. Against this background, and considering that until recently only a limited number of proactive institutions of teacher education has been able to make maximum benefit of the opportunities provided, it is proposed •to continue and to expand the action scheme SOCRATES, •to increase the coherence and co-ordination both •between the different chapters of the action scheme SOCRATES and •the SOCRATES programme and other action schemes run by the European Commission (e.g. LEONARDO and research programmes) and •to increase the funds for institutions and networks running projects to improve teacher education. Recent attempts of the European Commission to establish within the action scheme SOCRATES a particular chapter for school education including teacher education need to be considered carefully. •Both the size of teacher education and its particular problems might be used as arguments to justify a particular chapter within the action scheme SOCRATES. In most Member States the number of students in initial teacher education is larger than in other forms of academic professional education. •Open and systemic conceptions of teacher education stress the necessity of an integration of inititial teacher education, induction, continuous professional development, further education, school improvement, and research and development. This may again be seen as an argument in support of a chapter specifically dealing with teacher education. •Progress in regard to the quality of teacher education can be seen as closely related to the incorporation of teacher education into the higher education sector where the professionalisation or “universitification” of teacher education has been important. This fact stresses the importance of linking initiatives in regard to teacher education to initiatives that concern higher (university) education •As for other professions, high quality education to a very important degree depends on research-based knowledge and validated practices being developed through research and development in close co-operation with teachers and otherrs working within the education sector. This points to the necessity of developing initiatives where teacher education, research and practises within the education sector may be linked. Sythesising these arguments it may be concluded that a particular chapter within the action scheme SOCRATES on teacher education including school education might have a high potential. 68 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform 41.2 A Committee for Teacher Education Reform Expectations on high quality education and training to make a “Europe of Knowledge” a reality and the importance attached to teachers and teacher education on the one hand, and the current state of teacher education in the Member States of the European Union on the other call for coherent action at an all-European level. One measure could be the establishment of a “Committee for Teacher Education Reform” at the European Commission level comprised of representatives of actors in the different spheres of teacher education. The experiences of the Thematic Network of Teacher Education in Europe (TNTEE) point in such a direction and work already started to implement a European Network on Teacher Education Policies may also be taken into account as a basis for establishing a Committee for teacher education reform. 41.3 Cross-European Knowledge Centres for Teacher Education Institutions of teacher education all around Europe have been able to develop solutions for successful teacher education in particular fields centred around their strengths (e.g. learning with new information and communication technology, European Studies). However, these solutions are in most instaces local. Against this background the introduction of a chapter into the action scheme SOCRATES is proposed aiming at the establishing of pan-European knowledge centres for teacher education, which at the same time might operate as co-ordinators of quality networks for particular fields of teacher education. 41.4 Research on Teaching and Teacher Education Achieving high quality education and training and high quality teacher education necessitates the development of a comprehensive research-based knowledge base and empirically validated practices. Despite the high relevance of attaining these targets, research on teaching and teacher education have not been priorities of European Commission action schemes in the research sector. The proposal is put forward to make research on teaching and teacher education a priority incorporated as a special chapter in the coming action schemes for research. 69 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Part V - Some Proposals for Concrete Measures Relevant to Teacher Education Reform 41.5 Cross-European Master and Doctoral Programmes It is proposed to expand opportunities already provided by the action scheme SOCRATES and to adopt measures within the action scheme LEONARDO to support the development of •high quality, •innovative and •modularised •European-wide Masters and Doctoral programmes in the sector of further education for teachers, that •make maximum use of open and distance learning and/or net-based learning. 41.6 Fostering Mobility An increase in mobility of teachers between the Member States of the European Union could be highy relevant in the process of European integration. However, different regulations mainly at the level of nation states may be seen as sometimes creating severe obstacles. On the other side efforts in regard to the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) have at present only brought about limited progress. Efforts to increase the equality (compatability) of teaching diploma across the European Union seem to be necessary. 41.7 Developing the European Dimension The Green Paper on the “European Dimension in Education” (European Commission) made explicit reference to the important role of teachers and teacher education in making this dimension a reality. Compared to the situation in the late eighties only incremental progress has been made in this respect. More coherent and substantial efforts especially in teacher education seem to be necessary if the European Dimension in Education is to be developed further. Against this background it is proposed to establish an action scheme focusing on teacher education to promote a European Dimension in teacher education. 76 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes (22) F. and I. Buchberger (1999) have analysed some hidden assumptions of the “academic tradition” of teacher education and noted that one of the many problems may be that the different aims of academic disciplines and scientific inquiry on one side and the aims of teaching and supporting learning particular problems on the other are considered rather superficially. A similar situation applies to the different formats of scientific knowledge structured systematically and in propositions in theoretical systems, and human knowledge structured holistically in meanings, schemata or scripts around problems. Considering the high relevance of both scientific knowledge and human knowledge structures the authors have developed a concept of Didaktik/Fachdidaktik as an integrative transformation science for teaching, studying, and learning. (23) Unlike Faculties of Medicine or Law, separate Faculties of Education were not established in universities in the nineteenth century and no specialised Universities for Education were created. While the education for teachers at primary school level was placed at schools at the upper secondary level or at university colleges (or at Teacher´s Colleges) the education for secondary school level teachers has been a part of the universities. Adopting the aims of departments and faculties of universities the academic education of prospective teachers did not aim at teaching and the teaching profession, but on educating scientists in particular academic disciplines (see also H. Seel 1985). (24) The concept “teacher” has frequently been restricted to “school teacher” in many Member States of the European Union. This restriction implies that education staff working in kindergartens or in adult education are not recognised as teachers or members of the teaching profession in a number of European countries. Additionally, this restriction excludes a number of education staff working in schools. Cedefop (1995) has described problems in defining the concept of teacher in vocational education and training. It seems to be necessary to adopt a broader concept of “teacher” and “teacher education”. (25) Note that the highly developed systems of teacher education for vocational, technical and economic education and training at the upper secondary school level in a number of continental European countries have become subject to analysis by education decision makers and educationalists of other Member States of the European Union aiming at improvements in these and other sectors of teacher education. (26) The introduction, since the mid sixties, of models of in-service education may be seen as an important step in the development of teacher education. At the same time the introduction of institutions devoted to in-service education of teachers only, and separated on one hand from initial teacher education and educational research and on the other from schools and school improvement may be perceived as rather problematic. More appropriate measures have not been taken in most European countries (e.g. making in-service education an integral part of university teacher education). Solutions adopted in some countries including the establishment of state-run pedagogical institutes or pedagogical centres seem to reflect 77 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes a strong need of the State and the school inspectorate to keep control over teachers and their in-service education (e.g. Austria and Germany). (27) In England and Wales the Department for Education and Employment has recently submitted proposals for teacher education reforms based on a coherent systemic perspective (DfEE 1998). While opinions expressed especially when compared to “state of the art – knowledge” on successful initial teacher education can be seen as problematic, the close relationships suggested between initial teacher training, induction (cf. “career entry profiles”), continuous professional development, staff development, further education and school improvement, seem to be challenging. (28) While the education of teachers for the secondary schools has been organised from the very beginning at universities, this is not the case for all other categories of teachers. For a long time primary school teachers and their associations in several countries have made claims for the best teacher education possible. The “best” being regarded as an academic and university-based teacher education. These efforts have always been underpinned both by intrinsic motives (e.g. need for more profound and liberal teacher education) and extrinsic motives (e.g. academic teacher education as means to improve the status of the teaching profession). (29) R. Bourdoncle (1994) has analysed the different meanings of the concept “professionalisation” in various European cultural contexts. Many misunderstandings might have been avoided in discussions on reforms and improvements of teacher education, if comparative analyses of the concept of professionalisation had been taken into account. Conceptions of professionalisation developed in English speaking countries seem to dominate the discourse. On the other hand main criteria of professionalisation, such as an emphasis on “relative pedagogical autonomy” (“relative pädagogische Autonomie”), and/or the recognition of the necessity of a scientific knowledge base for teaching, have for a long time been guiding principles of teacher education in Nordic and German speaking countries. As a consequence the British perception of professional autonomy may not always be compatible with views in other European contexts. (30) For different conceptualisations of professionalism and distinctions between pedagogical professionality and sociological aspects of professionalisation see A. Combe & W. Helsper (1996) or J. Wagner (1998). (31) Concerning the concept of an “open” or “new professionalism” see P. Laderriere (1990). (32) A historical analysis of the development of the medical profession might furnish rich material for a discussion of the professionalisation process regarding teachers. Important steps in the process of professionalisation in medicine were taken through the development of a scientific knowledge base, the development of empirically validated practices, a code of ethics and later on standardised treatments and technologies. 78 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes (33) Many institutions dealing with primary school teacher education have been able to develop clear profiles of research and development after their inclusion in universities. Improvements of the curricula of the primary school and of methodologies for early reading and writing or mathematics may be mentioned as examples. The adoption of constructivist learning theories and their transformation to establish powerful learning environments in primary schools provides another example. Similar observations may be reported for secondary teacher education, where progress has been made especially in regard to Didaktik/ Fachdidaktik in a number of fields (e.g. mathematics, natural science studies, foreign language learning). (34) In a number of European countries primary school teacher education was simply transferred to universities. This was done without defining coherent goals for the academic education of teachers, without establishing structures and profiles for research and development, and without provisions for coherent staff development programmes necessary for teacher educators initially socialised within a “normal school tradition”. In a number of cases these arrangements imply that opportunities which should have been provided for professionalisation were absent. (35) The interest in minimum-competency models in English speaking contexts may be explained by a number of factors. One of these might be different perceptions on the role of teachers in English speaking contexts compared e.g. to perceptions in Nordic countries (cf. B. Gundem & S. Hopman 1998). In addition the (re-) introduction of minimum-competency models of teacher education in some parts of the USA could be tied to a severe shortage of teachers and some reluctance to invest in (teacher) education. (36) Cf. for instance the National Commission on Teaching and America´s Future (1996) or the manifesto submitted by the Fordham Foundation (1999). (37) Cf. OECD (1999) or F. van Vught & D. Westerheijden (1993). (38) The update of the Sigma report produced by TNTEE contains a description of the models of evaluation of teacher education used in the Member States of the European Union (T. Sander 1999). (39) Concerning the concepts Didaktik, Fachdidaktik or Bereichsdidaktik see the publication “Didaktik/Fachdidaktik as science(-s) of the teaching profession?” produced by a subnetwork of TNTEE and edited by B. Hudson et al (1999) or the contributions to a Scandinavian/ German/American symposium on the context dependent concepts Didaktik and curriculum (B. Gundem & S. Hopman 1995, 1998). (40) In a number of European cultural contexts curricular components are categorised into professional studies (educational studies, studies in different methodologies or subject matter didactics and teaching practice) and academic subject studies. 79 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes (41) More detailed descriptions of different curricular models of initial teacher education are found in e.g. M. Galton & B. Moon (1994). (42) M. Kennedy (1990) has analysed goals of the professional education of a number of academic professions in USA. In regard to teacher education unclear goals seem to be related to rather problematic curricula and teaching and learning arrangements (and an insufficiently effective teacher education). For German speaking countries J. Oelkers (1998) has submitted cogent analyses of the vague and unrealistic goals of initial teacher education. (43) Cf. the trend analyses submitted by G. Neave to the Standing Conference of Ministers of Education of Council of Europe Member States (1987) and the European Commission (1992). (44) Although a tendency towards higher admission criteria may be observed as a general trend in teacher education, policies of Member States of the European Union differ as regards admission to fields in which a shortage of teachers exists (e.g. mathematics, foreign languages, natural sciences, information and communication technology). While some Member States think that more demanding admission criteria and better teacher education programmes might be appropriate for tackling the problem of shortage of certain categories of teachers, others hold that lower admission criteria and shorter programmes might be appropriate measures. At the same time some Member States of the European Union have introduced “alternative routes into teaching”. These alternative routes into teaching are designed to attract candidates with non-traditional qualifications to opt for teaching as a profession. Admission policies related to these alternative routes are frequently closely related to minimum-competency models of teacher education. (45) Frequently innovations in the education sector seem to take the following pattern: A problem is perceived, the measures in order to solve it are taken into consideration. While time passes in the development of solutions, the problem might have changed or even “disappeared”. This gives the possibility that solutions developed might then be appropriate to solve a problem that does not exist any more and/or be inappropriate to solve the changed or new problem. This phenomenon may be described as an “innovation trap”. (46) Concerning the complex systemic relations between changes in society and the education sector see e.g. D. Kallós & S. Lindblad (1994) and S. Lindblad & T. Popkewitz (1999). (47) Economic social, cultural and technological changes have to be conceived as “produced or made” by different interest groups. European Commission statements on changes and challenges sometimes give the impression that certain changes (e.g. globalization) must be seen as “inescapable trends” rather than the intermediate results of policies serving different social groups holding different interests and power. Considering a certain sociological model (“labour and employment society”) measures proposed may be compatible with certain aims of economic and social policy, but do exclude at the same time a large number of 80 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes maybe more promising alternatives. Additionally, there is a danger to fall into an “innovation trap” by adopting traditional measures to tackle new problems of a rather rapidly changing nature. Profound descriptions and sociological analyses of recent social changes have been submitted e.g. by U. Beck (1998), A. Giddens (1997) and T. Popkewitz & S. Lindblad (1999). (48) Main changes may be described as a shift from industrial production to service industries, and a shift from stability and life-long employment to flexibility and short-term multiple employment. Tele-working has become a new buzz-word. At the same time European societies are confronted with mass unemployment closely linked to the social exclusion of millions of European Union citizens. Against this background it may come as a surprise that schooling in most Member States of the European Union is still oriented on Tayloristor Fordist-conceptions (of production), and changes in the context of schooling have been recognised only to a limited extent in organising teaching, studying and learning processes (cf. A. Hargreaves 1994 and M. Lawn 1994). (49) Most Member States of the European Union have decreased the public expenditure for the education and training sector over the past decade (OECD 1999). This fact may be perceived as a contradiction if it is compared to the importance attached to education and training for several years. (50) See the cogent analyses submitted by H. Simola, R. Rinne & J. Kivirauma (1999) for the situation in Finland, S. Lindblad & L. Lundahl (1999) for Sweden and J. Ozga & M. Lawn (1999) for the United Kingdom. (51) Initial teacher education in England and Wales is circumscribed by rather narrowly conceived national curricula prescribing in detail contents to be taught and competencies to be acquired by prospective teachers. These national curricula have been developed at a central level (cf. Teacher Training Agency 1997). At the same time a structure of external examination coupled to a formal, detailed and periodic government inspection has been introduced. K. Ashcroft (1998) and B. Hudson (1999) have analysed how this regulatory framework may be threatening and oppressive, energy sapping and limiting in regard to the potential for innovation. (52) Cf. T. Popkewitz et al. (1999) and their review of research on education governance produced within the European Commission funded project EGSIE. (53) Economic rationality may be seen as one among a number of rationalities. Statements of The Study Group on Education and Training of the European Commission (1997) could be interpreted as a call for a balance between different rationalities, and also seen as a warning against a predominance of economic rationality. (54) Cf. discussions on parental choice or school choice. A number of experts have expressed 81 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes doubts whether these principles may be compatible with the claim to equal education opportunity guaranteed by the constitution in most Member States of the European Union. (55) The term “higher education” has different meanings in the different cultural contexts of Europe (cf. B. Clark & G. Neave 1992 and OECD 1999). In some countries it exclusively refers to university education (but, how to define that exactly?), but in other Member States it includes all education and training provided by post-secondary institutions, polytechnics or by vocational institutions (“Fachhochschulen”). Some prefer the term “tertiary education and training” or “third level education and training” which comprises all forms of postsecondary education and training. Work commissioned by OECD (1999) to develop categories for the description of education and training systems (ISCED) has brought about a number of clarifications. (56) The strong demand for higher education may be explained both by intrinsic and extrinsic motives. Extrinsic motives seem to reflect the recognition of the empirically validated correlation of level of formal education received and opportunities on the labour market as well as prospective income. (57) Cf. the European Commission funded study “Non-official Higher Education in the European Union” (D. Tsaoussis 1998). (58) Many Member States of the European Union have established institutions of higher vocational education and training (e.g. polytechnics and Fachhochschulen in Austria, Belgium, Finland, Germany and The Netherlands). At the same time England and Wales have incorporated their polytechnics into the university sector. (59) The problems of changing missions of university education and/or issues of the autonomy of universities are discussed in several documents (see for example the so called Bologna Declaration mentioned earlier in this text). On the other hand the European Commission (1995) has heavily criticised the higher education sector stressing the problem of “paper qualifications” obtained in the higher education sector. (60) Cf. a number of comprehensive handbooks on research on teaching (e.g. M. Wittrock 1986, L. Anderson 1995) and on research on teacher education (e.g. W. Houston 1990, M. Sikula et al 1996, B. Biddle et al 1997 and G. Griffin 1999). See also L. Darling-Hammond (2000). (61) For example the challenging, and still innovative, Oldenburg reform project of a onephase integrated model of teacher education (P. Doebrich et al 1981) or recent projects within the framework of a standards-based teacher education model (G. Griffin 1999). (62) The European Commission (1999) publication “Key Data on Education in the European Union” provides detailed information on salaries of teachers in the European Union. 82 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes (63) Cf. G. Weiner (1999), G. Weiner & D. Kallós (2000) and various papers of the TNTEE sub-network on “Gender Issues” (http://tntee.umu.se/subnetworks/subnetwork_h/). (64) The introduction of modern information and communication technologies into institutions of teacher educations seems to be full of problems. A severe lack of human and material resources (e.g. appropriate equipment) has to be remedied. Coherent investment both in material and human resources seems to be indispensable. At the same time even when resources are appropriate, severe problems in integrating information and commu-nication technologies into teaching, studying and learning processes and learning environ-ments, can be observed (cf. M. Sinko 1998 for problems in Finnish higher education). (65) Focusing teacher education reform on initial teacher education can create several problems. Considering that only some 3% of newly qualified teachers per year (and in some countries such as Greece much less) enter the teaching profession changes and improvements expected may have a rather delayed impact. At the same time the investment of huge resources (usually more than 90% of the resources invested in the entire teacher education system) into the period of initial teacher education may be questioned. (66) The concept “normative” has different meanings in different cultural contexts. In some contexts its meaning is closely related to “prescriptive”. The authors use the concept “normative” as “dealing with norms” and not its meaning as “prescriptive” (for a discussion of the differences between normative and prescriptive in educational discourses see e.g. M. Uljens 1997). A certain neglect of normative analyses may be detected both at the level of political decision making and in research on teacher education. Vague, unclear or implicit goals for teacher education frequently seem to reflect avoidance behaviour or a particular form of escapism as regards normative decisions coupled to a fashion for decontextualized thinking. While a neglect at the level of political decision making might have resulted in vague goals for teacher education and subsequently in a suboptimal use of resources, a neglect of normative aspects in research on teacher education might be seen as having a bearing on restrictions of the “problem-space” for more substantial improvements of teacher education. (67) As early as 1971 the “Deutscher Bildungsrat” defined teaching, education, counselling, evaluation, innovation and administration as central tasks of teachers and the teaching profession. Depending on normative decisions and cultural contexts the definitions of central tasks of teachers and the teaching profession may differ. Some observers think that teaching would be the most important task including the other tasks defined by the Deutscher Bildungsrat (Deutscher Bildungsrat 1971). (68) Cf. the descriptions in the training curriculum for new teachers submitted by the English Teacher Training Agency (1997). 83 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes (69) Recently, syllabuses and national curricula of schools in most of the Member States of the European Union could be classified as common sense based (explainable in historical terms) collection-code syllabuses or curricula not always compatible with the changed and rapidly changing tasks and expectations of society. Curricula did not reflect the progress of scientific disciplines as well as changed patterns of knowledge production. Substantial reforms or restructurings of syllabuses and national curricula are still pending in most European Union Member States. Coherent curriculum research has become indispensable and teachers are supposed to take a prominent role in this process (e.g. developing schoolbased curricula or “school-plans” as for example in The Netherlands and in Sweden). The predominant orientation of existing syllabuses and national curricula on some academic disciplines is rather problematic in at least four ways: (i) The fragmentation of syllabuses or curricula into (school) subjects corresponding to certain academic disciplines could be seen as a debatable pattern of organisation of teaching and learning closely related to outdated industrial modes of production (e.g. Taylorism). (ii) It still remains debatable why certain academic disciplines have been incorporated into the syllabuses and/or national curricula and others have been rejected or are at present neglected (e.g. communication sciences). (iii) A sometimes hidden assumption is the presumed direct correspondence of a particular academic discipline to a particular subject at school. H. Seel (1998) has analysed the inadequacy of this assumption for the school subject geography. I. Buchberger (1999) has submitted the argument that mother tongue teaching and learning as a subject in the school has to integrate knowledge produced independently in more than fourteen different academic disciplines. (iv) The difference between the aims and tasks of many academic disciplines (production of explanatory knowledge structured systematically and in propositions) on the one side and the aims of teaching and learning on the other side is neglected in many ways, leading to severe problems. (70) Textbooks and education software aim at promoting the learning processes of large number of students. However, there are no coherent empirical studies on the effects and efficiency of textbooks and education software available on the education market in the Member States of the European Union. A corresponding situation would probably be impossible in the medical and health care sector. (71) Textbooks and education software need to be defined as educational technologies. While thousands of textbooks and large amounts of education software aiming at the promotion of learning are used daily by millions of students without being tested for their effects and efficiency (and maybe counter-effects), some educationists are convinced that education technology would be impossible (for the problem of education technologies see L.-M. Alisch 1995). On the other hand it seems to be vital that teachers should be qualified to make reasoned decisions on the selection of education software and to transform this knowledge cogently to particular cases and situations. 84 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes (72) Cf. D. Schön (1983) and his concept of the reflective practitioner and its implication for teacher education. (73) Cf. the recent lively discussions on the roles and tasks of educational research and development in teacher education in Switzerland closely related to the process of incorporating initial teacher education into the sector of higher education. (74) Cf. also the development of “new” forms of research as e.g. the “Teacher Research Movement” (M. Cochran-Smith & S. Lytle, 1999). (75) The necessity of a coherent practice component in teacher education programmes has been recognised for a long time. In the process of bringing all forms of teacher education to university level in Germany, S. Robinsohn (1971) has submitted a proposal to establish a “clinicum” attached to university institutions of teacher education comparable to the “clinical faculties” of medicine. Although “clinica” might have been highly relevant to the provision of coherent practice for prospective teachers and a professionalised teacher education, the proposal received only limited attention in Germany. The review on learning to teach in English speaking countries submitted by M. Wideen et al (1998) highlights the problems of a coherent practice component in programmes of initial teacher education. (76) Cf. the highly developed system of model and training schools at Austrian Pädagogische Akademien (H. Brenn et al. 1997). (77) See L. Darling-Hammond (1994) for a comprehensive description of the concept of Professional Development Schools including a number of case-studies. (78) See B. Whitford & P. Metcalf-Turner (1999) for an analysis of both strengths and problems of Professional Development Schools (PDS). While the benefits for higher education institutions and their students may be reasonably self-evident, outcomes for schools may not be so obvious. (79) Cf. H. Vonk (1994). (80) Cf. the International School Improvement Project (ISIP) commissioned by OECD which has brought about a large number of insights on effective school development and the inservice education necessary to materialise it. See C. Day (1999) on conditions of successful continuous professional development. (81) Continuous professional development of teachers may be seen as one aspect of lifelong learning. In light of this it has to be noted as somewhat of a paradox that in the “Year of Life-long Learning” most Member States of the European Union have reduced public expenditure for the in-service education of teachers. Another discrepancy can be noted if the amount of money spent on educating a relatively small number of new teachers is compa- 85 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Notes red with that spent on the continuous professional development for the much larger group of practising teachers. (82) Cf. the concept of a diversification of the tasks of teachers coupled to different forms of teacher education and career structures submitted by the Holmes Commission (1986). (83) Both the chapters ERASMUS and COMENIUS of the European Commission action scheme SOCRATES have given support to the development of Pan-European in-service education based and modularised masters programmes for teachers (e.g. European Studies, Multimedia Education and Consulting). (84) In most Member States of the European Union opportunities to acquire special competencies for teaching in teacher education have not yet been developed. An Europeanwide consortium of universities composed of high quality teacher education universities will attempt to tackle this problem by establishing an all-European research school for (teacher) education and providing special PhD-programmes for prospective teacher educators (cf. the ERASMUS application EDIL co-ordinated by Umeå University). 93 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Annex Systems and Models of Initial Teacher Education The Thematic Network of Teacher Education (TNTEE) has published an overview and analysis of Teacher Education programmes in Europe (T. Sander et al., 1996). An update of that overview is to be found in Sander (1999). The text that follows builds upon those texts and on the analysis by F. Buchberger (1994). In her description of systems of teacher education in the former twelve Member States of the European Union J. Le Metais (1991, p.1) restricts herself to “general regulations governing” teacher education for “teachers of pupils of statutory school age and up to age 18+ in schools maintained or subsidized by the state. Teachers in nursery, technical or vocational schools and in special schools may hold different qualifications from, or in addition to, those employed in ordinary schools. Given the complexity of these differences, regulations specifically governing the training of these teachers have been excluded”. On a country by country basis she presents descriptions structured under five headings: (i) type of school, (ii) categories of teachers (most countries have more than one category of teachers, depending on the education received and/or on the type of school in which s/he may be employed), (iii) requirements for admission to teacher training, (iv) teacher training process (e.g. level, length and content of teacher education for each category of teacher), (v) qualifications. The limitations chosen may be interpreted as an indication of the many variables that have to be considered in comprehensive descriptions and comparisons of systems and structures of teacher education in Europe. Studies comparable to that of J. Le Metais (e.g. F. Buchberger 1992; 1994, F. Vaniscotte 1989, T. Sander et al. 1996, T. Sander 1999) seem to be confronted with similar problems. Differences in structures of education and types of school, different categories of teachers (e.g. for different stages of school systems, age groups, types of school or for different subjects), and sometimes very particular types of teacher education for different categories of teachers between and even within countries are some of the issues that make comparisons difficult. Although we are very well aware of the problems outlined above some basic structures of systems of teacher education in European countries will be described below. These descriptions will focus on institutional and organisational features and additionally they will deal with some selected elements of programmes of teacher education for teachers at primary and secondary school levels. Various criteria may be used for categorising systems and models of initial teacher education. Because of the close relationships between school systems, initial teacher education and 94 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Annex categories of teachers an approach frequently adopted for categorisations at an organisational and institutional level makes use of criteria such as (i) stages of the educational system (pre-primary, primary, lower secondary, upper secondary) and/or (ii) types of school (e.g. compulsory or non-compulsory, comprehensive or noncomprehensive, focus of education: general or academic, vocational education, special education). Although problems connected with this approach are obvious (e.g. different meanings of the term upper secondary level, different age ranges of these levels), it has been adopted here to describe some basic structures of the systems of initial teacher education. (1) Using the categories primary level, lower secondary level and upper secondary level as criteria three main types of systems of initial teacher education may be identified: (1.1) A first type where initial teacher education of teachers for comprehensive schools is integrated (primary and lower secondary level), and where different forms of education for teachers at upper secondary level is provided (e.g. Denmark). The system of initial teacher education in Sweden may also be grouped into this category. In Sweden there exist two different forms of initial teacher education for teachers of comprehensive schools: one for grades 1 - 7 and another for grades 4 - 9. (1.2) A second type where different programmes are offered to (prospective) teachers at the primary level and at (lower and upper) the secondary level (e.g. Ireland, Italy and Spain). The programmes which sometimes consist of some components common to both forms of teacher education are organised by institutions of higher education (universities). The duration of studies may be different (e.g. Spain) or identical (e.g. France). (1.3) A third type has the following structure: programmes for (prospective) teachers at the primary school level, and different programmes for different types of school as well as types of teachers at the lower secondary level, which aim either at the lower secondary level or the lower and upper secondary school levels. Examples of this type are e.g. Belgium, Germany and The Netherlands. (2) Teacher education for special needs education may be provided by widely differing structures: •In some countries (prospective) teachers for special needs education receive their education in programmes running parallel to the education of teachers at the primary and (lower) secondary school levels (e.g. Austria). •Special needs education may be an integral part of the education of primary school teachers and specialisation studies are offered during these programmes (e.g. Finland). •In a third group of models teacher education for special needs education is provided as a post-graduate or post-diploma programme for teachers (e.g. The Netherlands and Sweden). 95 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Annex • Very specialised forms of education are provided to deal with different groups of handicapped (e.g. the blind) in many countries. (3) Some systems of teacher education may be characterised by having highly developed structures and programmes for vocational education and training (e.g. Austria, Germany and The Netherlands), while others have not yet developed this sector (cf. Cedefop 1995). •Some countries provide initial teacher education for vocational subjects at lower secondary level (e.g. Belgium and The Netherlands). •Other countries have introduced special programmes for teachers of “practical subjects” in the sector of vocational education (e.g. Austria or Germany). •Teachers for commercial schools at upper secondary level may receive their education within the higher education system or at university level (e.g. Germany). •Initial teacher education for teachers of technical subjects has not yet been developed sufficiently in most Member States of the European Union (c.f. Cedefop 1995). (4) Regarding institutions at which initial teacher education for teachers at the primary school level, at the lower and upper secondary school level is provided, three main categories may be identified: (4.1) Some countries have incorporated all forms of teacher education mentioned above into the university sector (e.g. Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Spain and Sweden). Despite this fact the programmes offered to (prospective) teachers for the different levels of the school system may vary not only in content and curricular structures, but in their duration. While the duration of studies is of equal length for (prospective) teachers at primary and secondary level in France, it differs in Finland, Germany, Portugal, Spain or Sweden. (4.2) A second category separates the different institutions at which initial teacher education is provided for different types of teachers. Teachers for the primary level and some types of school at lower secondary level may be educated at institutions at post-secondary level (e.g. Austria) or at institutions of higher education (e.g. Belgium and The Netherlands), while teachers for other types of school at the lower and at upper secondary school level receive their teacher education at university level. (4.3) In a third category teachers for different types of school obtain their teaching certificates at institutions located at different stages of the educational system and have different status and it is up to the (prospective) teacher to chose where s/he intends to study (e.g. Poland). (5) Recent decisions in England and Wales have shifted the responsibility for initial teacher training to schools (“school-based teacher training”) and changed and reduced the role of institutions of higher education in initial teacher education (6) Institutions at which (prospective) teachers are educated have very different patterns of organisation: (6.1) In some countries initial teacher education for teachers at the pre-school level is 96 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Annex organised in schools at the upper secondary level (e.g. Austria). (6.2) There exist colleges of teacher education as single-purpose institutions (e.g. Austria and Denmark). (6.3) Initial teacher education may be part of institutions of higher (vocational) education or polytechnics (e.g. Belgium and The Netherlands). (6.4) At the university level different patterns may be observed: •Initial teacher education programmes may be organised in departments of teacher education (e.g. Finland). •Other countries have opted for schools of education (e.g. Spain). •In fragmented structures responsibilities for initial teacher education are not always clear and teacher education is split up into a number of unrelated departments and/or faculties (cf. the situation at most German universities at which teachers receive the first theoretical part of their education). •In some countries the responsibilities for initial teacher education are split up into different institutions: the university is responsible for a first and mainly theoretical part of teacher education; local school boards, pedagogical institutes and schools for a second and mainly “practical” part (e.g. the Austrian model for the education of (upper) secondary school teachers and the German two-phase system). (7) The duration of programmes varies from very short courses (e.g. initial teacher education for teachers in vocational, commercial and technical schools in many countries) up to programmes lasting five years and more (e.g. France, Germany and Spain). With few exceptions all programmes for teachers at primary and secondary school level now have a minimum duration of three years. (8) The programmes have different organisation and structure: (8.1) In concurrent models the different components of teacher education (education studies, subject studies, Methods, Didaktik or Fachdidaktik, teaching practice) have to be studied parallel to one another. (8.2) In integrated models these components are not only offered at the same time, but in an integrated way mainly focussing on professionally relevant topics and integrating “theoretical” and “practical” studies. Many programmes for the education of primary school teachers follow a concurrent model and a trend towards integrated and/or modularised models may be observed (e.g. in the Nordic countries). (8.3) In consecutive models (prospective) teachers have to study academic disciplines or subjects (and sometimes education studies) at first. This part is then followed by professional studies and teaching practice (e.g. the English Postgraduate Courses in Education). Several models of teacher education for teachers at the secondary school level are consecutive. (8.4) Modularised models of initial teacher education offer clearly defined modules and it is 97 Green Paper on Teacher Education in Europe Annex up to the teacher student to make decisions in which sequence s/he will take the different modules. Some Nordic countries increasingly offer models of this type. (8.5) A further distinction may be made between so-called “one-phased” and so-called “twophased” models of teacher education. •In one-phased models the successful completion of initial teacher education at institutions of teacher education permits the (prospective) teacher to apply for a post at schools. •In two-phased models (prospective) teachers first have to complete (mainly) theoretical studies at institutions of teacher education (“first phase”). This “first phase” is followed by “practical studies” at schools and special courses dealing mainly with (subject) didactics (e.g. the German “Vorbereitungsdienst” or the Austrian “Unterrichtspraktikum”). Local school boards and local pedagogical institutes separated from the university are responsible for this “second phase”. A successful assessment of the tasks (prospective) teachers have to fulfil during this “second phase” forms a necessary condition for getting the status as a fully-fledged teacher. This “two-phased model” as executed for example in Germany ends with a so-called second state examination (“Staatsprüfung”) and may be seen as an indicator of the importance the state attributes to teachers and teaching (and their control). (9) The curricula and contents of initial teacher education vary considerably. The amount of teaching practice reaches from almost nothing up to more than fifty percent of the total study time. The same applies to studies in educational sciences, professional studies as well as to subject studies (cf. that teachers for the same age range receive in Germany an academic education in one or two academic disciplines while they in the neighbouring country of Denmark receive an education in a rich variety of school subjects). (10) Institutions of teacher education are either strictly controlled by the state (e.g. by rather narrowly conceived national guidelines, e.g. England and Wales) or have a relatively high degree of autonomy (e.g. Finland, Portugal or Sweden). (11) Institutions of initial teacher education may either have close links to schools (e.g. England and Wales), to the school system and to school improvement or they may be separated from schools (e.g. Germany). The institutional, organisational and curricular features outlined above reflect only some of the many characteristics in which systems and models of initial teacher education differ both within and between European countries. Institutional, organisational and curricular features are only three - and as some observers think not the most important - of the many integral components of the complex social system of initial teacher education. TNTEE PUBLICATIONS Volume 1, Nr 1, August 1998 Vocational Education and Training in Germany and Sweden Strategies of control and movements of resistance and opposition. Report from a symposium Edited by Lisbeth Lundahl, Theodor Sander http://tntee.umu.se/publications/publications_uk.html Volume 1, Nr 2, September 1998 New Flexibilities in Teacher Education? Papers of a symposium of TNTEE sub-network A at the ECER in Frankfurt, September 1997 Edited by Theodor Sander http://tntee.umu.se/publications/publication1_2.html Volume 2, Nr 1, October 1999 Didaktik/Fachdidaktik as Science(-s) of the Teaching Profession? Edited by Brian Hudson, Friedrich Buchberger, Pertti Kansanen, Helmut Seel http://tntee.umu.se/publications/publication2_1.html Volume 2, Nr 2, December 1999 Teacher Education in Europe in the late 1990’s Evaluation and Quality Edited by Theodor Sander http://tntee.umu.se/publications/publication2_2.html TNTEE JOURNAL Volume 1, Nr 1, December 1999 The Development of Innovative Strategies of Cooperation between Teacher Education Institutions and Educational Services Issue editor: Tony Bates http://tntee.umu.se/publications/journal1_1.html Both series are available in paper versions at a nominal cost. They may be ordered from: Thematic Network of Teacher Education in Europe (TNTEE) c/o Marie Kårebrand ([email protected]) TNTEE Editorial Office SE-901 87 Umeå Sweden The TNTEE WEBSITE TNTEE publishes information about important developments in teacher education, conferences, publications etc on its website http://tntee.umu.se Thematic Network on Teacher Education in Europe Fakultetsnämnden för lärarutbildning, Umeå universitet ISBN 91-973904-0-2