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SMART ENERGY REGIONS Editors: Phil Jones, Werner Lang, Jo Patterson and Philipp Geyer.
SMART ENERGY REGIONS Editors: Phil Jones, Werner Lang, Jo Patterson and Philipp Geyer.
© COST Office, 2014 No permission to reproduce or utilise the contents of this book by any means is necessary, other than in the case of images, diagrams or other material from other copyright holders. In such cases, permission of the copyright holders is required. This book may be cited as: COST Action TU1104 – Smart Energy Regions Neither the COST Office nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this publication. The COST Office is not responsible for the external websites referred to in this publication. Published by: The Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University, Bute Building, King Edward VII Avenue, CARDIFF, CF10 3NB, UK. Smart Energy Regions Publication date: May, 2014 ISBN - 978-1-899895-14-4 This publication is supported by COST. ESF Provides the COST Office through an EC contract COST is supported by the EU RTD Framework Programme
AUSTRIA 1 – 12 BELGIUM 13 – 26 BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 27 – 32 BULGARIA 33 – 44 CYPRUS 45 – 54 DENMARK 55 – 64 FINLAND 65 – 74 FYR MACEDONIA 75 – 84 GERMANY 85 – 94 GREECE 95 – 104 HUNGARY 105 – 112 IRELAND 113 – 124 ITALY 125 – 138 LATVIA 139 – 150 LITHUANIA 151 – 158 MALTA 159 – 168 THE NETHERLANDS 169 – 180 NORWAY 181 – 186 POLAND 187 – 198 PORTUGAL 199 – 212 ROMANIA 213 – 224 SERBIA 225 – 240 SLOVENIA 241 – 248 SPAIN 249 – 258 SWITZERLAND 259 – 266 UNITED KINGDOM 267 – 280 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION V – XII GLOSSARY I – IV ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW XIII – XXII PARTICIPANT COUNTRY CONTRIBUTIONS 1 – 280 CONTACT DETAILS 281 – 284 COST DESCRIPTION 285 CONTENTS | 3
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GLOSSARY | I AMR Automated Meter Reading AMT Metropolitan Transportation Authority of Porto B&H Bosnia and Herzegovina BAU Business-As-Usual BEC Better Energy Community scheme (Ireland) BEEC Building Energy Efficiency Code (Portugal) BER Building Energy Rating BPIE Buildings Performance Institute Europe BRE Building Research Establishment (UK) BREEAM BRE Environmental Assessment Model CCC Commission on Climate Change (UK) CCDR-n North Regional Coordination and Development Commission (Portugal) CCGT Combined-Cycle Gas Turbine CDD Cooling Degree Days CERA Cyprus Energy Regulatory Authority CH Central Heating CHP Combined Heat and Power CKEA Carlow Kilkenny Energy Agency (Ireland) CLC CORINE Land Cover project COP Coefficient Of Performance CSH Code for Sustainable Homes (UK) DACH Germany, Austria and Switzerland (European German-speaking countries) DART Dublin Area Rapid Transport (Ireland) DEAP Dwellings Energy Assessment Procedure (Ireland) DECC Department for Environment and Climate Change (UK) DH District Heating DHW Domestic Hot Water DoECLG Department of Environment, Community and Local Government (Ireland) EAC Electricity Authority of Cyprus EDORA Alternative and Renewable Energy Federation (Belgium) EE Energy Efficiency EEA European Economic Area EEAP Energy Efficiency Action Plan (Macedonia) EEI Energy Efficiency Improvement EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone ENEA National agency for new technologies, Energy and sustainable economic development (Italy) EPB Energy Performance of Buildings EPBD Energy Performance of Buildings Directive EPC Energy Performance Certificate EPEE European fuel poverty and Energy Efficiency project EPS Electric Power Industry (Serbia) ERAB European Research Area Board ERDF European Regional Development Fund ESC Economic and Social Cohesion ESF European Structural Fund ETS Emissions Trading System EU European Union GLOSSARY
II | SMART ENERGY REGIONS EU 15 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom EU25 Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom EV Electric Vehicle FEC Final Energy Consumption FENERCOM Energy Foundation of Madrid Community (Spain) FFV Fuel Flexible Vehicle FIT Feed-In Tariff fYRoM Former Yugoslavian Republic of Macedonia GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility GHG Greenhouse Gas GMAP Great Metropolitan Area of Porto (Portugal) GNP Gross National Product GPRS General Packet Radio Service GSM Global System for Mobile communications HCFC Hydrochlorofluorocarbons HFO Heavy Fuel Oil HVAC Heating Ventilation and AirConditioning ICEDD Institute for Advice and Studies on the Sustainable Development ICT Information and Communication Technologies INEGES National Inventory of Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Romania) IPURD Integrated Plan for Urban Regeneration and Development (Bulgaria) IRP International Rate of Profit ITMS Intelligent Traffic Management System JSC Joint-Stock Company KAPE National Energy Conservation Agency (Poland) KR Kurzeme Ring (Latvia) LA Local Authority (UK) LCA Life-Cycle Analysis LCC Life-Cycle Costing LCRI Low Carbon Research Institute (UK) LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas LULUCF Land Use, Land use Change and Forestry NAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan (Cyprus) NCSD National Commission on Sustainable Development (Malta) NDP National Development Plan (Latvia) NEEAP National Energy Efficiency Action Plan NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NPV Net Present Value NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan NSRF National Strategic Reference Framework (Bulgaria) NUTS Nomenclature of Territorial units for Statistics OJEU Official Journal of the European Union PAES-P Plan of Action for Sustainable Energy for the city of Porto (Portugal) PALET Parkstad Limburg Energy Transmission (Netherlands) PH Passive House PIEAR Regional Environmental Energy Plan (Italy) PNAEE National Action Plan for Renewable Energy Efficiency (Portugal)
GLOSSARY | III PNAER National Action Plan for Renewable Energy Sources (Portugal) PV Photovoltaic RDA Regional Development Agency (Romania) RDB Regional Development Board (Romania) RE Renewable Energy RES Renewable Energy Sources RET Renewable Energy Technologies RPI Regional Pole of Innovation RSL Registered Social Landlord (UK) SBEM Simplified Building Energy Model SEAI Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland SEAP Sustainable Energy Action Plan SEE South East Europe SME Small/Medium Enterprise SWH Solar Water Heating SWOT Analysis of Strengths, analysis Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats TEC Total Energy Consumption UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNFCCC United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change USAID US Agency for International Development VAT Value Added Tax WB World Bank WDN Water Distribution Network WG Welsh Government (UK) ZEB Zero Energy Buildings ZELS Association of Local Self Government Units (Macedonia) Units GW GigaWatt kgCO2eq Kilograms of CO2 equivalent kgCO2eq/ m2y Kilograms of CO2 equivalent per square metre per year kgoe kilograms of equivalent oil ktons KiloTonnes (1000*1000 kg) kW KiloWatt kWh KiloWatt-hours kWh/m2y KiloWatt-hours per square metre per year MJ MegaJoule Mtoe Millions of tonnes of equivalent oil MW MegaWatt MWp MegaWatt peak (for photovoltaic installations) PJ PetaJoule TJ TeraJoule toe Tonnes of equivalent oil tons Tonnes (1000 kg) TW TeraWatt
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INTRODUCTION | of regional built environment programmes, linking the low carbon agenda with economic growth. The SmartER COST Action will address the above issues, through: • the need to secure energy supply and become less reliant on energy imports; • the need to coordinate industrial initiatives in terms of market transformation of low carbon technologies. Europe has ideas but is slow to put them into practice; • the need for innovative and sustainable technologies, and skills, for society, at work and at home, which can be used across the economy and which can transform society; • a systems approach at all scales linking energy supply, demand, storage and networks; • the need for better investment tools for a more sophisticated approach to cost and value modelling. All this seems to be best driven forward at a regional level, linking policy to industry and societal needs for maximum benefit. SmartER is identifying new technologies and processes across Europe, how these can be integrated into a systems approach, linking with government and industry, on skills and training, and cost and value models, to help facilitate the transition to a low carbon economy. It will also produce information to inform ‘decision makers’, including how government policy and regulations can help drive forward innovation and competitiveness in industry, and what research is needed to support the transition to a low carbon future built environment. A more positive spin is needed to promote the low carbon agenda. Rather than global impacts of climate change it may be better to promote local agendas related to cleaner environments and economic and social benefits, together with healthy, comfortable, productive energy efficient buildings. Europe has plenty of ideas relating to the low carbon technology, the main issue is getting these ideas into practice and developing a robust low carbon economy, which can attract long-term investment and create economic growth. REFERENCES BBC web site http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/ science-environment-22486153. COST, 2014. TUD COST Action TU1104 Smart Energy Regions. Available at: http://www.cost.eu/domains_actions/tud/ Actions/TU1104. eseia web site. (http://www.eseia.eu/visionand-mission/. European Commission, 2008. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – 20 20 by 2020 – Europe’s climate change opportunity. European Commission, 2011. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic b and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050. European Commission, 2013. Green Paper: A 2030 framework for climate and energy policies. European Commission, 2014. Paving the way for European energy security, (Press Release) IP/14/585 21/05/2014 IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. K. Neuhoff; W. Acworth, A. Dechezleprêtre; O. Sartor, M. Sato, S. Droege, S.Schleicher, A. Schopp, 2014. Staying with the Leaders: Europe’s Path to a Successful Low-Carbon Economy, 06 Feb 2014. Lovins, A. and the Rocky Mountain Institute, 2011. Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solution for the New Energy Era. River White Junction: Chelsea Green. LCRI (Low Carbon Research Institute), 2011, Dwelling, published by Low carbon Research Institute, Low carbon Built Environment, XI
10 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University. Günther Oettinger, 2014, Speech: The 2030 energy targets: What challenges for innovation? European Commission – SPEECH/14/241 21/03/2014. Stern, N.H., 2006. The Economics of Climate Change: the Stern Review. London: H M Treasury. Welsh Assembly Government, 2010. A Low Carbon Revolution – The Welsh Assembly Government Energy Policy Statement. Cardiff: Welsh Assembly Government. Tim Laing, Misato Sato, Michael Grubb and Claudia Comberti, 2013, Assessing the effectiveness of the EU Emissions Trading System January 2013, Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper No. 126, Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment Working Paper No. 106. XII
ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW | AUTHORS Werner Lang Technische Universität München, ChairofEnergy-EfficientandSustainable PlanningandBuilding(ENPB) E:[email protected] Arcisstrasse21,D80333Munich Philipp Geyer Technische Universität München ChairofEnergy-EfficientandSustainable PlanningandBuilding(ENPB) E:[email protected] Arcisstrasse21,D80333Munich 1. INTRODUCTION Thefocusofthishandbookistodemonstrate howdifferentpoliciesarebeingimplemented intheEuropeancountriesparticipatinginthis Action,indicatedinFigure 1,thatarehelping toprogressthelow-carbonagenda,andto illustratehowindustryandbroaderstakeholder groupsareinvolvedintheprocess.Theanalysis oftheregionsincludedwithinthishandbook togetherwiththespecificcasestudieswillhelp toprovideanunderstandingofhowlowcarbon technologiescanbemadeappropriateand transferablewithinandbetweenregions. Figure 1 – Map indicating the countries involved in COST Action TU1104, Smart Energy Regions COSTActionmemberswereaskedtoprovide casestudiestoillustratelowcarboninitiatives takingplaceataregionalscalewithinthisregion. Atemplatewasprovidedtoallparticipantsto enableconsistentinformationtobecollected acrossthecountriesandregionsandtoenablea comparativestudyoftheinformationprovided. Datacollectedincluded: •anoverviewoftheregion,includingthe generalcharacteristicsaswellasinformation ontheenergydemandandsupplyoftheregion; •thecurrentsituation,includingthetargets relatedtoenergypolicyandotherregional targets,barriersanddrivers; •acasestudy,includinggeneralinformationas wellasspecificinformationontheobjectives andmethods,theresultsandoutcomes; •conclusionsincludingthetransferabilityofthe casestudyandgeneralregionapproachto other regions. Thecountries,theregionsandthecasestudies arepresentedinTable 1. Thefindingsoftheinvestigationarepresented inthesectionbelow.Pleasenotethatthe countrycodeusedinallfiguresreferstothe regionwithinthecountryandnottothecountry asawhole. 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE REGIONS TheEuropeanregionsidentifiedvary significantlywithregardstoculture,politics, history,economyandenergyconsumption togetherwiththeirsize,population,density, climate,topographyandotheraspects. Theindividualcharacteristicsofeachregion arepresentedbelowtohelpunderstandthe strategiesimplementedwithinthewiderange ofEuropeanregionsincludedwithinthis investigation. Population and economy Withregardstopopulationdensityand geographicalsizethereisalargevariation betweencountries,withDK,MT,NL,NO, RS,SL,ES,SL,andCHinvestigatinghighly populatedsmallregionsmostlyconsistingof urbanareasandtheirsurroundings,whichare heavilyinfluencedbythenearbycity. ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW XIII
| SMART ENERGY REGIONS Othercountrieshavepresentedlargerregions withmediumpopulationdensity,suchasBE,CY, DEandtheUK.Regionswithalowpopulation arelocatedinlargelyruralareas,suchasthose identifiedbyAT,BA,GR,LV,andMK. Figure 2 illustratesthewiderangeofdifferent populationdensitiestobefoundwithinthe variousregionspresentedinthisstudy. Thelowestpopulationdensitywasfoundinthe KuldigaMunicipality(LV),withapproximately 14personsperkm2.Thehighestdensitywas foundintheregionoftheMunicipalityof Copenhagen(DK)withapproximately6,230 personsperkm2. Country Country code Region Case study Austria AT Styria OkoregionKaindorf Belgium BE Wallonia EnergyefficiencyincentivesinWallonia Bosniaand Herzegovina BA BosniaandHerzegovina DELTERproject Bulgaria BG GabrovoMunicipality IntegratedPlanforUrbanRegenerationandDevelopment ofGabrovo Cyprus CY Cyprus Energyupgradingoftherefugeesettlement Denmark DK Copenhagen region Carlsbergdevelopmentplan Finland FI Tamperecityregion Härmälänrantaresidentialdevelopment fYRMacedonia MK Macedonia KarposhMunicipality Germany DE Bavaria UrbanLaboratoryNurembergWesternCity Greece GR WesternMacedonia Kozani’sDistrictHeatingSystem Hungary HU Vasvarregion Aspectsoftheregionalbuildingstock Ireland IE Ireland BetterEnergyCommunitiesProgramme Italy IT Basilicata TIMES-Basilicatamodel Latvia LV Kuldigaregion AsinglecomputerisedKuldigaregionutilitiesmanagement andcontrolsystem Lithuania LT Kaunasregion CogenerationpowerplantinvillageofNoreikiskes Malta MT Malta Gozoisland Netherlands NL ParkstadLimburg MinewaterforheatingandcoolinginthemunicipalityHeerlen Norway NO Trondheimmunicipality TheBrøsetneighbourhood Poland PL PodkarpackieProvince BieszczadyMountains Portugal PT NorthregionofPortugal TheGreatMetropolitanAreaofPorto Romania RO North-Eastregionof Romania CountyofIasi Serbia RS Belgraderegion Refurbishmentofsuburbanapartmentbuildings,Karaburma Slovenia SI MunicipalityofMaribor EnergaP,demonstratingtheimpactsoftheLocalEnergy Conceptontherenovationofprimaryschools Spain ES AutonomicCommunity ofMadrid LocalstrategiesforimprovingtheenergycertificationinMadrid regionbuildings Switzerland CH CantonofZurich SmartCityWinterthur UnitedKingdom UK Wales Arbedscheme Table 1 – Regions included within the investigation together with the country, the country code and case study name XIV
ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW | Figure 2 – Population density of the regions indicated by country code Thesizeoftheregionsalsovariedsignificantly. ThesmallestregionwastheMunicipalityof Copenhagen(DK)coveringanareaof90km2. ThelargestareawasIEtotalling70,280km2. Figure 3 – Geographical size of the regions Thecomparisonoftheareaandthepopulation densityofthevariousregionscanbeseen asanindicatoroftheveryheterogeneous structureofthevariousregionswithinEurope. Economic situation Independentofsizeandpopulationdensity theratiooftheGrossDomesticProduct(GDP) toemploymentratecanbeusedtoindicate theeconomicsituationofaregion.Thisis illustratedinFigure 4.Theemploymentrateis calculatedbydividingthenumberofpersons aged20to64inemploymentbythetotal populationofthesameagegroup. ItisillustratedinFigure 4thatthemost countriesandtheirassociatedregionsare characterisedbythelong-termdevelopment fromanindustrialsocietytoaservice-oriented society.InmostEuropeancountriesindustrial productionisincreasinglyshiftingfromhighly developedcountriestodevelopingcountries, suchascountriesinAsia.Asaconsequenceof thistransitionfromenergyintensiveindustrial productioneconomiestolessenergyintensive serviceeconomiestheenergydemandin theseEuropeancountriesisdecreasing.This isillustratedinregionssuchasintheregionof Wallonia(BE),wheretheshrinkingsteelindustry hascausedasignificantreductioninCO2 emissionsenablingtheregiontocomplywith theKyotoobjectives. Figure 4 – Employment rate and GDP of the regions Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions Economic situation and its impact on total energy consumption of regions Asmentionedintheprevioussection,the economicsituationseemstohaveastrong impactontotalenergyconsumption. Often,strongeconomicdevelopmentresults inarelativelyhighenergyconsumption.As shown in Figure 5, regions with the highest energydemand(kWh/person/year)areDE, AU,BEandIE,whichalsohavehigherGDP. ExceptionstothisareNOandCH.Inthese countries,theregionsselectedshowanaboveaverageGDP,coupledwithabelow-average energydemand.Thisillustratesthatcaremust betakenwheninterpretingtheresults,asthe energyconsumptioncannotalwaysbetakenas anindicatorfortheeconomicproductivityofa region.Insomeregionsaneconomybasedon industryandproductionresultsinhighenergy demand,whiletheeconomyofotherregions, suchasthatselectedbyNOandCH,which isbasedonasuccessfulservice-oriented economy. XV
| SMART ENERGY REGIONS Figure 5 – Regional GDP and energy demand Thesamesituationcanbefoundinregionswith alowerGDP,suchastheregionsofLT,RS, MKandPL.Thesealsodemonstratethattotal energyconsumptionvariesdespitethefact GDPbeingwithinacomparablerange. Economic situation and total amount of emissions. WhencorrelatingGDPofaregionwiththe totalCO2emissionsperperson/year,asimilar situationisexperiencedtotherelationshipof GDPandtotalenergyconsumptionofaregion, withtheamountofemissionsnotbeingdirectly relatedtotheeconomicsituationofaregionas illustratedinFigure 6. Figure 6 – GDP and emissions of the regions Thereasonforthisisthatthetotalamountof emissionsdependsontheshareofnon-fossil energysourcesprovidingtheenergyofaregion andnotontheoverallenergyconsumption. Asanexample,theregionofBavaria(DE)was, untilrecently,heavilydependentonnuclear power,but,asaresultofNationalpolicy,isnow shiftingtoanincreasingshareofrenewable energies.TheregionsGDPishigh,butCO2 emissionsarerelativelylow.TheCountyofIasi (RO),isstilldependentmainlyonfossilfuels, whileBrøsetneighbourhood(NO)relies100% onhydropower.TheregionofWinterthur (CH)hasthehighestGDP,buthaslowCO2 emissionsperperson/yearduetoitslarge shareofnuclearenergyandrenewableenergies fromhydropower(asillustratedinFigure 6). Energyconsumptionalsodependsonthe economicstructureofaregion,asheavy industries,suchassteelandaluminium productionconsumemuchmoreenergy thanservice-orientedeconomies,whichare dominantintheregionofCH. Electricity Theshareofrenewableenergyrelatedasa proportionofenergyproducedwithinaregion isamajorfactordeterminingtheCO2emissions perkgperkWh.However,theoverallshareof fossilfuelaswellasnuclearfuelsusedforthe energyproductionhastobeconsidered. Figure 7 – Proportion of renewables and CO2 emissions related to the total electricity supply of regions As shown in Figure 7,theWinterthurregion (CH)hasalargeproportionofrenewableenergy andproducesamajorproportionofelectrical energyfromnuclearpowerplants.Thisleads toaverylowrateofCO2emissionsasaresult ofelectricityproduction.Differentreasons arepresentedforotherregionswithlowCO2 emissions:theMunicipalityofCopenhagen(DK) coversalargeshareofitsenergydemandfrom windpower,thatofDEstilldependsheavilyon nuclearpower,whilethatofNOdependson hydro-power.Otherregions,suchasthatof MT,CY,BE,andCSarelargelydependenton fossilfuels. XVI
ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW | Figure 8 – GDP and CO2 emissions related to the electricity supply of regions Figure 8showstherelationshipoftheGDP oftheregionsversustheamountofCO2 emissionsperkWhintheareaoftheelectricity consumptionofaregion.Similartothe relationshipbetweentheGDPandtheoverall CO2emissionsinkgperkWhofaregion,a cleardifferencebetweenregionsisillustrated. WhileregionslikethatofCHhavearelatively lowemissionrate,duetotheirlargeshareof renewableenergiesandnuclearpower,other countries,dependingmainlyonfossilfuels, haveasignificantlyhigheramountofCO2 emissionsrelatedtotheGDPoftheirregion. Climate Theamountofheatingdegreedays(HDD) aretoberegardedasanindicatorforthe heatingenergydemandofabuilding.Thisis directlyrelatedtotheoutsideairtemperatures ofaregion.Inasimilarmanner,theamountof coolingdegreedays(CDD)isanindicatorforthe amountofenergyrequiredtocoolabuilding. As shown in Figure 9,thevariousregionsshow verydifferentconditionswithregardofthe heatingandcoolingdegreedays.However,itis notpossibletodrawdirectconclusionsonthe energydemandoftheregions. Figure 9 – Heating degree days of a region related to the energy demand of a region Figure 10 – Cooling degree days of a region related to the energy demand of a region GHG reduction targets (% and years, only most relevant) Manyregionshaveadoptedthe20-20-20 objectivesoftheEuropeanUnionandhave developedstrategiesbasedonthis.However, someregionsareexceedingtheseobjectives havingsettheirownveryambitioustargets. Forexample,theregionofthe‘Municipality ofCopenhagen’(DK)aimstoachievezero emissionregionstatusby2025.Theregion ofParkstadLimburg(NL)planstobecarbon neutralin2040.TheregionofWinterthur(CH) aimstoreducethetotalemissionspercapita from6tonsto2.2tonsby2050. Drivers and Barriers Oneofthemaindriverstoaidthecreationof SmartEnergyRegionswithinEuropeisthe EnergyEfficiencyDirective(2012/27/EU),which enteredintoforceon4thDecember2012. Mostofitsprovisionswillhavetobe implementedbytheMemberStatesby 5thJune2014.By30thApril2014andevery threeyearsthereafterMemberStateswillhave tosubmittheirNationalEnergyEfficiency ActionPlans(NEEAPs)totheCommission. Manyfactorsarefoundthroughouttheregions analysedthatinfluencethedriveandmagnitude forincreasingenergyefficiencyanduseof renewableenergies.Someofthemainfactors arepresentedinthefollowingparagraphs. Local drivers for smarter energy regional policy InES,the‘BluePlanforAirQualityandClimate Change’wasinplacebetween2006and2012. The‘AirQualityStrategyandClimateChange’ oftheCommunityofMadridiscurrentlybeing developedtofollowthis(2013–2020). XVII
| SMART ENERGY REGIONS IntheregionofWales,UK,boththepotential foroffshoreandonshorewindturbinesaswell asthepotentialfortidalenergyharvestingare seenaspositiveelementsforasustainable energysupplyinthefuture.Anothermajor driverforthisregionisthelegalcommitmentby theWelshGovernmenttoincludesustainable developmentinitsconstitution. InDK,thelimitedcapacitiesofthepowerplants isactingasadriverforinvestmentsinenergy efficiencymeasurestoavoidmajorinvestments innewpowerplants. InDEandCHgovernmentshavecreated clearandbindingstrategiesforphasingout nuclearpowerplants.Thishasledtoenhanced strategiesforreducingenergydemandthrough improvingtheenergyefficiencyofthebuilding stock,theinfrastructureandtheenergysystem aswellasincreasingtheshareofrenewable energies. InIE,thegovernmentfollowsthestrategyto replacepeatwithbiomass,therebyreducing GHGemissions.TheeconomicrecessioninIE hasledtoaconsiderabledropoftheenergyintensivecementproduction.Similarly,BE wasfacingseriouschallengeswithitssteel industry,whichhasledtoaconsiderabledrop of CO2emissions,whichhassupportedthe country’sachievementsinmeetingitsKyoto commitments. Othermoregenericdrivers,whichhavebeen identifiedthroughouttheregionsinvestigated havebeenthe: •increasingnecessitytotacklefuelpoverty; •increasinginnovativeresearchonlow-carbon technologies. Challenges and barriers Asnotedintheprevioussections,therearestill majorchallengesexistinginmembercountries tomeetthegoalstoreducetheGHGemissions byreducingenergydemandandincreasingthe shareofrenewableenergiesthroughouttheEU. Fromtheregionalinvestigationssomeofthe majorchallengeshavebeenidentifiedas: •poorperformanceoftheexistingbuilding stock; •poorperformanceoftheenergysupply systems; •thelowrefurbishmentrateofbuildings, especiallythosethatconstructedbeforethe mid-80s; •poorlyperformingeconomies,whichofferfew optionsforinvestmentintoafuture-oriented energysystem. Major barriers have been identified to be: •noproperinstitutionalstructure; •lackofcompetenceandclearresponsibilities; •slowbureaucracyandadministration; •politicalinstability; •bureaucraticandadministrativecorruption asmentionedinsomeofthecasestudy descriptions. Acrosstheregions,morespecificobstacles werefound,suchas: •fixedelectricityenergyprices,whichhave foundtobecounterproductivewithregard tosavingelectricalenergy,andareinpart responsibleforthehighshareofdomestic heatingusingelectricity; •lackofpublicawarenessofneedforenergy efficiency; •lackofrelevantbuildingmaterials, componentsandsystemsforthe improvementoftheenergyefficiencyof buildings; •lackofknowledge,humanresources,andof sustainableandlongtermfinancialsources forenergyefficiencyprojects; •lackofinformationaboutgovernmentfunding; •unresolvedsituationswithregardtotax rebatesforenergyefficiencymeasures; •lackofintegrationofsustainabledevelopment inpolicyareas; •anincreasedpercentageofunemployment. Socio-economic Transformation Theeconomicsituationinthecountriesand theirregionsplaysadecisiverolewithregard toenergyconsumptionandtheopportunities formovingtowardsreducingenergydemand andincreasingsupplyfromrenewableenergy systems.Ithasbeenfoundthattheeconomic situationoftheregionsisdirectlyrelatedto thesocialsituationandaccesstoeducation, information,training,materialsandsystemsas wellasotherresources.Itisbecomingclear thatthetransformationfromacarbon-based toacarbon-freeeconomy/societycanonlybe successfulifeconomicandsocialdevelopment areregardedasintegratedentities. XVIII
ANALYTICAL OVERVIEW | Aspreviouslyillustrated,theeconomic situationisverydifferentacrossEuropean Countries.Itthereforehastobeexpectedthat themeansforsupportingthesocio-economic transformationareverydifferentthroughoutthe variousmembersofthisCOSTAction.While theindividualcontributionsofeachmember countryoftheActiongiveadetailedaccount ofthespecificsituation,someofthestrategies andinstrumentsforsupportingthesocioeconomictransitionarehighlightedbrieflyinthe followingsection. Regional agencies and initiatives InRO,theNorth-EastRegionalDevelopment Agencyhasbeencreatedtostimulate economicandsocialdevelopmentintheNorthEastRegionofthecountry.Thishasbeendone bydevelopingstrategies,attractingresources, identifyingandimplementingfinancing programsandofferingservicesforencouraging sustainableeconomicdevelopment, partnershipsandentrepreneurialspirit. IntheUKregionofWales,theinitiative “OneWalesOnePlanet”adoptsaholistic approachtosustainabilityandplacesmuch importanceonpublicawareness,onthe involvementoflocalcommunitiesandonthe engagementandeducationofchildrenand youngpeopletosustainablepractices.With thisinitiative,theGovernmentacknowledges theneedtofurtherinvestigatesocialpatternsof consumptionandidentifysuccessfulstrategies forbehaviouralchange. Funding / Tax incentives for investments Fundingopportunitiesandrelatedinstruments, suchastaxincentivesandfeed-intariffs areimportantmeasuresforthewidespread andfastimplementationofenergyefficiency measuresandtheintegrationofrenewable energysupplysystemsintotheenergysystem. Inadditiontothis,inmostofthemember countries,EuropeanStructuralfundsfrom EDRFandESFprogrammesareanimportant driverfortheprogressionofthelow-carbonand climatechangeagenda. Energy policies / Legal Framework Energypoliciesandtherelatedlegalframework areimportantinstrumentstoencouragerapid transformationoftheenergystructureofa regionanditsassociatedcountry.Examples ofhowsuchinstrumentscansupportthe integrationofenergyefficiencymeasuresand theintegrationofrenewableenergysupplycan befoundinCY,including: •theinstallationofsolarsystemstosatisfy thedomestichotwaterrequirementson everynewbuildingusedasaresidence ismandatory.Toensuretheproper implementation,atechnicalguideofsolar systemsisprovidedbytheBuildingAuthority; •theElectricityAuthorityofCyprus(EAC)is obligedtopurchaserenewablygenerated electricity; •localauthoritiesidentifyareaswherethe developmentofrenewableenergysystems isallowed.Thisincludesthedefinitionof cleartermsfortheconnectionofphotovoltaic systemsandelectricitygenerationsystems usingbiomassandotherrenewableenergy systemswithinthegrid; •adoptionoftheLawonthePromotion ofCombinedHeatandPowerandthe prioritisationtoenergyproducedwith combinedrenewableenergypower generationfromthetransmissionsystem operator; •simplificationandaccelerationofthe renewableenergylicensingprocedures throughtheadoptionofprinciplessuchasthe “OneStopShop”; •thefacilitationofsmall-scalerenewable energydevelopmentsthroughreduced applicationchargesandfaster,nondissuasiveproceduresforlicensing; •reducedfeesforconnectionofrenewable energyplantswiththegrid. Similarpoliciescanbefoundinothercountries suchasDE,MTandothers. Information / Training / Knowledge Strategiestoencouragerapidandthorough exchangeofinformation,includingprogrammes foreducationandtrainingareofutmost importanceforthetransformationofour society.Inadditiontotraditionalactivitiesat thelevelofuniversitiesandothereducational facilities,theUKofferssomefurtheractivities, suchasthedeliveryofspecifictraining programmestoworkersandprofessionals. Suchspecificprogrammesofferadditional careerdevelopmenttotheworkforceand providetheindustrywiththeskillsneededto XIX
| SMART ENERGY REGIONS progressthelow-carbontransition. Otherexamplesforthesupportofthetransition toalow-carbonsocietyincludethecreationof planningtools,suchasthe‘WindAtlas’,which hasbeenproducedforthesouthernpartofBA, whichisrecognisedasaregionsuitablefor largescalewindparks. Innovation Awiderangeofinnovationtechnologiesare demonstratedthroughoutthecasestudies presentedfortheregions.Theseinclude strategiesfortheimplementationoflow-carbon mobilityandlow-carbonenergysystemson aregionalandurbanscale.Aparticularly interestingexampleofaninnovationisthe minewaterconceptintheNL,whichwas developedin2012withthefollowinggoals: •maximisedlongtermuseofgeothermal undergroundforsustainableheatingand coolingofbuildings; •becominganessentialpartoftheSustainable EnergyStructurePlan2040ofthe municipalityHeerlen(carbonneutralcity); •establishingaMinewaterCorporationwitha soundbusinesscaseorinotherwordsalotof connectionstothegrid. 3. OVERVIEW OF THE CASE STUDIES Therepresentativesofeachmembercountry wereaskedtochooseacasestudyto demonstratehowspecificmethodsand conceptsmighthaveanimpactonaregional scaletosupportthecreationofa‘SmartEnergy Region’intheregioninvestigated. Inadditiontokeyinformationonthecase studychosen,suchasarea,population,initial conditionsandlocalsituation,authorswere askedtodescribetheroleofthestakeholders involved,theexpectedoutcomeswithregard tothesocial,economic,environmental,and thetechnicalimpactontheregion,suchas interventionsandindustryinnovationaswellas measuresandmethods. Furthermore,thecasestudiesaremeantto supporttheidentificationofspecificdrivers andbarriersforthecreationofa‘SmartEnergy Region’aswellastheanalysisofthevarious systematicinteractionswhichareneededto supporttheenergyshiftthroughoutEurope. Focusareasofthecasestudies Althoughthevariousregionsshowvery differentcharacteristicswithregardtotheir economic,climatic,socialandcultural background,asdescribedabove,itwas possibletoidentifyfourcommonapproaches fromthecasestudieswithregardtosupporting thecreationofSmartEnergyRegions. Thesearepresentedbelow: Eco Regions Acommonapproachtostimulatethesmart energyregionapproachistoidentifyalocal areatofocusideasontodemonstratetoother areasthepossibilitiesavailabletoreduce energydemandandtostimulatesupplyfrom renewablesources.Commoncharacteristicsof an‘EcoRegion’are: •clearlydefinedspatialarea,creatinga frameworkforthemakingandimplementation ofrelevantpolicies; •awarenesswithregardtothenecessityto takeanintegratedapproachwithmultiple indicatorsanddisciplinestocreatea‘Eco Region’; •demonstrationalcharacterwithregardto potentiallight-houseprojects Casestudiesrelatedtothecreationof ‘EcoRegions’areprovidedby: •Austria •Belgium •Bulgaria •Cyprus •Denmark •Finland •Germany •Malta •Norway •Poland •Romania •Switzerland Energy Supply / Smart Grid Somecasestudiesconcentrateonthesupply sideofenergyandimplementintelligent demand-supply-management. Countriespresentingcasestudiesinthisarea are: •Italy •Lithuania XX
AUSTRIA | 5 hamper the success of measures: Individual access to information on individual energy saving potential and potential for renewables is lacking or difficult. Despite financial incentives, investment costs remain high. Energy prices, e.g. for fire wood/ pellets, gas, are quite unstable. And finally, attitudes still remain indifferent and there is not much readiness shown to investment in appropriate measures. Besides buildings, mobility is the second important sector for GHG saving measures in Styria. Traffic is accountable for 20% of GHG emissions. It has been calculated that up to 1.3 million tonnes CO2 could be saved until 2030 (Umweltbundesamt ed., 2012). The main cause of traffic emission problems is the dispersed settlement structure in Styria. 33% of car journeys cover distances of up to 2 km only (Umweltbundesamt ed., 2012). Therefore, in the long term, the shift to an energy efficient regional planning structure is of highest priority. In order to reduce GHG emissions and increase energy efficiency, priority is given to the following bundles of measures in this order (Umweltbundesamt ed., 2012). Some of the potential measures to reduce GHG are within the competence of the provincial government, but a considerable part is under the control of the national government. Styria has defined quite general targets: • increase the share of emission free/low emission means of person and goods transport; • increase the use of efficient and alternative drive systems. Figure 7 – Financial incentives provided at Styrian and national level for target groups P (Privates), C (Communities) and E (Enterprises) (Austrian Energy Agency 2013)
6 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS All priorities mentioned above – except the regional planning long-term goal – are considered in the existing incentives scheme. The vast majority of financial and non-financial incentives is set under national responsibility (see also Figure. 7). The majority of regional Styrian budget in the traffic sector strives to foster public transport systems especially in the commuter belt of the provincial capital. The discussion on efficient regional planning is underway. Summary • Despite achievements (especially efficiency in industry; shift to renewables), the situation of GHG emission in Styria requires effort especially in the traffic and buildings sector. These sectors are mainly driven by individual consumption patterns. • Energy and GHG related legislation framework is mainly set at the national level. • There are numerous financial incentives provided for measures at private, enterprise and community level. • The most important incentives are provided at the national, not regional level. • The Bundesland and region of Styria has mainly the duty to support and execute EU and national targets and legislation frameworks. Its individual constitutive power is limited. 3. CASE STUDY: ÖKOREGION KAINDORF The Okoregion Kaindorf case study was selected to demonstrate how, in a bottom-up process, a group of communities in Eastern Styria decided in 2007 to develop towards an “eco-region” . Area, Population, Promoters The eco-region is formed by a voluntary association of 6 communities (Dienersdorf, Ebersdorf, Hartl, Hofkirchen, Kaindorf and Tiefenbach) in Eastern Styria (see map above). The region has a population total of 5.600 inhabitants and covers an area of 70 km2. It is characterised by the dominance of agriculture, supplemented by small-scale manufacturing such as food wood processing and handicraft enterprises with the absence of any bigger industries or towns. The settlement pattern is best described by scattered villages with single family homes prevailing. The region is situated about 10 km from Hartberg, a major centre providing all kinds of infrastructure. A considerable number of inhabitants are commuters to this major centre, inside the region itself and to the Styrian capital 40 km away Statistik Austria (2013b). The traffic infrastructure in terms of public transport is very poor, individual motorised mobility dominates. It was not Styrian regulation, financial incentives or political framework that fostered or enabled the “eco-region” plan. The main driver of this initiative has been communities with strong interrelation ties and a few visionary people. Their basic motivation is to combat climate change by regional consciousness, responsibility and collective as well as individual action. Objectives and methods5 The goal “Eco-region” goes beyond of what we understand as “Smart energy region”. The Eco-region Kaindorf is aiming at: • fostering an eco-friendly circular flow economic model: Sustainability and economic viability do not exclude each other; • attaining renewable energy self-sufficiency;
AUSTRIA | 7 • seeking CO2 neutrality at regional level; • giving an example to other regions. The formal target set by the eco-region is a reduction of regional CO2 emissions by 50% (2011) and by 80% (2015) compared to 2006 data. CO2 neutrality should be reached by 2020. Methodology and structure The Associations defined 8 thematic areas for action: Awareness building; Mobility; Buildings; Heating and electricity; Agriculture and Humus build-up; Energy saving; Regional gastronomy; Financing. For each of these areas, a working group has been set up and a working programme formulated. The working groups are composed by interested and competent citizens. The group elaborates on solutions and single projects, involving other groups or individuals if required. The association’s Steering Committee is composed of all mayors, leaders of all working groups and other representatives of population and business. Membership is open to all individual or juristic persons (membership fees start by 10 €/yr.). The Steering Committee serves as a coordination point for all activities, a link to the population, enterprises and communities, and decides on the use of funds. The initiative is proud not to be dependent on any external funding, although external funding incentives are being used. Objectives of some thematic areas in short: Awareness building • Events to inform on climate change, raise responsibility and show ways to act • Promote responsible, eco-friendly and regional consumption Mobility • Making non-motorised mobility more attractive • Promoting e-mobility • Promoting renewables-based fuel • Regional mobility concept Buildings • Reduce CO2 emissions by energy-saving improvements of (mainly existing) buildings Heat and electricity • Switch of entire region to CO2 neutral heating systems (private households, enterprises) • Switch of entire region to electricity supply by renewables Energy saving/Water • Communicate and enhance possibilities to save energy in heating, electricity and water Agriculture and humus build-up • Promotion of humus building in agricultural soils:6 Raising humus contents in soils from about 3% at present to 6% in steps of 0,1%/yr. • Promotion of agroforestry and short rotation systems in the region Long term focus The concept of the ‘Eco-region’ is the development of a process towards defined medium-term goals such as emission reduction targets and CO2 neutrality. Besides these quantifiable objectives, the region – walking the process path – aims at exploring a more general and complex challenge: an ecofriendly circular flow economic model, unifying sustainability and economic viability. As the process is very important to the Eco-region, they decided to establish a monitoring system of the ‘Eco-region’ process and the achievement of targets. In order to monitor the key variable CO2, a scientific partner (JOANNEUM RESEARCH) was assigned to develop an objective and transparent assessment system, the so-called online CO2 calculator. This tool is providing the yearly CO2 balance of the ‘Eco-region’ and compares it to the past and the targets set. The 2006 values serve as monitoring base. The calculation model was tailor-made for the ‘Eco-region’. The sector data for Private households, Public buildings, Agriculture and Business are presented per sector. Data collection is done via questionnaires that are distributed by ‘Eco-region’ responsibles and may be downloaded from their webpage. Data is collected every 2 – 3 years (2006, 2008, 2011 so far). Results are not being published to the public in detail, but extrapolated tendencies for
8 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS the single sectors are presented. Between 2006 and 2008, CO2– equ-emissions could be significantly reduced. This is mainly interpreted as caused by a massive shift to green electricity. Further emission reductions could be observed in the fields of heat generation and consumption behavior. The interpretation of results by the ‘Eco-region’ is influencing the adaptation and re-orientation of the working programmes. All persons who contributed by filling in a questionnaire are provided with their personal CO2 balance. Results Awareness building The ‘Eco-region’ Kaindorf was labelled a “FAIRTRADE” region in 2011. Workshops in schools dealt with the story and importance of fairtrade footballs. The importance of regional consumption is highlighted by common projects with retailers on climate friendly shopping. In cooperation with partner retailers, and in order to ban plastic bags, a successful plastic replacement competition took place. It was observed that inner-region shopping increased steadily. Awareness on climate protection is expressed by regular climate talk events with experts and the very popular yearly awareness raising event “24 hrs biking for climate protection” with over 1000 international participants. Information brochures and a regional Newspaper “Einblick” (6 times/yr.) are edited by the eco-region stakeholders. Mobility A strong focus is set on promoting cycling: bicycle and foot paths have been developed, financed by Styrian and national funds; a bicycle club has been founded and is supported by the region; a bicycle shop and garage opened in the region. Another focus was alternative power: an E-scooter shop was opened and promoted electromobility in the region; together with incentive prices for E-scooters; a garage specialising in conversion of cars to biofuel; a biofuel filling station have opened; a regional mobility concept was established. Buildings A network for advice on energy-saving improvements, and energy efficient and eco-friendly refurbishment, and related financial incentives was established. The region organised talks and personal advice on energy efficient building, and discounts were offered by regional enterprises. An insulation show house opened. Heat and electricity In the meantime, all public buildings are equipped with CO2 neutral heating. The entire Eco-region is supplied with 100% CO2 neutral electricity. Photovoltaic plants have been installed on all suitable public buildings. A photovoltaics investment company was funded, with citizens becoming shareholders. Where technically and economically appropriate, small renewable Bio-energy power plants were constructed, and respectively energetically improved. The region supports energy efficiency measures (as they are proposed by Styriawide and Austria-wide programmes, see Figure 7) offering higher grants than most other communities. Energy saving/water Individual households in the region that request energy saving advice get a discount on their energy bills. This is also true for those who request thermography measurements and “energy passes”.
AUSTRIA | 9 The leasing of devices to measure energy consumption is free of charge. In a pilot project, the optimisation of street lighting during night time was tested (e.g. lighting could be activated on demand by SMS). Agriculture and humus build-up A set of interconnected activities linked to humus has been taking place. Expert meetings and international conferences on humus are regularly organised in the region. Information days for farmers to keep them updated on humus practices take place, where they are assisted and discounts are provided on soil diagnostics if they commit themselves to humus. Agricultural test and demonstration sites for humus and its benefits have been installed under scientific supervision, where also field tests on biochar for soil improvement and CO2 fixation take place. A Pyreg test plant produces biochar. With big retailers, long term cooperation has been agreed upon: selected farmers are producing vegetables humus surfaces; a local CO2 trading system for enterprises was established where enterprises buy certificates from farmers who humus. Outcomes It can be observed that nearly all central problems related to GHG emission, and core areas of activity in the Eco-region, correspond to the key aspects that were also identified for the region of Styria. Findings and initiatives from the Eco-Region illustrate detail at a local level. This illustrates that, on the one hand, the Eco-region is aware of the interdependency and complexity of emission problems; on the other hand it shows that activity is concentrated on topics that are within the Eco-region’s scope of action. Mobility for instance, is a key problem area: the main – legislative and financial – power to change things, however, lies within other levels of decision making process, i.e. the region of Styria and the state of Austria. On the contrary, a strong focus in this region, rich in agriculture, focuses on Agriculture/ Humus formation, where it is up to individuals to set the measures. In this context, it is quite interesting that the ‘Eco-region’ decided to concentrate on a subject that is still not scientifically proven (Humus formation as CO2 sink, biochar), and requires a lot of additional research. This leads to the formulation of another strength of the Eco-region’s approach: to be open for innovative solutions and activities, and open to learn from failures. The latter is explicitly formulated in the Eco-region’s general principles. A look at the list of activities, where an interesting mix of established measures and innovative approaches may be found illustrates this permanent learning process. A definite strength is the existing “sense of togetherness” and support from the population of the Eco-region. It appears that leading promoters, such as mayors and key stakeholders are on the same wavelength. Even if there is an apparent functional and clear organisation structure within the association, the role of these promoters for the implementation of the targets should not be underestimated. It’s only on this basis that it is possible to set common clear budget preferences and agree on common funding for activities. The marketing of the Eco-region and its approach outwardly has been quite successful, and additional funding at provincial, national and EU level has been acquired. This financial “success” is without any doubt as motivating as a considerable number of services and discounts the Eco-region provides for members (more than 30 discounts). One of the key aspects of success is the strong involvement of local enterprises. Nearly all firms and tourism enterprises are members of the ‘Ecoregion Kaindorf’. Many of them are active members in terms of a) sponsoring; b) active project partner; and c) offering discounts. At the same time, they also take benefit from the ‘Eco-region’, as new business ideas and niche products may be supported and the regional consumption idea is promoted. Nevertheless, any ambitious target set in this context may encounter limitations in practice
10 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS ‘Especially if people are asked for input that does not result in immediate tangible benefits, their motivation for this input may shrink over time’. In the case of ‘Eco-region Kaindorf’, the quantitative monitoring of data lags behind other activities. No CO2 calculator results for the period after 2008 are available as the questionnaire has not been administered. According to the manager of the Eco-region, the planned 2011 survey was postponed for financial reasons. Later on, it was decided to wait for a forseeable fusion with an additional community. In the meantime, as additional funding by a federal programme could be achieved for 2014, the survey should take place this year 7. 4. CONCLUSIONS This case study demonstrates what can be undertaken in a coordinated way, in the short term; medium term; and long-term; to combat climate change and GHG emissions at small regional level. Considering thatin Styria, there are several regions where local communities with similar characteristics are working together8, there is a potential to enlarge the concept to incorporate other areas. Nevertheless, this might only be successful when most of success factors mentioned above may be observed. As the ‘Eco-region Kaindorf’ is working in a specific setting that is characterised by intense human interaction in a relatively small area, any enlargement to the whole of Styria seems unrealistic. The ‘Eco Region Kaindorf’ is seeking for exchange on similar approaches and is willing to share experiences with other regions. They are partners in an ongoing EU project called Solution (Part of Concerto III initiative). Their aim is to further develop approaches of regional energy autonomy in the long term. FOOTNOTES 1. Wikipedia, 22 October 2013. 2. “Domestic” includes: public and private services, private households, agriculture. 3. Data: Stromnetz Steiermark 2013; does not include energy self-supply of industry or energy suppliers. 4. Calculated for a mix of: 6% coal, 2%oil, 20%gas, 65% hydropower, 8% other renewables, 1%nuclear, 1% other. 5. All subsequent data: Ökoregion Kaindorf Web page. 6. Basic assumption: A humus build-up of +3% in the upper layer <25cm bonds 125to. CO2 / ha. 7. Personal communication Mr. Ninaus, February 2014. 8. As in Styria, there is an important community fusion programme ongoing, this potential might change to the better or the worse. 5. REFERENCES Austrian Energy Agency http://www.energyagency.at/fakten-service/ foerderungen.html 5 Nov 2013 Beermann, M. et al. (2012). e-mobility 1.0: Herausforderungen für eine großvolumige Einführung von Elektrofahrzeugen in Österreich - Auswirkungen auf das Elektrizitätssystem, Batterieladesysteme und Reduktion von Emissionen. Project report. Graz. Federal Life Ministry/Federal Ministry for Economics (Ed.) (2010). Energiestrategie Österreich http://www.energiestrategie.at/images/stories/ pdf/longversion/energiestrategie_oesterreich. pdf Federal province of Styria (Ed.) (2010). Klimaschutzplan Steiermark. Perspektive 2020/2030. Graz. http://www.technik.steiermark.at/cms/ dokumente/11514048_67473811/a74a6e78/ KSP-Steiermark-201101-low.pdf Kettner C. et al. (2012). Volkswirtschaftliche Effekte von Maßnahmen zur Steigerung der Energieeffizienz und des Anteils Erneuerbarer Energien in den österreichischen Klimaund Energiemodellregionen. Report to the Austrian Climate and Energy Fund. http://www.klimafonds.gv.at/assets/Uploads/ Studien/StudieEffekteKEM-Manahmen.pdf Ökoregion Kaindorf Webpage http://www.oekoregion-kaindorf.at/14.11.2013. Statistik Austria (2013a). Energiebilanzen 1970 – 2011
AUSTRIA | 11 http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/ energie_und_umwelt/energie/energiebilanzen/ Statistik Austria (2013b). Abgestimmte Erwerbsstatistik 2010 Erwerbspendler nach Pendelziel http://www.statistik.at/blickgem/ae3/g62221. pdf Statistik Austria (2013c). Regionales BIP und Hauptaggregate nach Wirtschaftsbereichen und Bundesländern 2010 http://www.statistik.gv.at/web_de/statistiken/ volkswirtschaftliche_gesamtrechnungen/ regionale_gesamtrechnungen/nuts2regionales_bip_und_hauptaggregate/index.html Steininger, K. et al. (2012). ClimReg – Bundeslandspezifische Technologieszenarien als Entscheidungsgrundlage für eine zukunftsfähige Energienutzung. Project final report to the Austrian Climate and Energy Fund. Graz. Stromnetz Steiermark http://www.e-steiermark.com/wasserkraft/ murkraftwerkgraz/technik/versorgungssituation. htm 24.10.2013 Umweltbundesamt (Ed.) (2012). Bundesländerschadstoffinventur 1990 – 2010. Regionalisierung der nationalen Emissionsdaten. Vienna. Wirtschaftskammer Österreich (Ed.) (2013). Basisdaten Steiermark http://wko.at/statistik/bundesland/st.pdf
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BELGIUM | 13 AUTHORS Stéphane Monfils and E: [email protected] Professor Jean-Marie Hauglustaine E: [email protected] University of Liege, Faculty of Science, Department of Sciences and Management of the Environment, Research Unit “Energy and Sustainable Development” 1 OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region On 1st January 2013, 11,082,744 people lived on the 30,528 km² of Belgian land, which comprises 3 Regions: • Brussels Capital, the city of Brussels and its surroundings, 161 km² in which 1,147,043 people live; • the Flemish Region, the 13,522 km² Northern part of Belgium, in which 6,376,425 inhabitants live; • Wallonia, the Southern part of Belgium, slightly larger than the Flemish region (16,844 km²), with a population of 3,559,276. This is the Region of Belgium that this paper will focus on. Belgium is composed of many levels of authorities, from the European level down to local ones. The federal state is governed by a federal government, competent in all matters of national (or partly national, partly regional) interests like defence, international affairs, social security, energy supply, economy, etc. Many decisions have been delegated to regional levels of governance. Each Regional government is in charge of energy and environment matters, as well as housing, energy used in buildings, employment, transports, agriculture, public works, economic policy, trade, etc. Belgium is furthermore divided into communities, provinces and municipalities; each has some level of decision-making authority. For instance, municipalities tend to local management and urban planning. With regards to the economy in Wallonia: • GDP reached €24,248 per capita in 2013 (National GDP per capita reached €32,697) (source: http://www.iweps.be). • In 2012, unemployment reached 11.5% of the active population (15 to 64 years old people) (Forem, 2013). Energy demand and supply of the Region According to the “Institute for Advice and Studies on the Sustainable Development” in its 2010 energy assessment of Wallonia (ICEDD, 2011), the “energy autonomy” of Wallonia in 2010 reached a peak of 7.2% (see Figure 1), hardly considered very good. However, the tendency seems to be towards greater autonomy, thanks to the development of renewable energy production in Wallonia (see further developments below). Figure 1 – Evolution of the Walloon energy autonomy (1990 – 2010) (ICEDD, 2011) The numbers given hereunder come from the 2011 Walloon regional assessment (ICEDD, 2012). BELGIUM
14 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS Figure 2 – Total energy consumption in Wallonia (1990 – 2011) (TWh) (ICEDD, 2012) Figure 3 – Final energy consumption per sector in Wallonia in 2011 (%) (ICEDD, 2012) The 2011 total final energy consumption is estimated at 135.4 TWh. When considering the sector repartition (Figure 3), the industry-related history of the Region is dominant (36.1%). As a consequence of the decline in industry there has been a sharp decrease in the total energy consumption from 2009 (visible on Figures 2 and 4) which can be explained by a disappointing steel industry, which has been through difficult times these past few years, which explains the Walloon achievement in meeting its Kyoto commitments. Since the beginning of the present century the transport sector (30.9%) has been outrunning the housing sector (22.4%) for second place, as visible in Figure 4. The fuel repartition (Figure 5) is somewhat similar to most of western European countries, with a large part of the market shared by oil products (44.9%, including butane, propane and liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG), natural gas (22.2%) and electricity (17.8%). Figure 4 – Evolution of the total final energy consumption per sector in Wallonia (1990 – 2011) (TWh) (ICEDD, 2012) Figure 5 – Final energy consumption per fuel type in Wallonia in 2011 (%) (ICEDD, 2012)
BELGIUM | 21 The “overinvestment” exceeding the threshold investment required to build the benchmark house will be taken into account (Figure 18): additional insulation, extra cost of higher air tightness performance, ventilation system upgrade cost, alternative heating and domestic hot water production system(s) costs, and eventual renewable energy production systems. Financial incentives are obviously a big part of making performance choices. The actual financial incentive that exists when a building is built or renovated can contribute in choosing a solution instead of another one. Figure 17 – Considered incentives The parameters of the economic study for the different cases are presented below: • use (and loan) duration: 20 years; • rate of inflation: 1.5%; • interest rate for mortgage loan: 3.7%; • VAT for pellets: 6%; • VAT for any other energy fuel: 21%; • discount rate: 3.5%. The first step of the economic study is to define energy prices during those 20 years, and to calculate corresponding energy bills which can be compared to the benchmarking bills. Then, the ‘Net Present Value’ (NPV) calculation method is used in order to evaluate whether the savings were worth the initial investments, taking incentives and energy bills into account. When the NPV is positive, the investment is profitable, which is validated by the calculation of the internal rate of profit (IRP, the discounting rate for which NPV is null). When the IRP is lower than the discounting rate (which is fixed at 3.5% here), the investment is not profitable (more funds would be raised in the bank, with a 3.5% interest rate). NPV and IRP results are given hereunder for each project option over a 20 year period: Figure 18 – Financial results for each project option, incentives included Results In the following graphs (Figures 19 to 21), each dot is referring to a case study, listed in the tables above. The green dotted lines represent the current new buildings energy requirements: Ew,max= 80 and Espec,max= 130 kWh/m².yr. The Figure 19 compares the Espec levels of each case with its CO2 emissions. It shows that, beyond the obvious necessity to raise insulation levels in order to reach an optimal solution, the best results are awarded to models using a pellet-fired boiler for heating and DHW production. The 12th case is also part of these best solutions, thanks to the renewable energy production systems.
22 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS Figure 19 – Results comparison of the different cases: primary energy consumption vs CO2 emissions Figure 20 – Comparison of the financial (incentives included) and energy results of the different cases The Figure 20, comparing Ew levels and total costs on 20 years (incentives not included), shows that the cases that barely respect the insulation requirements (n°5 to 7) are not always the ones that cost the most after 20 years; an explanation could be found in lower overinvestment costs, in spite of the fact that energy bills are higher (and keep growing every year). Should this study be undertaken over a 30, 40 or 50 years span, global cost would have outgrown those of the more efficient – but more expensive – solutions. Figures 21 and 22, comparing the Ew levels and NPV results for each cases, show that some solutions see their ranking drop when the financial incentives are not taken into account. Figure 21 – Comparison of the results of the different cases: NPV (incentives included) vs energy (Ew level) Figure 22 – Comparison of the results of the different cases: NPV (incentives NOT included) vs energy (Ew level) For instance, the best incentives-included solution is the 13th, i.e. the highest efficient solution, which drops to the 6th best place when the financial grants are excluded, with lesser insulated models becoming more prominent (K43, K34 or K27 alike). The use of a pellet-fired boiler seems then to be the best solution, as a result of a combination
BELGIUM | 23 of incentives, lower energy price evolution rate and lower VAT for pellets. On the other hand, heat pump solutions (n°6, 9, 12) were not identified as a strong solution as a result of higher investment costs, the absence of incentives and less advantageous use of electricity in the EPB calculations. Financial incentives seem to allow highly efficient (but otherwise expensive) solutions, which allow the growth of sales, leading to ultimately lower prices and market opening for the product. The influence of financial incentives is also visible in solar panel solutions: thermal solar panels receive less funding than photovoltaic panels. Consequently, solution number 11 (with 4 m² of thermal panels) is lower ranked than solution 12 (with 2,100 Wp of PV installations) or 13 (with 6 m² of thermal solar panels, but also 4,200 Wp of PV installations). Given what has been said before, one can wonder why a clearer distinction between different insulation levels cannot be seen in the financial graphs. For instance, it is hard to point out a significant financial difference between solutions 3, 7 and 10, mainly differentiated by their insulation levels. The different ventilation systems and the grants available mainly explain the small gaps. This concludes that the current incentive system does not insist enough on the importance of insulation in the search of a better energy efficiency. The conclusions drawn above regarding the financial incentive could be drawn from the NPV results. As far as the energy performance results are concerned, the obvious best solutions are options 11, 12 and 13, where the envelope performance is improved to the passive standard, and efficient systems are installed. When considering the CO2 emissions however, the best solutions are the ones using pellets for energy vectors (solutions 13, 3, 7, 10 and 11 are five of the top six), closely followed by the ones using electricity through heat pumps (solutions 12, 9 and 6 are the other three solutions of the top eight). The overall aim of this study is to compare the energy and environmental performance results with economic and financial ones, to identify a “dominant” solution, if it exists. A dominant solution is hereby defined as a studied scenario (or combination of technical options) for which each performance result surpasses the same performance result for every other solutions. The following table (Figure 23) summarises the results obtained for each solution. Figure 23 – Comparison of the results of the different cases: energy performance (Ew and Espec levels), CO2 emissions and global costs (including or excluding incentives) If financial incentives are included, global costs for 20 years follow more or less the energy performance results. As stated before, it is clear however that heat pumps are expensive and are not financially supported, whilst pellet users can still enjoy economic and financial advantages of this energy vector. Therefore, the dominant combination seems to be the 13th, the “near zero energy building”, allying high energy and environmental performances, and best financial investment over 20 years. Excluding financial incentives, solutions using pellets-fired boilers (solutions 3, 7 and 10) become the best option. When financial measures are excluded, results seem to shift from the energy performance: for example, best solution (number 13) drops
24 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS to the 5th place when financial incentives are excluded. As a general rule, “technological” solutions are more sensitive to the incentives: though crucial for a global performance, insulation still seems “under-granted”. 4. OUTCOMES AND CONCLUSIONS This study was first conducted when the EPB calculation method was not implemented yet in Wallonia. Since then, the results of every study made in the EPB context are used in order to upgrade the method when needed. This study allowed the assessment of available technical combinations in order to reach regulatory energy requirements; these combinations have since been used in a “sensitivity study” in the “Build with energy… naturally” action (see above). However, in these times of fast evolution of the building regulations and technical development, building sector stakeholders become concerned, because of the economical and financial consequences that tend to diminish young households’ access to dwelling construction. Although smart energy solutions exist, they are not always obvious or affordable to private investors for retrofit or new build. This study aims at the smartest decisionmaking on a multi-criteria basis including energy, environment and economics, which is at the centre of the consultation initiated in Wallonia, including the financial actors (banks). This study shows how financial parameters, such as VAT and policy incentives, can open markets to efficient technology, influence choices and, mostly, help make “good” decisions at a given time. Therefore, one great outcome has been and will still be its use in the “Near Zero Energy Buildings” and “Cost Optimum” studies foreseen by the European Directives, introducing cost and economic reality in the energy requirements. In that context, the economic calculation method and tool created here proved to be very useful. This study shows that, at a given time, when considering long-time investments, environment can be a relevant criterion to seek the smartest solution. Actual financial incentive policies mainly target energy performance, but this study shows that, in order to reach environmental performance, smart development should focus on granting solutions that also allow the reduction of GHG emissions. Dissemination of results The study and its results could be widely used, at least to the whole Walloon Region, if adjustments were made for example, the availability of natural gas systems in urban areas could change the whole ranking. According to regional statistics (Statbel, 2013), there is an annual 0.7% construction rate of new residential buildings in Wallonia, the potential of a set of best choices in terms of energy performance, environment and finance can be seen. The results have been communicated to the regional energy Administration who became a stakeholder, and through building sector training. The technologies and construction works considered here are quite common, so that this study would be easily transferable to other regions calculation methods, regulations and economic situations. Adaptation to other regional specific economic and financial policies on energy performance could influence the rankings. FOOTNOTES 1. ADEME: French Environment and Energy Control Agency. 2. Alternative and Renewable Energy Federation. 3. Walloon Institute of Evaluation, Forecasting and Statistics. 4. Walloon Agency for Air and Climate. 5. REFERENCES Energieplus (2013): http://www.energieplus-lesite.be/ index.php?id=15568 Statbel (2013): http://statbel.fgov.be/fr/statistiques/ chiffres/economie/construction_industrie/parc/ FOREM (2013), Employment market, statistics and comments, no ed., 14p. ICEDD (2012), 2011 energy assessment of Wallonia, no ed., 80p.
BELGIUM | 25 ICEDD (2011), 2010 energy assessment of Wallonia, no ed., 80p. EDORA (2010), Walloon Action Plan on Renewable Energies for 2020, no ed., 51p. Walloon Government (2008), Arrêté du Gouvernement wallon déterminant la méthode de calcul et les exigences, les agréments et les sanctions applicables en matière de performance énergétique et de climat intérieur des bâtiments, April 2008 (annexes: April 2008, May 2010 and December 2013) Hauglustaine, J.-M. (2011), The evolution of energy and environmental regulations applied to buildings in Europe, keynote to the 1st International Conference on Energy, Environment And Climate Changes (Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam). IWEPS (2013), Economic regional prospects for 2013 – 2018, no ed., 136p. AirClimat (2012), 1990-2010 GHG emissions in Wallonia. European Commission (2012), Impact Assessment, Commission Staff Working Paper accompanying the “Energy Roadmap 2050”. Monfils, S., Hauglustaine, J.-M (2013), Méthodologies d’insertion des nouvelles technologies dans la rénovation durable du logement wallon (Methodologies of insertion of new technologies in the sustainable renovation of Walloon dwellings), Final report for the Reno2020 research project.
26 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA | 27 AUTHORS Jovan Todorovic Elektroprenos BiH, a.d. Banja Luka, Marije Bursac 7a, 78 000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina, E: [email protected] 1. OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region The country of Bosnia and Herzegovina has an area of 51,129 km2, and a population of 3,800,000 inhabitants. The state consists of two entities, the Republic of Srpska (RS) and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FB&H). In 2011 the GDP per capita was €3,570 and the employment rate was 72.8 % in 2011. The climatic conditions within Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) are rather varied: the northern part has continental-moderate conditions, the central part has mountain conditions and the southern part has Mediterranean conditions. The average summer temperature is 15 0C and average winter temperature is 5 0C. transport; 29,270 industry; 37,600 commercial; 9,700 domestic; 79,570 transport industry commercial domestic Figure 1 – Total energy consumption by sectors in TWh Energy demand and supply of the Region The total energy consumption is 156,140 TWh. Figure 1 presents the distribution of the energy consumption by sectorsdescribing temporary industry development in B&H. The domestic energy consumption is the most dominant factor and the industry consumption is just a minor percentage of the pre-war industry level. Total energy consumption by fuel is presented in Table 1. Fuel Type Share Residual Wood 30.2% Oil 26.8% Electric 22.2% Coal 10% Gas 6.7% Heat 3.1% Table 1 – Share of energy consumption by fuel Table 1 reveals that a residual wood is prevailing energy source. Mostly, it is used for heating in households without any pre-processing. Also, when burning out the air pollutants and dispersed in the air without any filtering before. The share of energy sources for electricity production is 60% for thermal power plants and 40% for hydro power plants. The GHG emission factor for the electricity mix is 1.326 kgCO2eq/kWh. The electricity produced originates from large scale conventional sources; large hydro and thermal power plants, there are no wind or solar farms so far. 2. CURRENT SITUATION: TARGETS RELATED TO ENERGY POLICY Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) is about to adopt and implement regulations, mostly set by EU, in order to decrease CO2 emission and increase total energy efficiency. B&H is member of many international agreements for the regulation of issues concerning energy efficiency and climate change. One of these is the EU Energy Community Treaty for South East Europe, signed in 2005. It is a joint regulatory framework for the cooperation within the energy market of South East European Countries and the EU covering energy, and environmental issues, fair competition, electrical consumer legal protection and oil and natural gas issues Besides these, B&H has the duty BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA
28 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS to implement directives for increasing energy efficiency in households and the generation of renewable energies among others (85/337/EC, 92/42/EEC and 93/68/EEC, 96/57/EZ). The total GHG current emission in B&H from all sectors is 31,276 ktCO2eq. According to the report by the Centre for Policy and Governance “Energy Sector Policy Report in Bosnia and Herzegovina”, the 2009 target set in 2009 for GHG reduction is from between 5 and 10% until 2020. There is a great potential for an increase in energy efficiency in B&H. Currently, the energy needed to produce $1,000 of GDP is twice as high if compared to the world average. There is also a great potential in energy savings in the field of building retrofit, as the heat dissipation from buildings is enormous. Most of buildings in B&H have no thermal insulation at all. Since August 2013 public buildings over 500 m2 of useful space have to provide a energy certificate, which has to be publicly available (3). Other buildings have to provide the energy certificate before the owner/ tenant gets the authority approval to use the building. Regional targets, barriers and drivers So far there are no specific regulations and laws imposing rules and restrictions concerning building insulation, windows and overall energy efficiency, neither regional nor national scale. Also, there are no regulations and laws preventing or encouraging individuals, local communities or regions to apply measures or install materials in order to prevent energy dissipation and consequently increase energy efficiency. Thus, local communities and regions are free to choose their own approaches and methods for increasing the energy efficiency of the building sector. Furthermore, because local communities are responsible for the household heating, investments in building insulation could decrease the costs of heating and consequently save money with regard to the city budget. The general barriers for energy efficiency improvements in B&H in all buildings are: no proper institutional structure and responsibilities; lack of drive by bureaucrats and administration; aversion to political risk and corruption. Other barriers particular for B&H include fixed electric energy prices, which creates a high share of domestic heating through electricity, together with a lack of public awareness of energy efficiency, a lack of material and human resources, and a lack of financial resources for sustainable and energy efficiency projects. (2) There are some activities acknowledged to remove these barriers: • enhancement of legal and institutional framework for energy efficiency in B&H; - establishment of agencies for energy efficiency and other responsible authorities, i.e. regulatory bodies or departments in local or state governments responsible for these issues; - feasibility studies, plans, estimates for energy efficiency; - energy labels for buildings; - installation of information systems for energy consumption monitoring. • sustainable and long term financial incentives for energy efficiency measures in B&H: - establishment of domestic funds for environmental protection in order to provide long term financial support; - access to international funds. • I mprovements of energy efficiency at a local level: - cities/municipalities support, for example free of charge few advertising panels in public places and local media, permissions for promotional activities in schools; - support of pilot projects on a local level. • Increase of public awareness of energy efficiency: - strong media support of energy efficiency and energy management; - establishment of multimedia information and education centres for energy efficiency; - establishment and promotion of “Energy certificate of B&H”. Responsible Ministries in both B&H entities should create a legal framework for the implementation of these activities and extend them to local communities. It should be possible to adopt appropriate strategies with
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA | 29 a high level of freedom to adapt them to the individual need of each local community. Also, in the near future, it is expected that first large scale projects for the utilisation of renewable energy sources will be installed and integrated into the power system of B&H. The first one expected is the wind park in Trusina, in the southern region with an installed power of 45 MW. The investor has already provided permissions from both the regulatory agency and the power transmission company. Furthermore, a Wind Atlas for B&H has been created where the southern part of the country is acknowledged as the region most suitable for large scale wind plants. The southern part of B&H has also potential for solar power generation, but it is estimated to be lower than the one of wind power. The installation of these systems for the use of renewable sources offers great opportunities for a major increase of energy efficiency and for a for significant decrease of CO2 emissions in B&H. 3. CASE STUDY: DELTER B&H has not fulfilled the requirements of the EU Energy Community Treaty for South East Europe regarding energy efficiency improvements and renewable energy deployment. In order to support B&H, the EU has approved a grant for the project ‘DELTER’. DELTER is an EU financed project dedicated to “Support Bosnia and Herzegovina to meet the requirements of the EU Energy Community Treaty for SEE focusing on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy”. The project started in late October 2010 with an project office in Sarajevo and lasted over 2 years. DELTER members are very active throughout the country to implement the project equally in both B&H entities and District Brc˘ ko (4). The partners in this project are the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations (MoFTER) at State level, Ministry of Energy, Mining and Industry (MEMI) of Federation of B&H and the Ministry of Industry, Energy and Mining (MEED) of Republic of Srpska. Additionally, both Ministries of Spatial Planning of the entities are involved in the project. Each of them is providing significant contribution to make DELTER successful. The consultation company “Eptisa” from Spain has been engaged to support the project implementation. Initial conditions and local situation B&H is a country with very low energy efficiency awareness and a weak legal framework in this sector. The large amount of energy needed for $1,000 GDP alerts responsible authorities in B&H to start activities to tackle this situation. Most of obligations signed within the EU Energy Community Treaty for South East Europe have not been fulfilled yet, as there is no energy consumption data base, no liberated electricity tariffs implemented, and no plan for citizens, who need support after the subsidies stop. Furthermore, there is a lack of a proper energy efficiency framework and a strategy for investment implementation in the gas and electricity sector. Another barrier is the lack of a legal framework for the protection of gas suppliers and distributors, and the lack of a developed gas network. Objectives and methods The main goal of DELTER was to prepare future laws for the increase of energy efficiency in all types of buildings. One of the activities within DELTER has been to help in the preparation of materials for energy efficiency law. Both B&H entities have delegated representatives, together with experts from the DELTER project, in working groups in order to prepare a draft for the legal requirements. As a result, the final version of energy efficiency law was a combined effort of foreign experts and domestic representatives. The goal of this activity was the preparation of a legal framework suitable for both B&H entities, taking into account all European requirements, moving B&H closer to obligations of the EU Energy Community Treaty for South East Europe. Information from these working materials will be used to present ideas in how to establish strategies for increasing the energy efficiency in B&H. According to the authors of the documentation, special attention should be paid to local communities.
30 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS The project consists of 4 components, which are: 1 Implementation of demonstration projects in the area of energy efficiency and preparation of two large feasibility studies in the area of energy efficiency and/or renewable energy; 2 Training and education of future experts in energy efficiency; 3 Public education about the topic of energy efficiency and renewable energy; 4 Elaboration of a legal framework in the area of energy efficiency and renewable energy (4). Component 1 is the most practical part of this project. Nine demonstration projects throughout B&H, with equal distribution amongst the Entities, will show how energy efficiency can be put into practice. Applications were received from 25 municipalities. Energy-saving potentials were examined by energy specialists and the projects were ranked based on energy efficiency, feasibility and environmental impact. A Selection Committee made the final selection of the projects (small demonstration projects), which will receive EU funding. In return, municipalities agreed to contribute in the form of installation and civil works. Component 2 comprises training in the area of energy efficiency (EE) and renewable energy (RE) which is essential for target groups. The methods of training are in the process of being developed. An important part is appropriate training, which will be conducted throughout the lifespan of the project. The training of prospective experts will predominantly be addressed to municipal and cantonal staff of both B&H entities Component 3 is a very important part of the DELTER project – public education and communication. While component 2 of this project is responsible to train people to have some skills and be able to transfer achieved knowledge further, component 3 of the project should have a broader impact on many target groups. The different target groups are: • municipality representatives and other civil servants; • media; • teaching personnel at universities and high; • schools; • students; • NGOs and other groups of the society; • entrepreneurs;; • general population of B&H.(4) Due to very low awareness of energy efficiency DELTER pays special attention to the project component 4. There will be many activities in future periods under this component. For example, regular information on DELTER development will be circulated, accompanying all DELTER components and report on the outcomes. A study tour with workshops and presentations for personnel in local and state authorities is organised to attract their attention and hopefullyinvolve them. The website established is supposed to be the main communication tool and herewith to become a platform containing different information on energy efficiency and renewable energy related mainly to B&H and the Western Balkan countries. Realisation and outcomes Besides training, public education and communication, DELTER is planning to implement nine small demonstration projects on energy efficiency in nine cities across B&H: Neum, Jajce, Tesanj, Zenica, Prnjavor, Trebinje, Zvornik, Visegrad and Brc˘ ko. These small projects will take place in municipal buildings such as administration buildings, schools, kinder gardens etc., and will mainly focus on windows replacement and energy efficient lighting. Suitable candidate municipalities were selected based on eligibility criteria such as location (Federation of B&H or Republic of Srpska), size of population, and institutional capacity. In total 29 municipalities were invited to participate in close consultation with both B&H entity Ministries. These were distributed evenly from both entities and one from the District of Brc˘ ko. DELTER finally received 25 applications fulfilling the criteria, 12 from FB&H, 12 from RS and one from the District of Brcko. DELTER representatives conducted energy audits of all 25 buildings proposed by the applicants.
BULGARIA | 37 Gabrovo municipality is an active participant in severalEUfundedprojectsonenergyefficiency: • the Covenant capaCITY Project, supporting the development of sustainable energy municipalities in Europe through capacity building and action plans implementation; • the NET-COM Project, building national platforms for dialogue in support of the Covenant of Mayors • passREg Project (Passive House Regions with Renewable Energy), aimed to trigger the successful implementation of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs); • the EuroPHit Project, training in ‘step-by-step’ EEretrofittingofbuildings. • the MORE4NRG project, INTERREG IVC program, through which the solar energy production potential of Gabrovo district was assessed, based on existing database and photovoltaic GIS (PVGIS). The completion of the Sun kindergarten to Passive House (PH) standards (developed with the support of EcoEnergy) was a key element of the overall policy of Gabrovo to promote energy efficientbuildingsandtokeepastrongand visible focus on social issues (Figure 5). The project concept was to attain energy class ‘A’ for net energy demand according to Bulgarian regulations while complying with the PH standards for provision of year-round comfort at minimum exploitation costs. The Mateevs complex in Etara quarter in the city of Gabrovo (capacity of 26.81 kW; amount energy sold in 2010 – 11,907 kWh) is the largest photovoltaic system in the district and among the important private initiatives in implementing renewable energy sources (Gabrovo District Plan for EE 2011 – 2020). Figure 5 – The Sun kindergarten in Gabrovo - the first passive public building in the country: (source: Passive House Buildings, 2013) Despite the considerable experience accumulated by Gabrovo Municipality in approachingenergyefficiencyissuesthrough sectorplans,integratingenergyefficiency aspects in an urban plan for the whole city was a new type of activity to undertake. There was no such previous experience elsewhere in the country either. Such an EE-sensitive urban planning was undertaken within the recently developed and already enacted Integrated Plan for Urban Regeneration and Development (IPURD) for Gabrovo, the administrative centre of the municipality, a city with an area of 1,878 ha and population of 58,367.4 IPURDsareclassifiedasmedium-term documents developed in accordance with the long-term strategic documents – the general development plans, in order to support the EC funding policy in Bulgaria. The plans aim at identifying urban areas that are lagging behind orhavespecificpotential.Theyshoulddefine necessary strategic interventions and practical action – implementation programs with sets of projects envisaged to have synergistic effects, which could be funded under various operational programmes or by other sources. Systems of indicators concerning the positive change with regard to impacts on the regional and local development and particular practical results are on the part of monitoring and evaluation.TheexpectedIPURDinfluenceon the development of the major urban city centres up to 2020 stems from the requirement that any further funding of urban development projects under EU Structural and Cohesion Funds in the period 2014 – 2020 should be in line with the enacted integrated plans. The IPURD elaboration for 36 Bulgarian municipal and agglomeration centres was funded by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Operational Programme for regional development. The contracts signed in June 2011 between the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works, in its capacity of a managing authority of the Operational Programme, and the Mayors 3. CASE STUDY: THE INTEGRATED PLAN FOR URBAN REGENERATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF GABROVO
38 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS of 36 municipalities in the country, provided an overall funding of 21.2 million (about €10.5 million,) under the Support for Integrated Plans for Urban Regeneration and Development scheme(ВG161PO001/1.4-07/2010). The city of Gabrovo project (ВG161PO001/1.4-07/2010/031-02)was registered in the national management and monitoring information system as BG161PO001-1.4.07-0030-C0001. The Methodological Guidelines on IPURD development, published by the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works (MRDPW) in 2010, were to frame and unifytheprocessbydefiningthestepsof a holistic approach and the minimum of required procedures in the development and approval of integrated plans – including analyses, evaluation criteria, strategic aspects, implementation programmes for the intervention zones, feasibility studies, public participation, etc. The aim was to increase theoverallurbanplanningefficiencyatthe local level and to provide for synergy through the spatial and temporal coordination of policies, resources and actors. Up to three interventionzoneshadtobedefinedineach of the municipal centres – at least one zone with prevailing social character, and also zones with economic development potential and with public functions of high general importance to the city. Among the priorities to be achieved (economic development, social integration, environmental protection and risk prevention, high quality urban environment, accessibility andself-governance),energyefficiencywas mentioned mainly with regard to environmental protection measures. The EE aspects to be explicitly addressed by the plans concerned buildingswithpoorenergyefficiencyinthe zones with prevailing social character and with public functions of general importance to the city. The Municipal Council of Gabrovo approved the requested three intervention zones for the IPURD to address. The zones cover more than 60% of the city area (Figure 6). Figure 6 – The three intervention zones defined by the IPURD of Gabrovo (Gabrovo Municipality& Urban Vision, 2013) The large number of actors involved in the IPURD elaboration and implementation responded to the complexity and scale of the urban processes addressed by the plan: • a Management Team (the chief architect of the municipality and two experts in project management) and a Workgroup (the deputy mayors, the chief architect of the municipality, the Heads of the specialised departments at the municipality, technical experts); • the Urban Vision Consultancy Consortium - built by three companies, specialised in (i) urban planning and legislation, (ii) statistics and econometrics, and (iii) spatial data and geodesy. The multidisciplinary team covered manyspecificfieldsrelatedtoplanning and design, governance and development, infrastructure and environment; • managers, experts and civil servants from the state agencies at the regional and district level, the municipal administration, municipal and utility companies; • the Technical University Gabrovo; • professional and sector business organisations; • non-governmental networks and local non-governmental organisations, civil activists; • the political parties represented in the Municipal Council.
BULGARIA | 39 The Management team and the Work group were responsible for guiding and supporting the process of preparation and approval of the plan, and for communicating with the consultancies and the general public. The Consultancy consortium had to develop the structure and content of the document and to lead the process towards a broad agreement on the vision, priorities and specificinterventionsaspartofthepublic procurement for the services included in the IPURD preparation. The municipal managers and experts took part in various phases associated with their responsibilities and tasks. The representatives of the business, civic, educational and political organisations took part in two public hearings, three thematic round tables, focus groups, communication events,interviewsandfieldstudyvisits. The stakeholders to be involved in the plan implementation are all those who took part in its preparation plan and many more who would undertake interventions at various sites in the city. The main target groups and beneficiariesintheinterventionzonesincluded most of the city residents, and many users of public services, facilities and spaces from the municipality, the district, and the region, as well as visitors from the country and abroad. Gabrovo Plan was developed with the presumption that considerable potential could be mobilised for a more comprehensive approachtoestimatedenergyefficiency challenges. Possible EE-sensitive urban interventions were taken into consideration. Appropriate conditions for overcoming key constraints and practical steps to guide the transition in the supply and demand models wereenvisaged.Relevantenergyefficiency measures and the implementation of renewable energy sources were recommended where appropriate in the intervention zones. The stakeholders directly involved in the initiatives and projects contributing to greater energyefficiency,werethemanagersofpublic institutions and facilities, utility companies and operators, etc. Potential public-private partnerships in designing, building and operating of various business and public assets or in providing public services were also envisaged by the plan. Their potential involvement aimed at building smart energy networks, organising small-scale co-generation facilitiesandretrofittingorprovidingnew buildings with excellent energy performance. Energy management issues that were considered particularly important at the regional and local level comprised: • supply – the privately owned power generation plants (district heating in particular) working in a non-competitive environment of protectionism or with ineffective control and sanctions for low environmental performance; • distribution – the established regional monopolism (the only concessioner company in the region applying non-transparent criteria for grid access, thus hampering community planning efforts); • demand – the shrinking population of the municipality (resulting in a growing share of uninhabitedflatsandsingle-familyhouses); the fragmented EE measures by individual households to insulate their apartments (resulting in the ‘patchy’ view of the facades); the outdated rolling stock of the urban and suburban public transport services, which had stimulated a growing motorisation rate and high share of private car trips. Some of the industrial enterprises in the region had implemented energy saving measures and invested in technological modernisation, includinghighlyefficientco-generationfacilities through available EU funding. Objectives and methods Four main goals were outlined in the strategic part of the integrated plan: i. guaranteeing access to environment, services and opportunities for a life of full value and dignity; ii. effective use of resources contributing to the mitigation and adaptation to climate change; iii. introducing technological, social and governance innovations at the urban level to provide new opportunities; iv. encouraging citizens’ and business activity for the development of civil society in Gabrovo. ThespecificEE-relatedobjectivesaddressed under the second main goal comprise:
40 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS • large-scale implementation of energy efficiencymeasures,encouragementforusing renewable energy sources and for reasonable energy savings; •flexiblepublicinfrastructurethatwould effectively meet all the local needs; • clearance and/or conversion of nonfunctioning buildings and sites; • risk prevention with regard to natural disasters and climatic extremes. A number of horizontal projects were proposed to interconnect the four main goals (Figure 7). These include the development of systems for monitoring and evaluation of the materialandenergyflowsassociatedwith the implementation of the projects envisaged by the Plan (the Urban Metabolism horizontal project) and the evaluation of their water, carbon and general ecological footprint (the Green City horizontal project). Connecting households to decentralised and smart energy production and distribution networks was considered appropriate in more than 40 small localities all over the intervention zones (the Energy Nearby model project) and within the Gabrovo Gas project. Figure 7 – Extract, Program for Horizontal projects (Gabrovo Municipality & Urban Vision, 2013) Improvedaccesstoamoreenergyefficient built environment with basic social goods (safer public open spaces with energy efficientlighting;moreefficientwater,sewage, heating and gas provision infrastructure) is envisaged through 4 groups of rehabilitation projects (People and Streets, Life-giving Water, the Town’s Gardens, The Heart of the Neighbourhood) in all the intervention zones (Figure 8). Guaranteeing the thermal comfort in multifamily residential houses and public facilities is the main focus of ten project groups (RenovationofHomes,CulturalEdifices, TheMunicipalCentre,EfficientInstitutions, My Favourite School, Contemporary Education, Sporting Gabrovo, Home for Everybody, Fairy Childhood, Healthy Community). The step-by-step implementation of these projects until 2020 is expected to provide energyefficiencymeasuresandrenewable energy sources to 50 pre-fabricated panel blocksofflatsandto50municipalandstateowned buildings. Transport infrastructure and services demotivating car use and providing improved urban mobility are the focus of two projects - Mobile Town and Pedelec (e-bikes). Sixgroupsofco-workingandretrofitting orientedprojects(Brownfields,GlobalGabrovo, Flexible Business, Dispersed Tech-Park, Labour is a Song, Added Value) were planned in the intervention zone with economic development potential and in the one with public functions of high general importance. Figure 8 – Extract, Program for the intervention zone with prevailing social character (Gabrovo Municipality & Urban Vision, 2013)
BULGARIA | 41 Expectedsocialbenefitsfromthefocusonthe energy perspective stem from providing the city households with effective know-how in the fieldofdomesticresourceandenergyefficiency and independence, sustainable lifestyles and behavioural patterns (the Neighbourhood Steward Partnership project in the intervention zone with prevailing social character). The envisagedpositiveeconomicbenefitsare related to the incentives and opportunities available through EU funding for energy and cost savings by households, companies and public institutions. The positive environmental outcomes are expected to result from the ubiquitousenergyefficiencymeasuresandthe use of alternative (renewable) energy sources. These are expected to decrease both energy demandandinputinproduction,andthefinal energy consumption at the city level, also resulting in lower GHG emissions. The plan aims at guaranteeing the continuity of action and the integrity of EE-aimed approaches for all the numerous interventions to be undertaken in the city. It provides an open framework to accommodate conventional measures in parallel with possible future innovations in urban planning and management, monitoring and evaluation, construction and maintenance, mobility, etc. The IPURD is sensitive to system interactions and provides for effective information management,communicatingbenefitsand learning by doing. The methods applied in developing the plan comprise content analysis ofofficialdocuments,fieldstudies,empirical descriptions and expert assessments, factor and indicator analysis, multi-criteria assessment, scenario approach. TheIntegratedPlanwasofficiallyadoptedby the Municipal Council on June 20, 2013, and its implementation challenges are still ahead. Expected barriers are related to unsolved problems with energy distribution at the national level and the lack of continuity in energy policy implementation due to strong external and internal pressures. There is also a generallackofconfidenceintheeffectiveness of long-term measures due to considerable political uncertainty, the contested energy market, the demographic decline and the ongoing impoverishment of large social groups. The potential investments anticipated by the IPURD of Gabrovo through its 74 projects are about€160million.Considerableinfluenceis therefore possible through the plan in support of smart energy solutions in future urban development. The strong focus of Gabrovo plan on EE considerations and innovative smart energy approaches was due to the matching understanding of the municipality and the expert consortium about the major importance of the energy aspects for development. The previous experience of the municipality in theEEfieldcontributedforbuildingconfidence in all stakeholders about the policy relevance. The plan was also an important practical step in applying an innovative approach to the overall urban planning process in the country. The experience gained in Gabrovo could be effectively transferred to other municipalities in the country within the ongoing process of IPURD elaboration for other municipalities. The important drivers for positive change in the fieldcomprise: • the overall EU policy and particular documentsonenergyefficiencyandRES, providing a consistent framework to work towardsthenationaltargetsinthefield; • the growing awareness at the national level about the importance of integrating action aimed at higher EE into regional development and spatial planning documents; • the proactive attitude and innovative thinking of a growing number of local and regional actors – municipalities and municipal networks, NGOs, business organisations. • the systematic interactions becoming more visibleandinfluentialatboththenational level (through the National municipal energy network EcoEnergy) and the European level (the Covenant of Mayors). 4. CONCLUSIONS Spatial planning policy in Bulgaria tries nowadays to establish the background for a greatersensitivitytoenergyefficiencyaspects in urban development, which has to be further focused upon and supported at the national level. The elaboration of the Integrated Plan for Urban Regeneration and Development (IPURD)
42 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS of the city of Gabrovo illustrates an effective effort for integrating EE considerations and for developing smart energy solutions at the urban planning level. The IPURD elaboration also outlined the difficultiesstayingaheadintheprocessdueto thelackorinsufficiencyofrelevantdatabase and of more explicit requirements for EE monitoring and assessment in the planning process. The ongoing process of IPURD development throughout other cities and towns in the country could be a good chance for transfer of the innovative practice of Gabrovo to other Bulgarian municipalities – yet only if the knowledge and skills for implementing the methodological approach are timely and convincingly disseminated. The process needs holistic and strategic thinking and a much higher level of interdisciplinary expert support. Despite the growing awareness, the broadening policy framework and the increasing institutional capacity at all levels, there is still a gap to overcome – the minor sensitivity of urban planning to energy losses and the lack of effective interdisciplinary approaches to promoteenergyefficiencyasakeyfactorat the urban level. Further consistent monitoring of urban processes and analyses of changes during the plan implementation period would provide for the capacity-building to enable the developmentofcontext-specificsmartenergy approachesintheurbanplanningfield. FOOTNOTES 1. The 28 districts (‘oblast’ in Bulgarian language) are the administrative divisions of the national government, also corresponding to level 3 of EU hierarchical system for socio-economic analysis NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics). 2.EnEffectisanon-profitexpertNGOworking inthefieldofenergymanagement. 3. Especially the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Operational Programme for Regional Development (OPRD), 2007 – 2013. 4. The reported shrinking rate of the city is 12.1%. (MLSP, 2011). 5. REFERENCES Aleksiev, 2013: Salaries in districts grow up as well as unemployment (in Bulgarian). InRegionalprofiles.Available:http://www. regionalprofiles.bg/bg/news/wages-andunemployment-keep-growing/ 26.04.2013 Dimitrova, E., K. Nakova (2012). Urban aspects ofenergyefficiency:socialdimensionsand planning implications in current Bulgarian context). Paper, Renewable Energy Research Conference, Trondheim. EC (2007) National Strategic Reference Frameworks (NSRF). Cohesion policy 2007 – 2013. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/ atlas2007/fiche/nsrf.pdf ECfindingmission(2013).Findingsand recommendations related to Bulgarian energy policy. Available: http://www.mi.government. bg/files/useruploads/files/findings_and_ recommendations%281%29.pdf EC, INTERREG IVC. MORE4NRG project. Available: (http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/; www.satellight.com;) EEA (2012). Corine Land Cover ( CLC). Available: open-data.europa.eu/en/data/ dataset/eYJEhuO7H48oZV3W6eb7Q EnEffect(2004).EnergyEfficiencyStrategyto MitigateGHGEmissions,EnergyEfficiency Demonstration Zone in the City of Gabrovo, Republic of Bulgaria. Available: www.eneffect. bg Energy Strategy of the Republic of Bulgaria until2020.Forreliable,efficientandcleaner energy, State Gazette, issue 43, 7 June 2011, Sofia.Available:www.seea.government.bg/ documents/Energiina _strategia.pdf GabrovoDistrictPlanforEnergyEfficiency 2011– 2020 (in Bulgarian). Available: http://www.gb.government.bg/ Documents/plan-Gabrovo-FINAL.pdf Gabrovo Municiplality (2008). Energy programme 2009 – 2013 (in Bulgarian). Gabrovo Municipality, Urban Vision (2013). Integrated Plan for urban Regeneration and Development.Available:http://gabrovo.bg/files/ IPGVR_Gabrovo-presentation-13.06.2013.pdf MLSP (Ministry of Labour and Social Policy),
BULGARIA | 43 2011. National Report of Bulgaria – 2011. Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing Regional Implementation Strategy. (In Bulgarian). Available:http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/ DAM/pau/age/country_rpts/BGR_report_rus. pdf MRDPW (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works) (2009). Methodological guidelines for the updating of active regional and local development strategies and plans, General Directorate for Regional policy and governance systems,Sofia. MRDPW (2010). Methodological Guidelines on IPURD development. Available: http://www.mrrb.government.bg/ docs/ca3412f967f86a13505d2484cd5ad5dd. pdf MunicipalenergyefficiencynetworkEcoEnergy www.ecoenergy-bg.net NSI (2012). Employment and unemployment. Annual data 2012. Available: http://statlib.nsi. bg:8181/isisbgstat/ssp/fulltext.asp?content=/ FullT/FulltOpen/ZB_210_2012_2013.pdf NSI(2014)EnergyBalanceSheets.Sofia. Available: http://www.nsi.bg/bg/content/12016/ Operational Programme for Regional Development (OPRD, 2007 – 2013). Passive house buildings. BG-5300 Gabrovo (Gabrovo). Project ID 2996. Available: http://www.passivhausprojekte.de/ projekte_old.php?detail=2996&tdp; Project database also available at http://passivehousebuildings.org UNDP (2010). Building the Local Capacity for PromotingEnergyEfficiencyinPrivateand Public Buildings”, Project Code: 00042402, Final Report.
44 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS
CYPRUS | 45 AUTHORS Dr.-Ing. Paris A. Fokaides Frederick University [email protected] School of Engineering and Applied Sciences 7, Y. Frederickou Str., Nicosia 1036, Cyprus Angeliki Kylili Frederick Research Center [email protected] 1 OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region Cyprus is the third largest Mediterranean island with a surface area of 9,251 square kilometres. It lies in the north-eastern corner of the Mediterranean Sea, approximately centred on latitude 35° N and longitude 33° E. The population of the Republic of Cyprus is 952,100 (2012) of whom 681,000 belong to the Greek Cypriot community (71.5%); 90; 100 (9.5%) to the Turkish Cypriot community (estimate) and 181.000 (19.0%) are foreign citizens residing in Cyprus (Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus, 2012a). Cyprus is an independent sovereign Republic with a presidential system of government. The President, who is both the Head of State and Government and of a multi-party system, is elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term of office. Executive and legislative power is exercised through a Council of Ministers appointed by the President, who has the right of final veto on decisions of the Council of Ministers and laws or decisions of the House of Representatives concerning foreign affairs, defence or security. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Cyprus has been a divided island since 1974. Currently the Government of the Republic of Cyprus controls only of the southern part of Cyprus, while the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus that is only officially recognised by Turkey, has control of the northern part of Cyprus. The Government of the Republic of Cyprus is the sole internationally recognised authority on the island though in reality its power extends only to the southern part of Cyprus (Aspects of Cyprus website, 2013). Cyprus is divided into six districts; Nicosia, Larnaca, Limassol, Famagusta, Paphos, and Kerynia, of which each has its own municipalities and communities. However, the central Government is the sole administrator of executive and legislative power, which finances the municipalities and communities for the implementation of tasks. The economy of Cyprus can generally be characterised as small, open and free market, with services constituting its engine power. In fact the services sector is the fastest growing area and accounts for about 81% of GDP. During the past 30 years, Cyprus has exhibited rising living standards and the GDP per capita of the country has reached €20,500. It is ranked 23rd in the world in terms of Quality of life Index (Countryeconomy.com website, 2013; Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005). This development reflects the gradual restructuring of the Cypriot economy from an exporter of minerals and agricultural products in the period from the Republic of Cyprus establishment in 1960 up to the Turkish invasion in 1974, to an exporter of manufactured goods from the latter part of the 1970s up to the early 1980s, to the current international tourist, business and services centre since the 1980s. However, the international economic recession has seen the Cyprus economy contract since 2009. The recession primarily affected the construction, real estate and tourism sectors, while the employment rate as a percentage of the population of ages 20 – 64 dropped to 67.4% from 70.9% in 2008 (Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus. 2012b). Energy demand and supply of the Region Cyprus has no indigenous hydrocarbons nor is interconnected with other energy networks (oil, natural gas or electricity). Consequently, CYPRUS
46 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS the country’s small energy system operates in isolation and heavily relies on imported fuels for electricity generation (Fokaides and Kylili, 2014). In 2010, the final energy consumption and the electricity consumption have reached 1,909 ktoe and 4,881 GWh respectively (CIE, 2012; CERA, 2011). This observable increase can be attributed to the major increase of electricity consumption and also to the increase in road transport fuels for private vehicles, since public transport is not well developed in Cyprus and there are no trains. The shares in the energy balance of 2010 are: transport 56%; of which 15% for aviation and 41% for road transport; 17% households; 12% services; 13% industry; 2% agriculture; and are shown in Figure 1 (CIE, 2012). Figure 1 – Energy consumption per sector of Cyprus in 2010 Figure – 2 Energy consumption per fuel of Cyprus in 2010 While there are currently no deposits of fossil fuels to be found on the island the dominant energy source of final consumers is imported oil. The country’s energy needs, totalling to 2685 ktoe, are satisfied primarily through fuel oil (38%), gas and diesel oil (20%), gasoline (15%) and other solid and liquid fuels (21%). The contribution of renewable energy sources (RES) to the overall energy consumption still remains at very low levels (3%) (Figure 2). The electricity production in Cyprus reached 5,272.365 MWh in 2010 (CERA, 2011). Currently, the country’s electricity generation relies on imported heavy fuel oil (HFO) and gasoil. Cyprus power generation system consists of three thermal power stations at Moni, Dhekelia, and Vasilikos, with a total installed capacity of 1438M We (prior to the Mari naval base explosion in July 2011 that destroyed 60% of the island’s power generating capacity (Zachariadis and Poullikkas, 2012) that generate 5,204.897 MWh, or the 98.7% of the total electricity production (Fokaides and Kylili, 2014). Steam units at Vasilikos are used for base load generation, while the steam units of Dhekelia are used for base and intermediate load generation. The steam units at Moni as well as the gas turbines are mainly used during system peak loading. All stations use HFO for the steam turbine units and gasoil for the gas turbine units. Exploration, research and exploitation of hydrocarbons in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Cyprus have shown significant reserves of natural gas. The Government and foreign energy institutes estimate that there may be up to 200 trillion cubic feet (tcf) or (5,67 trillion cubic meters) of natural gas recoverable in the Cyprus EEZ (CIT, 2012). Thus the combined cycle units will use gasoil as fuel for their first few years of their operation until the arrival of natural gas in Cyprus, which is expected to be available on the island in 2015. All three power stations are owned and operated by the Electricity Authority of Cyprus (EAC) which currently is the sole producer of electricity from conventional fuel on the island.
CYPRUS | 53 Prior to the EPBD adoption After the EPBD adoption (BAU scenario) Construction element Thermal transmittance (UValue) [W/m2K] Masonry 1.5 0.5 Roof (tiles) 3.3 0.5 Glazing 3.9 3.1 Table 2 – Typical thermal transmittance values of the buildings in before and after the adoption of the EPBD Figure 4 – Typical buildings’ primary energy consumption in kWh/m²a compared to the primary energy consumption in the business as usual scenario (Fokaides et al., 2011) • the employment of RET to cover the heating demands of the buildings can reduce the primary energy consumption up to 61 kWh/ m² year; • the fact that space cooling requires a large percentage of the energy demands in Cyprus increases the significance of the RET that are generating electricity. Since the only abundant renewable energy source in Cyprus is the sun, it is recommended solar technologies, in particular solar PV, should be mainly promoted for the buildings of the settlement; • given that the domestic hot water demands are satisfied by a solar thermal system and the heating demands by a biomass boiler, the installation of a 7 kW solar PV system can transform a building into a nearly zero energy building (ZEB). Figure 5 – Primary energy consumption in kWh/m²a of investigated scenarios Outcomes The achieved outcomes of the Case Study regarding the transformation of the refugee settlement in Yeri into a smart energy region are enlisted as follows: • considering the fact that Cyprus has an extremely high electricity retail cost of 0.16–0.24 €/kWh, cost savings of at least 19.0 €/m2a (Poulikkas, 2013) can be achieved through the transformation of their area into a smart energy region; • the benefits from reducing the energy consumption and employing RES have been scientifically proven to the local authorities through the case study, encouraging them to continue to the implementation of the case study to the settlement of Yeri; • the knowledge regarding the energy improvement of the building and the significance of upgrading of the settlement into a smart energy region has been developed. The added value of the outcomes of this case study is indicative as the findings can be related to other regions in Europe as well. According to the Buildings Performance Institute Europe (BPIE) report (2011), a substantial share of the European existing building stock is older than 50 years. Also, many of hundreds of years old buildings exist across Europe, many of which are still in use. In fact, more than 40% of the European residential buildings have been constructed before the 1960s. Countries with the largest shares of old buildings include the UK, Denmark, Sweden, France, Czech Republic
54 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS and Bulgaria. Thereafter, the building stock of these European countries should be facing similar energy challenges and can be related to the settlement presented in this case study. 5 REFERENCES Aspects of Cyprus website. 2013. Available from: http://www.aspectsofcyprus.com/ Buildings Performance Institute Europe (BPIE). 2011. Europe’s buildings under the microscope. ISBN: 9789491143014. CERA. 2011 Annual Report 2010. Available from: http://www.cera.org.cy/main/data/ articles/annualreport2010.pdf Countryeconomy.com website. 2012. Available from: http://countryeconomy.com/gdp/cyprus Cyprus Institute of Energy (CIE). 2012. Energy Efficiency Policies and Measures in Cyprus: ODYSSEE-MURE 2010: Monitoring of EU and national energy efficiency targets Economist Intelligence Unit. 2005. The Economist Intelligence Unit’s quality-of-life index. Available from: http://www.economist. com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf Electricity Authority of Cyprus (EAC). 2011. Annual Report 2010. Fokaides PA, Kylili A. Towards grid parity in insular energy systems: The case of photovoltaics (PV) in Cyprus. Energy Policy 2014;65:223-228. Fokaides PA, Maxoulis CN, Panayiotou GP, Neophytou MK-A, Kalogirou SA. Comparison between measured and calculated energy performance for dwellings in a summer dominant environment. J Energ Buildings 2011; 43:3099-3105. Geological Survey Department website. 2013. Available from: http://www.moa.gov. cy/moa/gsd/gsd.nsf/dmlIndex_en/dmlIndex_ en?opendocument Infotrend Innovations/BRE - Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism (MCIT). 2009. Methodology for Assesing the Energy Performance of Buildings. Available from: http://www.mcit.gov.cy/ Poullikkas A., 2013. A comparative assessment of net metering and feed in tariff schemes for residential PV systems. Sustainable Energy Technol. Assess., 3 (2013), pp. 1 – 8 Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus. 2012a. Demographic Report, 20102011. Available from: http://www.cystat.gov.cy/mof/ cystat/statistics.nsf//index_en/index_ en?OpenDocument The Republic of Cyprus, and The Minister of Commence, Industry and Tourism (MCIT). 2010. Renewable Energy Action Plan under the Directive 2009/28/EC (2010 – 2020). Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/ renewables/action_plan_en.htm Wikipedia, 2013. Available online.
DENMARK | 55 AUTHORS Morten Elle Aalborg University, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Department of Development and planning, [email protected]. dk A.C. Meyers Vænge 15, A2, DK2450 Copenhagen SV, Denmark. Torben Dahl Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture, [email protected] Philip de Langes Alle 10, DK1435 Copenhagen K. Denmark. Jonna Majgaard Krarup Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture, [email protected] Philip de Langes Alle 10, DK1435 Copenhagen K. Denmark. 1 OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region In the Danish context, it is a challenge that the Copenhagen Region does not exist as an administrative entity. The municipal reform in 2007 moved most of the tasks the regions previously had to either the national level or the municipal level. The new regions were shaped in order to fit their main task: to manage hospitals. The former Greater Copenhagen Region is today covered by the most of the Capital Region and part of Region Zealand. The region named the Capital Region includes the remote island of Bornholm. The Greater Copenhagen Region only still exists in relation to spatial planning. Municipal spatial planning has to comply with the frames set by the national planning authorities. Figure 1 – The ‘Fingerplan’ for the development of the Copenhagen region, 1947 The most famous attempt to develop a regional plan for Greater Copenhagen was the so-called ‘Fingerplan’ from 1947. This plan covered the municipalities in the centre of the City: Copenhagen and Frederiksberg, and some of the surrounding suburban municipalities. Using this understanding of the Copenhagen Region, the region consists of an urban fabric with approximately 1.2 million inhabitants. Figure 2 – Greater Copenhagen Region DENMARK
56 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS The later version (2013) of the plan for the Greater Copenhagen Region includes more rural areas and a number of semi-independent towns like Køge, Roskilde, Hillerød and Helsingør. In this understanding of the region it has approximately 1.9 million inhabitants. It could be argued that an even larger region exists, when considering different resource use/ allocation, for instance taking the extraction of drinking water or typical daily commuting into consideration. In that way all of Zealand can be considered as representing the Greater Copenhagen Region, with a population of approximately 2.4 million. Figure 3 – Öresundsregion An even larger version of the region is ‘Öresundsregionen’ which in some definitions includes the entire Region Skåne located in southern part of Sweden, as well as the island Sjælland and the capital Copenhagen in Denmark. The Öresundsregionen has a population of approximately 3.7 million inhabitants. A smaller version only includes the old Greater Copenhagen region and only parts of Skåne. The Öresund Bridge has almost made the City of Malmö – with approximately 310,000 inhabitants – a part of Copenhagen. Probably the most adequate way of dealing with the Copenhagen region in relation to Smart Energy Regions is to use the Municipality of Copenhagen because the municipality exists as an administrative and policy making unit, thus, being able to offer relevant data as a smart energy region. Characteristics of the Region The municipality of Copenhagen has an area of 89.79 km2 and a population of 559,440 inhabitants (www.statistikbanken.dk, 2013). In the municipality of Copenhagen the local government of Copenhagen consists of a governing body, called the City Council, and an administrative branch. The City Council is made up of seven committees: the Finance Committee and six standing committees, each of which has its own specialised field of responsibility. Energy policies are primarily dealt with in the Committee for Technology and Environment and in the Finance Committee. The Finance Committee is the overarching committee, which coordinates and plans the total management of the City of Copenhagen. It comprises the chairmen of each of the standing committees plus six other members of the Council. The Finance Committee is chaired by the Lord Mayor. Each committee is linked to a particular section of the administrative branch of Copenhagen’s local government. The City of Copenhagen has seven administrations. Each administration deals with the tasks related to its standing committee. Questions related to environment, energy, transport and urban planning are dealt with in two of these administrations: The Finance Administration and the Technical and Environmental Administration. The economy for Danish citizens expressed in GDP per capita is €27,100 (DK, 2010). The employment rate in Copenhagen Municipality is 91.7% (CPH, 2012). In Copenhagen you find some of the leading industry clusters in Europe: • medicon Valley offers an abundance of exciting opportunities for pharma, life science and biotech companies; • Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster is one of the world’s strongest clusters, focusing on aiding Cleantech research, development and implementation – (Copenhagen Capacity 2014). Energy demand and supply of the Region • total energy consumption: domestic, commercial, industry, total energy consumption: domestic,commercial, industry: 7,900 GWh (2011). Transport is 2,900 GWh, including air transport (Planenergi 2013);
DENMARK | 57 Figure 4 – Map of different supply areas of Copenhagen district heating system and CHP plant locations. Red colour indicates the supply area for Copenhagen central municipalities (CTR) and blue colour shows the supply area of the western municipalities (VEKS) Figure 5 – Cogeneration Heat and electricity production development (Danish Energy Authority) • 35% is used for electricity production (2,463 GWh, 2011); • the average GHG emission factor for electricity is relatively low (0.100 kgCO2/KWh) due to the Nordic countries use of wind, water and nuclear power for Electricity production. (European average 0.500 kgCO2/KWh); • the share of renewables in electricity generation in 2011 was 29%; • cogeneration was identified as a cornerstone of the Danish energy conservation strategy in 1975. Three decades of responsible and dedicated policy-making have paid off: between 1980 and 2005, the share of CHP in the total electricity produced in Denmark doubled from less than 20% in 1980 to 42.6% in 2006, and the share of CHP in heat provision increased to 75%; this has resulted in a 15% decrease in CO2 emissions a year. • the share of carbon neutral fuel in heating in 2011was 42%; • the total CO2 emissions in 2011 was 1,857,000 tonnes for the region. 2. CURRENT SITUATION: TARGETS RELATED TO ENERGY POLICY The following chapter is to great extent extracted from ‘CPH 2025 Climate Plan’, a document produced by the City of Copenhagen, Technical and Environmental Administration in 2012. Overall goals and objectives Copenhagen wants to be the world’s first carbon neutral capital by 2025. This is an ambitious plan requiring long-term action, but it is realistic. The city is already well underway. In 2011, Copenhagen had reduced CO2 emissions by 21% compared to 2005. In 2009, the City Council unanimously adopted the Climate Plan for Copenhagen, setting down goals for achieving a 20% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2015. In addition, a vision for a carbon neutral Copenhagen in 2025 was formulated. Energy and Transport in Focus To achieve carbon neutrality by 2025, Copenhagen must use less energy than it does today and also switch to green energy production. To counteract continued increased emissions e.g. transport, Copenhagen must produce a surplus of green energy corresponding to these emissions. The initiatives are categorised into four themes: energy consumption, energy production, green mobility and city administration initiatives. Energy savings account for nearly 7% of CO2 reductions. Additionally, energy savings play an important role in relation to reducing the economic costs of the Climate Plan. The reason is that every time Copenhageners save energy, Copenhagen avoids having to invest in production capacity in new power plants. Initiatives include energy retrofitting of existing buildings, implementing lowenergy new build, promotion of solar cells
58 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS together with an improved framework for the construction sector. Energy production initiatives account for 74% of the total CO2 reduction in Copenhagen. These include installing onshore and offshore wind turbines, establishing a new biomass-fired combined heat and power plants, establishing a geo-thermal plants and the phasing out of fossil fuels for peak load production. Furthermore, Copenhagen is able to reduce CO2 emissions from district heating production by separating and re-using plastic from the waste stream. A broad range of initiatives in the transport area account for just over 11% of CO2 reductions. The main transport initiatives include activities to promote cycling, biogas and hybrid buses and the introduction of electrical and hydrogen powered cars. In addition to this, new fuels for the heavy traffic in Copenhagen as well as initiatives focusing on efficiency and climate behaviour all play an important role. The City of Copenhagen wants to lead the way and reduce its CO2 emissions considerably. To implement this, the City Administration will set activities in motion focusing on energy consumption, mobility, operations and management together with climate-friendly conduct among its employees. Cycling strategy The cycling strategy for Copenhagen takes its point of departure in the following circumstances: • the bicycle is low, practical – and common sense technology that anyone can use and afford; • cycling is based on non-fossil ‘fuel’; • cycling has additional health benefits; • cycling can support public space to be perceived as public domains, and thus supporting the development of social sustainability and people’s perception of an improved quality of life; • cycling in combination with other means of public transportation and supported by carefully street design encourage people to everyday cycling instead of using cars on both a local and on a regional level. Since 1995, the City of Copenhagen has done cycle accounts that record the mileage for bikes including the distance travelled, etc. For 2012 the figures tell that 36% of everyone working or studying in Copenhagen used a bicycle. In 1996 the figure was 30% and in 2002 32%. 1.27 million kilometres were travelled by bike every working day. In 1996 0.93 million kilometres were travelled by bike every working day, and in 2002 the number had increased to 1.11 million kilometres. There are 650,000 bicycles in Copenhagen (Centre) and 125,000 cars so that 5.2 times more bicycles than cars are in the city. Moreover, 28% of families with two children have a cargo bike and in 17% of households a cargo bike replaces a car. Furthermore, there is no significant correlation between income and the use of bicycles. Both rich and relatively poor inhabitants use bicycles. (Halldórsdóttir 2011). The ambition to further stimulate people cycling on a regional level is supported by: • facilitating connections between public transportation and cycling; • construction of new cycling tracks and lanes; • improving existing cycling tracks and lanes – by widening the lanes on behalf of the car area; • positioning of ‘air stations’ (facilities with bicycle pumps) along the cycle super highways; • green traffic light waves. Plans for how many new bike paths and bike lanes to be made in Copenhagen next year have been developed. The so-called Cycle Track Plan covers the period 2006 – 2016 and indicates the order of almost 70 kilometres of new bike paths and bike lanes. The cost of completing the plan is estimated to approximately €50 million. In 2012 there were: • 359 km of cycle track; • 24 km of cycle lanes; • 43 km of green cycle routes; • 32.5 of cycle super highways (June 2013). Copenhageners are also stimulated to cycle by making the conditions for car driving difficult through one-way roads, fewer and more expensive parking areas. The bicycle is a typical means of transportation
DENMARK | 59 in Denmark. Both adults and children cycle on an everyday basis and throughout the year. Danish children are trained in cycling and traffic rules in school in collaboration between the school and the police. Immigrants to DK (adults and children) are also offered to learn to ride a bike as part of the official integration process. Overall targets Targets set for the region to be reached 2025: • 20% reduction in heating compared to 2010; • 20% reduction in electricity consumption in commercial and service sector compared to 2010; • 10% Reduction in electricity consumption in households compared to 2010. Reduction of CO2 emissions Figure 6 – Development of CO2 emissions up to 2025 mainly due to introduction of wind turbines and new renewable energy-based cogeneration using biomass When the objectives for existing buildings have been reached, heat consumption is reduced by almost 1,000 GWh and electricity by 250 GWh compared to 2010 levels. Energy savings and installation of solar cells, which provide currently 1% of the electricity, will reduce CO2 emissions by a total of 80,000 tonnes. These objectives will be achieved by: • improving the building framework and conditions; • develop a strategy for energy in construction; • develop and test funding for the realisation of energy savings; • working to change legislation to increase energy efficiency. Towards 2025, Copenhagen will initiate and implement a variety of activities to reduce energy consumption of buildings. The following describes the main initiatives together with the initiatives, which will be implemented shortly to ensure frameworks and solutions to achieve energy savings up to 2025. Economy Copenhagen’s total cost to implement the initiatives which will help to reduce energy consumption in the buildings in Copenhagen, is expected to be less than €23 million to 2025. This includes concept and model development, and funding for demonstration projects in new and existing buildings. By reducing heat consumption by 2025 by 20% and electricity consumption by 20% in sales and service companies and 10% in households respectively, the total economic savings amount to approximately €215 million. A couple living in an apartment will save approximately €535 in 2025 per year on their energy consumption if the objectives are met. The total investment in new construction and renovation of existing construction will require investments of up to €24 billion until 2025. The total investment in PVs in the private sector is estimated to be €60 million up to 2025. Other Regional targets, barriers and drivers Turning Copenhagen into a smart city means user-friendly development while also reducing consumption of resources. The starting point for the smart city is the unified whole. That is to say, limitations in capacity, renewable energy production, consumer patterns and consumer needs will be integrated into the solutions which are finally implemented. With the smart city initiative, the City of Copenhagen wants to select the most energyefficient solutions such as giving high priority to electricity largely produced by renewables and to ensure that the potential for flexible energy consumption is utilised. The City Administration will use its own vehicles and buildings to test and implement new technology.
60 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS Digital infrastructure Smart city Copenhagen will monitor energy consumption – amongst other things by controlling the energy consumption in buildings – and learn from it. Access to public energy consumption data creates a scope for new services and new information for the benefit of both Copenhageners and businesses. The City of Copenhagen will be collaborating with relevant partners to ensure an open digital infrastructure so that Copenhagen will have an open platform for new and innovative solutions. Flexible consumption and Smart Grid In the future, the Danish energy supply will consist of increased amounts of renewable energy. This requires an increasingly flexible consumption and, together with a Smart Grid can accommodate more renewable energy being fed into the system. A Smart Grid must be the link between energy production and user. The City of Copenhagen will, together with external players, strive to examine the possibilities of implementing a scheme whereby Copenhagen residents, businesses and authorities will have more opportunities to select and use electricity when the share of renewable energy in the over-all energy production is high. The City of Copenhagen will also launch several initiatives to ensure intelligent recharging of the City Administration’s own electric cars. To minimize the production of district heating in plants producing heat only – which happens during very cold periods – the City Administration will, in collaboration with Copenhagen Energy, examine whether the heating system could be made more flexible. 3. CASE STUDY: CARLSBERG DEVELOPMENT PLAN Carlsberg has, for more than 160 years, brewed beer in Valby – a city district in the western part of central Copenhagen. The area has been a closed industrial area of 33 hectares with production buildings, basements and brewer family Jacobsen’s private homes and gardens in the centre of Copenhagen. In 2006, Carlsberg decided to move beer production to Fredericia and release the large areas in Valby to urban development. The vision is to make the area into an attractive and open urban area, being an integral part of Copenhagen – the Carlsberg City District is called “Our Town”. Figure 7 – The entrance to the Carlsberg Brewery area between the foundations of the “Elephant tower”, built by architect Vilhelm Dahlerup, 1901 The idea is to conserve and recycle industrial buildings in conjunction with new construction of high architectural quality with a strong focus on sustainability in both the choice of materials and agglomeration operation with regard to water, heat, etc. Although the production of beer has moved and new features were introduced into the area, the company Carlsberg A/S will continue to be present in the area with its international headquarters, Carlsberg Denmark, Jacobsen Brew house, Research Centre, the visitor centre and perhaps new activities in the future. Carlsberg A/S launched in the autumn of 2006 an open international architectural competition “Our Town” was run to get ideas on how the 33-acre brewery site could be developed. The vision was to create a new, vibrant neighbourhood with an intense urban life as a result of a dense urban structure with a mix of residential, commercial, trade, culture and leisure with an estimated population of 4 – 6000 (3000 dwellings). Sustainability played a major role in the competition and in the description of the winning project. Carlsberg A/S and the Danish architect firm 6
DENMARK | 61 “Entasis”, who won the competition, along with other consultants prepared the basis for a local plan in collaboration with the municipality of Copenhagen. Figure 8 – The Carlsberg area I Copenhagen. Illustration from the winning proposal “Carlsberg – vores by” by ENTASIS Objectives and methods The vision for the area is that citizens and visitors will experience the area, with its spaces and citizens linked together by one identity: inclusiveness and space. Inclusiveness can be seen and experienced in many ways: Cultural inclusiveness: The district should reflect the inspiration the modern human being – the cosmopolitan – finds in globalisation. The inspiration found in architecture, function, light, smells, etc.; Social inclusiveness: Carlsberg will embrace all social classes, generations and many ethnic groups. Modern people have broken out of dogmatic circles to follow their inspiration and desire. The city lives through its diversity; Architectural inclusiveness: The district must be perceived as a laboratory where the typologies public space, the old buildings, the tower house and city houses are experienced cognitive and developmental; Environmental inclusiveness: Carlsberg will be the first town in fully developed form manages to produce a surplus of energy; Experiencing Diversity: The city should offer great diversity in experiences and functions. Common to these experiences, the city’s ambition of “the good life” breaks through. District heating and renewable energy systems (RES) Copenhagen Municipality as a whole is covered by a district heating plan, which makes it mandatory for larger buildings with a heating capacity above 0.25 MW to use district heating only. Alternative heating and energy sources such as solar collectors and PVs presume dispensation from the heating supply legislation. The use of district heating and renewable energy systems in the Carlsberg area thus complies with the overall energy and CO2 targets for Copenhagen Municipality. Green mobility in Carlsberg Developing the Carlsberg area as a sustainable urban neighbourhood does imply a number of considerations concerning transport. The area is designed for a limited car-based transport, the streets are predominantly meant for urban life, not for cars. The idea of establishing a metro-station in the area dominated the early phases of the project. The metro-station should be served by the circle-line ‘Metro-city-ringen’. However, the private part: Carlsberg and the public part could not reach an agreement concerning the financing of the station. Hence, the idea of a metro-station in the area was replaced with the idea of moving the existing nearby urban rail station ‘Enghave Station’ a few hundred metres closer to centre of the Carlsberg area, making it more convenient for the future residents to use urban rail. This project has now been confirmed. Another central discussion in relation to the development of Carlsberg is car parking. 95% of all cars will be parked in underground facilities. The questions are: How many cars should these facilities provide space for and who should invest in the facilities? In the original negotiations, the Municipality argued for 1 parking lot per 200m2 of floor space. Carlsberg argued for 1 parking lot per 100 m2 of floor space, because the area should be considered a mix of business development and residential development. The negotiations ended in a compromise: 1 parking lot per 133 m2 of floor space. It is estimated that each
62 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS lot will cost approximately €65,000. For a part of the potential future residents, belonging to the creative segment in Copenhagen, it is not seen as positive to have access to parking. Other potential future residents would, however, consider access to parking as a must. Nobody is eager to finance the construction of the parking facilities, not even those actors who consider access to parking as a must. Re-Cycling Carlsberg The reduction of CO2 emissions from transport and transportation is part of the ambition to create and support people’s perception of an improved quality of life in the area. The notion of the good life and reduction of CO2 emissions are thus seen as essential and interrelated concepts and ambitions in developing the area successfully. The Masterplan, Vores By, describes the components (streets, squares etc.) of the area’s infrastructural organisation and its relationship to adjacent urban road systems and public transport. Streets, alleys and squares are functionally classified, as well as the definitions of different types of streetscapes, characters and traffic types. Some streets and squares are designated as shared spaces, in some only limited driving will be permitted, and in others driving will not be allowed. The dominant modes of transport are walking and cycling. At a local level the plans for Carlsberg district follows the strategies and ambitions to stimulate bicycle and pedestrian traffic, and public transport as formulated at regional level for Greater Copenhagen. The ambition to develop Copenhagen to an Environmental Metropolis and a Metropolis for People in 2015, is supported in the plans for the Carlsberg area, and carried out through the spatial organisation, its relations to adjective urban areas, the design of the streetscapes and the imbedded stimulation of walking and cycling. Stimulation of bicycle, pedestrian and public transportation is regarded as essential tools supporting this ambition. As shown above behavioural and attitudinal measures are emphasised and supported. The cycling training programs target both school children and adults through organised and systematic courses offered and organised by public authorities, the school system, and through volunteers (NGO) initiatives. People’s behaviour and attitude towards cycling are sought supported through the spatial organisation and urban design. The ambition is to create a common understanding among the Copenhagen residents of the beneficial good of bicycling on both society level and on an individual level, and thus to support people’s perception of an improved quality of everyday life both on a local and on a regional level, and at the same time to reduce CO2 emission. Long term focus Copenhagen will in the coming years foresee an extraordinary population growth. At the same time the city has the ambition of becoming the world’s first carbon-neutral Capital by 2025. This provides an excellent opportunity for creating a sustainable city in terms of both environmental and economic growth. Copenhagen has the declared dedication to collaborate with cities, knowledge institutions and enterprises on an international scale in the development of new, innovative, sustainable solutions. 5. REFERENCES Vogt Landscape Architects (2010), Streetscapes. Carlsberg/ Vores By, Landscape Masterplan, www.carlsbergbyen.dk (22.11.2013) Entasis (2008), vores rum_input til rammelokaplan_carlsberg 02. byrum/ haverumsblade 29.02.2008_rev 1, www.entasis.dk Halldórsdóttir, K.,Christensen, L, Jensen, T.C. and Prato, C.G. (2011): Modelling Mode Choice In Short Trips – Shifting From Car To Bicycle, Proceedings of the European Transport Conference 2011. Københavns kommune (2011), Fra god til verdens bedste – Københavns Cykelstrategi 2011 – 2025, http://www.kk.dk/da/borger/trafik/ cyklernes-by/politik-og-strategi Københavns kommune(2012), Cykelregnskabet
FINLAND | 69 the climate strategy for Tampere region for 2030 requires all new buildings to be built accordingto‘classA’energyefficiency.This shouldimproveefficiencyby30%compared to year 2009 and over 50% in comparison to the average of the existing building stock. Several demonstration projects are on the way or proposed to construct and plan for better energyefficiency,‘evenexceedingthe‘classA’ energyefficiencyrequirement(e.g.forenergy town plans and nearly zero and zero energy projects). Mobility is another main issue in the climate action plan of the region. The main objectives for climate-friendly mobility pertain to public transport,cyclingandotherlighttraffic.For theCityCouncil’stermofoffice2009–2012, the objective for the modal share of public transport was a minimum of 18%. In the climate vision for 2030, the target share for public transport in 2030 is at least 25%, and for walking and cycling also 25%. Simultaneously, GHG emissions from transport should have diminished by at least 20% (compared to year 1990). The announced means to achieve these targets are increased density through infilldevelopmentandanincreaseintheuse of biofuels. Partially the means to achieve the targets have been left open for now as well (Tampereen Kaupunkiseutu, 2010). Certain challenges for the execution of the regional climate policies and action plans are set by the structure of the regional decisionmaking bodies. Currently the municipalities of Tampere region possess the majority of the executive power. In the future the effectiveness of the regional policies could be increased with closer regional cooperation and regional planning. Also state subsidies are important drivers. Furthermore, connections between land use and transportation issues should be improved and the decisions coordinated at the regional level. Energy production Whereas the region is relatively well covered with district heating infrastructure and the majority of heat is produced in CHP plants, the dominating fuels are currently nonrenewable. In 2012, natural gas formed a share of approximately 70% of the CHP production of Tampereen Sähkölaitos and peat a share of well over 10% (Tampereen Sähkölaitos, 2013a). This situation sets an important barrier for achieving the climate targets of the region, and thus Tampereen Sähkölaitos has committed to increase the amount of renewable fuels to as high as 30% by the year 2020. In the production of CHP this would mean replacing oil and natural gas by forest residues. In heating, technological innovations favour the use of wood chips, pellets and chopped wood. Biogas, biomass fuel, and solar energy would be appropriate for small-scale CHP as well. In addition, refuse incineration is a developing and promising technology, although the GHG impact of this production mode depends heavily on certain assumptions. 3. CASE STUDY: HÄRMÄLÄNRANTA RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT The case study area Härmälänranta is located fivekilometressouthwestfromthecentreof the city of Tampere, on the waterfront of lake Pyhäjärvi. Figure 4 – The location of Härmälänranta residential area (Skanska Kodit, 2013). The properties are located in a former industrial area which will now be turned into aneco-efficienthighqualityresidentialarea. Sustainability has been an important driver in theplanningofthearea.Highenergyefficiency of the buildings and diverse selection of local services which reduce commuting are among the key means to achieve high ecoefficiency.Inaddition,efficientpublictransport connections to the city center are planned tofurtherreduceprivatedriving.Brownfield development replacing a former industrial area willincreasetheeco-efficiencyaswell,since energy and transport infrastructures are already there (Skanska Kodit, 2013).
70 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS The area will be built in two phases of which the firstoneiscurrentlyunderdevelopment. Thefirstphaseincludessevensimilar multi-story apartment buildings, each with approximately 3,000 gross square metres. The buildings will contain 28 apartments each, and about 500 residents will reside in the area oncefinished.Altogether160,000grosssquare meters of living space and at least 4,300 gross squaremetersofofficespacewillbebuilttothe area, and it will be home to approximately 3,200 residents. Skanska Kodit is the main building contractor responsible for the development of the area. To create an appealing brand for the area Skanska collaborates with several architect companies and branding specialists (Skanska Kodit, 2013). For the city of Tampere, Härmälänranta is one important step in its attempts to reach the climate change mitigation goals set for the near future. An existing infrastructure for district heating is available in Härmälänranta. However, since the local power plant relies heavily on nonrenewablefuels,alternativelocalsite-specific production possibilities have been investigated as explained further in the next section. Located within the existing city structure andthusbeinganinfilldevelopmentsite, transportation infrastructure is already present. Local bus lines serve the area and freeway connections are located nearby. The existing neighbourhoods that surround Härmälänranta also offer diverse services in close proximity. Objectives and methods Härmälänranta aims to contribute to environmental and social sustainability of the region by offering the residents a neighbourhood with diverse local services, which are expected to reduce the need for private transportation and to create a local community that enhances the social wellbeing in the area. From the environmental sustainability perspective one main expectation for the case area is to be one of the key projects leading the development towards a less carbon-intensive Tampere. The key methods for reducing GHG emissions arehighenergyefficiencylevelsofthe buildings and the existing infrastructure for district heating. These are expected to lead to significantlylowerusephaseGHGemissions from Härmälänranta than in the region currently. The economic and environmental feasibility of further reducing the use phase GHGs withselectedlocalsite-specificrenewable production options have been studied as well. Below, these potentials are presented according to the recent study of Ristimäki et al. (2013), who utilised simultaneous life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) to analyse the costs and GHGs in different time horizons. The construction phase emissions, including the embodied emissions in the construction materials, create an additional perspective to GHG mitigation potential of such new residential developments as Härmälänranta. Tampere is expecting the high energy efficiencyofthenewbuildingstodecreasethe buildings related energy demand and GHG emissions relatively quickly, by 30% by 2030 according to the 2030 climate strategy of the region (Tampereen Kaupunkiseutu, 2010). However, these estimated values omit totally the construction phase emissions and look only at the use phase energy use and the derived emissions. According to Säynäjoki et al. (2012) it is possible that the construction phase emissions of a new residential building are high enough to actually only increase the combined cumulative emissions from the construction phase and use phase until 2030. Kyrö et al. have actually calculated for the city of Tampere that the building stock cumulative emissions increase for decades as the result of renewing the building stock at the current rate even if the new buildings are very energy efficientcomparedtotheexistingstock(Kyröet al. 2012). Thus, even if the use phase of a building causes the majority of the emissions over the whole life cycle, in short-term and even in middleterm the construction phase emissions may dominate and thus hinder the GHG potential of increasedbuildingenergyefficiency. In Härmälänranta this perspective has been partly taken into account. The building contractor Skanska Kodit has tried to minimise the material requirements by design
FINLAND | 71 optimisation. In addition, new insulation materialsareutilisedinthefirstphasebuildings in Härmälänranta. The impact of these choices is still largely unknown, however, but underway is a GHG assessment focusing on the construction phase emissions which will shed light on the issue during 2014. Long term focus Many of the planning and design choices in Härmälänranta are targeted to increase the long-termeco-efficiencyandsustainability of the area, especially the energy demand and production related decisions studied by Ristimäki et al. (2013). Ristimäki et al. investigated the mid and long-term economic, and greenhouse gas impacts of selected alternativesite-specificenergyproduction methods with life cycle costing and life cycle assessment. Their study included four possible options: 1. Business As Usual (BAU) option of district heating and electricity from the local provider; 2. District heating and 90% of electricity from the local provider and 10% with local on-site photovoltaic panels; 3. Ground source heat pump producing the heat, electricity (including operating power for the pump) from the local provider; 4. Ground source heat pump producing the heat, 90% of electricity coming from the local provider and 10% with local on-site photovoltaic panels. The study covered 25, 50 and 100 year time-spans. Results In the Finnish Energy Audit system (Motiva Oy, 2013) the Härmälänranta buildings will be placed in the highest category A in an A-G classificationwiththeestimatedoveralluse phase energy (heat and electricity) of slightly lessthan100kWh/m2yr.Theenergyefficiency will thus exceed the minimum requirements of the 2010 National building Code, which already reduces the energy use by over 50% in comparison to the average of the existing building stock. Notwithstanding, the study of Ristimäki et al. (2013) shows that further reductions could be achieved in a life cycle affordable way. According to the study, option 4 would be the most effective to decrease the emissions caused during the use phase of the buildings with regard to the BAU option. The GHG assessment results from Ristimäki et al. (2013) are shown in Table 4. Year 1. District heating 2. District heating incl. 10% photovoltaic panels 3. Ground source heat pump 4. Ground source heat pump incl. 10% photovoltaic panels 25 45,832 44,425 35,167 33,738 50 68,857 65,946 46,916 43,983 100 112,599 106,483 68,087 61,949 Table 4 – Life-cycle GHG emissions of the compared four energy options in 25, 50 and 100 years time-spans (tons of CO2eq) (Ristimäki et al., 2013). Option 4 would actually be both the most GHG effective as well as life cycle affordable from the cost perspective. Compared to the BAU option (1), all the alternative solutions would reduce the GHG emissions over all the covered timespans, and even the life cycle costs over the longest 100 years period. In option 4 the GHG reduction would be more than 20% even over the shortest 25-year time-span and increase up to approximately 40% over the 100-year time-span. The cost differences remain much smaller, but with the assumed price changes the lowest GHG options are the most life cycle affordable as well. Outcomes Härmälänranta is expected to contribute to achieving the regional GHG mitigation targets. Highbuildingenergyefficiencywillassurethat the use phase emissions from energy use in theareawillbesignificantlylowerthanthe regional average, over 50% in comparison to the average of the building stock of the region. According to Ristimäki et al. (2013) the use phase GHGs could be reduced further by local site-specificrenewableenergyproduction.
72 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS There are two important shortcomings in the presented emissions assessments: Firstly, only the use phase emissions are taken into account. While these have traditionally dominated in the overall life cycle of a building, the relative importance of the construction phase (direct and embodied) emissions is increasingastheusephaseenergyefficiency increases. In addition, when the currently set rather short-term GHG reduction targets are concerned, the construction phase emissions may actually arise into a major role, as shown by Säynäjoki et al. (2012). They call the hidden phenomenon “the carbon spike” of construction, since when put into a temporal perspective, the construction phase emissions appear very high in the beginning and the payback time may be decades long even with thehighestenergyefficiencybuildings.Taking this phenomenon into account depicts how difficultshort-termGHGreductionsareto achieve with infrastructure development. Secondly, the study of Ristimäki et al. (2013) does not assess the grid-level impacts of the localsite-specificenergyproductionoptions. While the local options in their study seem to favour district heating, the results contain an important uncertainty. In the end the effectiveness of a certain local energy system is relative to the overall grid impacts, particularly if the system is not totally independent. For example, the ground source heat pumps in the study of Ristimäki et al. would use electricity from the grid to operate. It would thus be possible that the use of the ground source heat pumps would actually lead to an increase in the electricity demand in the grid and potentially result in more excess heat waste from the CHP plant. Furthermore, if the increased electricity demand would require spare production capacity to be utilised, the production fuels would be predominantly coal and natural gas. Thus the results of a GHG assessment would actually rely heavily on whether the electricity would be assumed to be the grid average or the so called marginal production. These uncertainties depict that further information about the potential of the local solutions to replace the (least GHG effective) grid production would be needed to assess the real GHG impacts. Finally,increasingbuildingenergyefficiency might lead to a rebound-effect, which can significantlyreducetheGHGbenefits. Iftheincreaseintheenergyefficiencyleads to monetary savings in energy costs, not compensated by the cost of the residence, the money will the most likely be spent elsewhere with the consequence of new GHG emissions. The same applies to private transportation and reduction in the degree of household motorisation, as Heinonen et al. (2013) demonstrate. An interesting thought can be derived from theseremarksontheactualeco-efficiencyof thearea.Ifsufficientlocalservicesupplycan be attracted to the area to really create local lifestyles among the residents, the local lowGHG energy solutions would reduce the GHGs from all the local services as well and support low-carbon living even if the service demand would be increased as a rebound effect of reduced driving and housing energy costs. 4. CONCLUSIONS The Härmälänranta development demonstrates a conversion from former industrial to new residential use, where industrial history has been used in branding. Even if many of the industrial buildings on the area have been demolished, a few of them will be converted to new uses, like sports and cultural services. A combination of lakeside nature and outdoor activities, industrial heritage, urban infrastructure, and the availability of services are cornerstones of the marketing strategy for home buyers (Skanska Kodit, 2013). Industrial heritage cannot be regarded a factor of sustainability as such, but often such locations bring about factors that contribute to the sustainability of a new development at the same site. Firstly, the existing buildings that are saved and renovated to be part of the new development reduce the need for new construction, which often causes higher construction phase carbon spike than refurbishment of an existing building according to Säynäjoki et al. (2012). Secondly, the potentially favourable position of the site, as with Härmälänranta, makes development practicable and can reduce for example the infrastructure related emissions.
FINLAND | 73 The process in Härmälänranta follows international patterns of urban renewal and city branding. Sustainability adds to the achieved urban image. When assessing the possibilities of generalisation, these two factors have to be distinguished. On urban level, the most important factors affecting sustainability are good connections inside the city, density, proximity of services, and the availability of district heating. These attributes are location-dependent. The basic residential layout and house typologies are relatively common in Finland. The apartment buildings do not form downtown-type closed blocks but are widely applied in suburban areas. Furthermore, the primary methods for diminishing GHG impacts, high building levelenergy-efficiencyandtheuseofdistrict heating, are widely applicable for various buildings. As stated before, various solutions for heating may be applied. Even if district heating is common in Finnish urban areas, also ground source heat pumps can be used. The systemic integration of the demonstration project is relatively loose and allows various technological choices. To sum up, the possibility of creating similar residential areas is partly dependent on attractiveness factors that are not easily generalised. However, the solutions affecting energyefficiencyarewidelyapplicable in other circumstances. In addition, the presented uncertainties in the GHG reductions assessments regarding the Härmälänranta caseareadepicthowdifficultachievingtrue emissions reductions can be, especially in the short-term. 5. REFERENCES ECO2 Ekotehokas Tampere 2020, project plan. Available: http://www.localmanagement. eu/download.php/dms/champ/Finnish%20 hub/Ilmastostrategiat/Tampereen%20 kaupungin%20ilmasto%20ja%20 enrgiaohjelma%20ECO2.pdf Finnish Environment Institute (2014): Carbon footprint calculators, Available: http://www. syke.fi/en-US/Research__Development/ Consumption_and_production_and_ sustainable_use_of_natural_resources/ Calculators (accessed 20.3.2014) Government Foresight Report on Longterm Climate and Energy Policy: Towards a Low-carbonFinland.PrimeMinister’sOffice Publications30/2009.Available:http://vnk.fi/ julkaisut/julkaisusarja/julkaisu/fi.jsp?oid=273275 Heinonen J., Jalas M., Juntunen J., Ala-Mantila S. and Junnila S. (2013): Situated lifestyles II: The impacts of urban density, housing type and motorisation on the greenhouse gas emissions of the middle income consumers in Finland, Environmental Research Letters, 8 (3), 035050. Heinonen J., Junnila S. 2011. Implications of Urban Structure on Carbon Consumption in Metropolitan Areas, Environmental Research Letters, 6, 014018. Kyrö, R., Heinonen, J., Junnila, S. (2012): Assessing the Potential of Climate Change Mitigation Actions in Three Different City Types in Finland, Sustainability, 4(7), 1510-1524. Motiva Oy (2013): Energy Audit. Available: http://www.motiva.fi/en/home_and_household/ housing_companies/energy_audit(accessed 28.10.2013) Ristimäki M., Säynäjoki A., Heinonen J. and Junnila S. 2013. Combining Life Cycle Costing and Life Cycle Assessment for an Analysis of a New Residential District Energy System Design, Energy, Accepted for publication 8.10.2013. Skanska Kodit (2013): Tampereen Härmälänranta. Available: http://kodit.skanska. fi/Tampereen-Harmalanranta/(accessed 28.10.2013, in Finnish only) Säynäjoki A., Heinonen J. and Junnila S. 2012. A scenario analysis of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of a new residential area, Environmental Research Letters, 7 (3), 034037. StatisticsFinland(2014a):OfficialStatisticsof Finland (OSF): Regional Account [e-publication], Available:http://stat.fi/til/altp/tau_en.html (accessed (20.3.2014) StatisticsFinland(2014b):OfficialStatistics of Finland (OSF) Labour force survey [e-publication],Available:http://stat.fi/til/tyti/ index_en.html(accessed20.3.2014) Tampere City Region’s internet pages,
74 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS tampereenseutu.fi.Available:http://www. tampereenseutu.fi/in_english/(accessed 20.3.2014) Tampere Flows: Big City of Smooth Living. Responsibly Leading Development. Tampere City Strategy 2020. Available: http://www. tampere.fi/hallintojatalous/kaupunkistrategia/ strategianuudistaminen.html Tampereen kaupungin kestävän kehityksen raportti, summary. Available: http://www. tampere.fi/material/attachments/k/5guXo33EJ/ Keketiivistelma2008.pdf Tampereen kaupunkiseudun ilmastostrategia 2030. Available: http://www.tampereenseutu. fi/seutuhankkeet/yhteistyon-tuloksia/ yhdyskuntasuunnittelun-ohjelmat/ ilmastostrategia_2030/ Tampereen kaupunkiseutu, Ajankohtaista 2013 (Update 2013, in Finnish only), Available: http://www.tampereenseutu.fi/ajankohtaista/ ajankohtaista-2013/?x2916213=2916216 (accessed 20.3.2014) Tampereen Sähkölaitos (2013a): Vuosi 2012, Tampereen Sähkölaitos -yhtiöt (The annual report of Tampereen Sähkölaitos, in Finnish only). Tampereen Sähkölaitos (2013b): Company Internet Pages, Available: http://www. tampereensahkolaitos.fi. Torvelainen, J. (2009): Pientalojen polttopuun käyttö 2007/2008, Metsäntutkimuslaitos, Metsätilastollinen tietopalvelu, Metsätilastotiedote 26/2009.
fYR MACEDONIA | 75 AUTHORS Roberta Apostolska, Professor, D-r Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology-IZIIS, University “Ss. Cyril and Methodius”, Skopje, RM E: [email protected] Todorka Samardzioska, Associate Professor, D-r Civil Engineering Faculty, University “Ss. Cyril and Methodius”, Skopje, RM E: [email protected] 1. OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (fYR Macedonia) is located in the central Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. It is one of the successor states of the former Yugoslavia, from which it declared independence in 1991. It is a landlocked country that is geographically clearly defined by a central valley formed by the Vardar River and framed along its borders by mountain ranges. The terrain is mostly rugged. There are 1,100 large sources of water among which around fifty ponds and three natural lakes. The climate is transitional with three main climatic zones: temperate Mediterranean, mountainous, and mildly continental. The fYR Macedonia covers an area of 25,713 km2. The population of the region is 2,061,044 inhabitants. Population density calculated on the basis of land area is 82.7 inhabitants/ km2. The country’s capital is Skopje and the total population in the Skopje region is 609,140 inhabitants, with population density of 335 inhabitants/km2. There are eight nonadministrative units – statistical regions that are formed by grouping the municipalities as administrative units of lower level; Vardar region (7.5% of the total population in 2012), East region (8.7%), Southwest region (10.7%), Southeast region (8.4%), Pelagonia region (11.3%), Polog region (15.4%), Northeast region (7.5%) and Skopje region (29.6%). All data in the above paragraph is according to the fourth edition of the State Statistical Office, (“Regions of the Republic of Macedonia, 2013”, as at 30.06.2012). The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is a parliamentary democracy with an executive government. The Assembly is made up of 120 seats and the members are elected every four years. The role of the President of the Republic is mostly ceremonial, with the real power resting in the hands of the President of the Government (Prime Minister). The members of the executive government are chosen by the Prime Minister and there are ministers for each branch of the society (in total 23 members). The country suffered severe economic difficulties after independence (1991) and during the transition to a market economy. According to Eurostat data (as at 15.11.2013; http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do? tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&language=en&pcode =tec00114), Macedonian PPS GDP per capita stood at 35% of the EU average in 2012. Refer to the State Statistical Office (“Regions of the Republic of Macedonia, 2013”, p. 45), the gross domestic product in 2011 was €3,632 per capita. The maximum share of GDP comes from sector: Mining; manufacturing; electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply; water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities, and for 2011 it was 18.7% (http://www.stat.gov.mk/ OblastOpsto_en.aspx?id=7). In the year 2012, the employment rate was 39%, with the highest observed rate in the Skopje region (38%) and the lowest observed one in the Northeast Region (24.6%), (“Regions of the Republic of Macedonia, 2013”, p. 32). According to the data of the State Statistical Office, at risk of poverty rate in the fYR Macedonia in 2011 was 27.1% (http:// www.stat.gov.mk/PrikaziSoopstenie_ en.aspx?rbrtxt=115, table Т-01: Poverty and social exclusion indicators). Within this fYR MACEDONIA
76 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS framework, 26.9% of the population can’t afford to keep their home adequately warm i.e. suffer from fuel poverty (http://www.stat.gov. mk/PrikaziSoopstenie_en.aspx?rbrtxt=115, table Т-07: Materially deprived persons in relation to certain items, 2011). Within the Government, the ministry responsible for the energy sector is the Ministry of Economy. Part of the responsibilities related to energy belong also to the Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning as well as to the Ministry of Transport and Communications. For the purposes of providing support to the Government in the implementation of the energy policy, and Energy Agency has been formed. Government of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in 2010 adopted “Strategy on energy development in the Republic of Macedonia until 2030”. The main objective of this strategy is to provide a reliable and good quality energy supply to the consumers, (Ministry of Economy of RM, 2010). Energy demand and supply of the Region Most of the data in this Country report, if not differently indicated, origin from the State Statistical Office of Republic of Macedonia. Energy Statistics 2000 – 2010 (2012). Total primary energy production of the fYRoM in 2010 is 19.4 TWh1,2 (Figure 1). Figure 1 – Total primary energy production in fYRoMin 2010 (Energy statistics 2012: T-01.1) The total energy demand (gross inland consumption3) in the region in 2010 is 34.5 TWh (Figure 2). Figure 2 – Total energy demand in fYRoM in 2010 (Energy statistics 2012: T-01.6) Final energy consumption in the region for all sectors (manufacturing, construction, transport, household use, services and agriculture etc.) adds up to 21.5TWh in 2010 (Figure 3). Figure 3 – Final energy consumption in fYRoM in 2010 (Energy statistics 2012: T-01.7) Presented data shows that petroleum products (43%) and electricity (33%) contribute the most to total final energy consumption. Final energy consumption in the region in 2010 for the three main sectors is: industrial sector with 6.3TWh, domestic sector with 6.5TWh and the transport sector with 5.5TWh. Other sectors consume 3.2TWh. The energy dependency (calculated as the ratio between the net import of energy and the total energy demand in the region), which
fYR MACEDONIA | 77 indicates the extent to which the country relies on imports to meet its energy needs is 44%, (Energy statistics 2012: T-01.3). The share of energy sources for electricity production can be seen in Table 1. 66% of electricity is generated from public thermal power stations. Energy Source GWh/ (in 2010) Total 7.258 Renewable electricity 2.429 Public thermal power station 4.802 Autoproduction thermal power stations and CHP plants 27 Table 1 – Gross electricity production by type of plant in fYRoM in 2010, (Energy statistics 2012: T-02.18) The share of electricity from renewable sources in total electricity production is 33.5% and in gross national electricity consumption4 is 28% Figure 4 shows the proportion of renewable energy production according to the source. Due to the hydrological conditions in the region, hydroelectricity is the most harvested among the renewable sources, following by biomass whilst solar power offers a minimal contribution. Figure 4 – Renewable energy production by source, in fYRoM in 2010, (Energy statistics 2012: T-01.12) Two additional parameters that provide indicators of the energy demand and consumption of the region are gross inland production per capita which is 16.8MWh and final energy consumption in households per capita which is 3.14MWh, in 2010. The average value of CO2eq emissions per capita for the year 2000 (according to the official census data) is 7.16 t CO2-eq/capita, (Atanasovska, 2010). According to the WB data (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM. CO2E.PC) this value is 5.2t CO2-eq/capita, for the period 2009-2013. Comparing the above value with 9.2 t CO2-eq/capita in the EU-15 in 2011 (GHG trends and projections in the EU15), the emissions are lower which may reflect the overall economic situation in the country. GHG emissions by each per sector (agriculture, waste, transport, industry, heating and electricity) are integrated in order to project the total national GHG emissions over the period 2008-2025 (Figure 5). The total GHG emission factor in 2010 is slightly over 15000 ktCO2-eq and for electricity is slightly over 9600 ktCO2-eq. The above projected values stand for so called baseline scenario which is based on the existing thermal power plants with domestic lignite and it is the most destructive environmental scenario for the development of the Macedonian power system (Atanasovska, 2010). This kind of thermal power plant with domestic lignite produce 74% of total primary energy production in the region (Figure 1). 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 Year [kt CO2-eq] Agriculture Waste Transport Industry Heating Electric Figure 5 – Projection of the total GHG emissions – baseline scenario
78 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS GHG emission factor for electricity from the grid in 2010 is 1.32kgCO2-eq/kWh. This factor is significantly above EU-27 average electricity emissions factors, (0.38 kgCO2-eq/kWh in 2008, http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-andmaps/figures/trends-in-energy-ghg-emission). 2. CURRENT SITUATION: TARGETS RELATED TO ENERGY POLICY Targets set for the region are presented in the National Document “First energy efficiency action plan (EEAP) of the Republic of Macedonia by 2018”, developed pursuant to the Directive 2006/32/EC. This EEAP covers the period 2010 – 2018 and sets the total national indicative target for energy savings of at least 9% of final inland energy consumption by 2018 compared to the average final inland energy consumption registered in the period 2002 – 2006. National indicative energy savings targets for 2018 are 199.78ktoe, (Table 2) which is 12.2% of average energy consumption for the last five years (1636ktoe). The short term set target for 2012 was 4.04% of the average energy consumption (66.10ktoe). National indicative energy saving targets for 2018 ktoe Total 199.78 Residential 40.51 Commercial and services 24.19 Industry 90.45 Transport sector 44.63 Table 2 – National indicative energy saving targets (First energy efficiency action plan of the Republic of Macedonia by 2018) These targets (Table 2 and Figure 6) should be achieved through set of comprehensive Energy Efficiency Improvement (EEI) program and measures. Different EEI measures are anticipated for the different sectors. The most efficient ones in the residential sector are Adoption and enforcement of Building Energy Codes and EE Retrofits in existing buildings, (50% of the energy savings in this sector). For the commercial and services sector, again Adoption and enforcement of Building Energy Codes and EE Retrofits of Hospitals participate with 46% in corresponding energy savings. Cogeneration and Clean Development Mechanism take more than 71% of the total energy savings in industry sector. In the sector of transport, renewal of the national road vehicle fleet and Promotion of sustainable urban transport systems should provide 65% of energy saving in the sector (for more details refer to tables 1.1.1; 1.2.1; 1.3.1 and 1.4.1 in the EEAP 2011). Potential savings of 57.1% in residential buildings and 28.6% in commercial and public buildings in 2020 have been identified refer to above listed EEI. Figure 6 – Goals in potential of energy savings according to the Strategy of EE, up to 2020 Total GHG current emissions (in ktCO2-eq) from all sectors can be seen in Figure 7. This indicates that energy production generates 74% of GHG emissions for the Region. Figure 7 – Total GHG current emissions for 2013 Projection of the GHG missions from all sectors in the period 2008 – 2025 can be seen in Table 3.
GERMANY | 85 AUTHORS Werner Lang Technische Universität München ChairofEnergy-EfficientandSustainable PlanningandBuilding(ENPB), [email protected] Arcisstrasse21,D80290München Philipp Geyer Technische Universität München ChairofEnergy-EfficientandSustainable PlanningandBuilding(ENPB), [email protected] Arcisstrasse21,D80290München 1 OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region TheRegionofBavariaisoneofsixteenstates intheFederalRepublicofGermany.Itisthe secondbiggeststateinGermanywithmore than12.5millioninhabitantsandwithanarea of70,000squarekilometres.Thestatecapital ofBavariaisMunichwithfamousculturaland architecturalcharacteristics.Locatedcloseto theAlpsandcharacterisedbyrurallandscape Bavariahasdevelopedastronginnovative regioninrecentdecades.High-techindustries combinedwithhistoricalwayoflifepavethe wayforthefuturedevelopmentofBavaria. Economicprosperityisfoundedupon innovativesmallandmedium-sizedcompanies andisreflectedinanextremelyhighGDPof around€37,000percapitaandanemployment rateof75%intheyear2010. TheenvironmentalandenergysectorinBavaria consistsofmanyinternationalmarketleaders, whichhaveaprovenlong-termcompetitiveness intheirfields,suchasautomotiveindustries. Therecentglobalcrisisintensifiedtheneed forastablelegislativeframework,which securesandprovidesconditionsforlocalvalue creationwhicharethefocusofcurrentBavarian economicandenergypolicies. Duetothefederalorganisation,everystate hasasovereignconstitutionandisableto shapeitsownareasoflegislation.Thisis particularlytruefortheenergysector,where localregulationsforbuildingsandincentives forrenewableenergieshavebeenestablished locally.Withrespecttotheseregulationsand incentives,Bavariaisoneoftheleadingregions inGermany. EnergydemandandsupplyoftheRegion TheregionofBavariahasadetailedenergy strategyestablishedbytheBavarian Government(2011).Thegoalsanddatawithin thispaper,unlessindicatedotherwise,originate fromthisdocument.Totalprimaryenergy demandofBavariain2008,asshownin Table 1,was567TWhandwasmainlybased onpetroleumproducts,nuclearpowerandgas. Renewableenergiesamountto10.1%witha stronggrowingtrend(12.9%in2010,Federal WorkingGroupofEnergyBalances,2013). ThetotalfinalenergyconsumptionofBavaria totalled390TWhintheyear2010whichwas subdividedintothreesectors:domesticsector with181TWh,commercial-industrialsector with87TWh,andthetransportsectorwith 123TWh(FederalWorkingGroupofEnergy Balances,2013). Figure 1 – Total primary energy demand of Bavaria in 2008 (100% = 567 TWh, Source: Bavaria Government 2011) GERMANY
86| SMART ENERGY REGIONS Figure 2 – Electric energy supply of Bavaria in 2009 (100% = 85 TWh, Source: Bavaria Government 2011) Figure 3 – History of the energy sources for electricity supply in Bavaria and CO2 emissions including electricity imports from 1925 to 2011. The red line shows the kg CO2 emission per kWh electricity. (Data / source: www.statistik.bayern.de) The average CO2emissionsamountto6tons percapitaperannum(thenationalaverage forGermanyisabout9tons).Thisismainly causedbythelow-emissionenergysupply, as shown in Figure 3,resultinginverylow GHGemissionsforelectricityfromthegridat slightlyabove100gCO2/kWh(theaveragein Germanyin2012:546gCO2/kWh,source: www.Umweltbundesamt.de).Thislowfigure forBavariaisaresultofthehighpercentage ofnuclearpowerandanincreasingshareof renewableenergies.However,thephasingout ofnuclearpowerisachallengeforaclimatefriendlyenergysupplyinthefuture.Bavaria leadsGermanyintermsoftheuseofhydro energy,solarenergy,biomass,andgeothermal energy.Furthermore,Bavariahasagood developedandmoderngasinfrastructure whichenablespetroleumgastobeafeasible substitutefornuclearpower.Incontrast, Bavariadoesnothavemuchcoal-firedpower. CoastalareasofGermanydominatethe potentialforwindenergy. 2. CURRENT SITUATION: TARGETS RELATED TO ENERGY POLICY GermanyaimstodecreaseitsCO2emissions by40%until2020increasingupto80% to95%by2050comparedto1990levels. Renewableenergiesaretoachieveshare ofgrossfinalenergyconsumptionby2020 increasingto60%by2050.Forelectricity consumption,theshareofrenewableisplanned tobeatleast35%in2020increasingto80% in2050. Duetothefactthatclimateprotection isanumberonepriorityoftheBavarian Government,theregion’spolicyisfully supportivetotheFederalGovernmentsclimate goals.Bavariafacesthechallengeofclimate change.BavariahadatotalGHGemission of80milliontonsofCO2equivalents(6.4 tonspercapitaandyear)in2010(Federal StatisticalOffice2012)andaimstoreduceCO2 emissionstobelow6tonsby2020.Thatisonly possiblebyextendingrenewableenergiesand increasingenergyefficiency. UntilnowBavariacoversitsenergy consumptionwithinitsdomesticboundaries; however,thiscouldbecomedifficultinthe futureasenergyproductiondependsmore andmoreonrenewableenergies.Offshore windfarmsandgrid-connectedPVsystems locatedoutsideofBavariamightoffera chancetosolvethisproblem.Accordingto policies,thegovernmentintendstokeep Bavariaasindependentaspossibleofenergy imports.Inthenext10years,theaimisfor renewableenergiestocoverupto50%ofthe Bavarianelectricitydemand;that’sdouble whatisprovidedtoday.Regardingtheshare ofrenewablesinfinalenergyconsumption, Bavariaaimsataccomplishing20%andthus excelsthegivenEUgoalby10%. OtherRegionaltargets,barriersanddrivers OneimportantmeasureinBavariaisa significantreductionofheatdemandof20% forresidentialbuildingsand15%forindustry
GERMANY | 87 bytheyear2021.Furthermore,therenewable shareinelectricitysupplyshouldbeincreased to50%bytheyear2021.Theseregional targetshavebeeninitiatedbytheBavarian Governmentandareclearlypoliticalgoals.To achievetheseobjectivesofclimateprotection, politicalgoalsandcompliancearenecessary togetherwithastablesupplyofclimatefriendlytechnologies.Thepoliticalframework accompaniedbytheGermannuclearphaseout,whichstartedin2011andshallbefinalised in2022,demonstratesastrongershiftto naturalgasisexemplaryforaEuropeanEnergy Regionanditstransformation.Nevertheless, theincreasedCO2emissionsthroughthis intensifiedsubstitutionofnaturalgasneedsto becompensatedbyanefficiencyincreasein theareasofheatingenergyandmobility. Bavariawillaccomplishthisbyamassive investmentinnewcross-nationpower lines,improvedregionalpowergridsand additionalrenewablepowersources.Gasfiredpowerplantswillreplaceoldnuclear plantsprogressively.Furthermore,major improvementsarerequiredinthegeneration andusageofheatandenergyusagefor mobility.Thisshouldbesupportedby investmentsfocussingonenergystorageand innovativeenergyresearchprojects. Abroadvarietyofrenewableenergieshave tobepromotedbasedonwater,wind, solar,geothermicpotentialsetc.Therefore sociallycompliant,economicreasonableand environmentallycompatiblesolutionsare required. InBavariasolarirradiationisveryhighand suitablesoilisavailablesothatsolarand geothermalenergysourcescouldbeused effectively.DuetoGermanenergysaving policies(‘Energieeinsparverordnung’,EnEV =energysavingordinanceand‘Gesetz zurFörderungErneuerbarerEnergienim Wärmebereich’,EEWärmeG=lawforthe promotionofrenewableenergiesforheatuse) manynewbuildingsuserenewableenergy sources.Atpresent,thereareabout500,000 solarcollectorsand80,000heatpumps installedinBavaria.Additionalinstalmentsin existingbuildingstendtobeapprox.25,000 solarcollectorsand3,000headpumpsper year.TheBavarianGovernmentusesfinancial incentivesandinformationcampaignsto strengthenthesenumberswithaninitiative called“EnergiewendevorOrt”(localenergy transition)whichaimstoencouragelocal andregionalenergysupplierstomultiply investmentsinrenewableenergyplants. Onthedemandside,thebuildingsector accountsforamajorpartoftheenergydemand andrelatedemissions.Thesectorcauses approx.35%oftheemissionsandhasashare of40%ofthetotalenergydemand.Moreover, heatdemandanddomestichotwateraccount for90%oftheseemissions.Althoughinthe last10yearsreductionsindemandhavebeen realised,thepotentialofenergysavingand respectiveemissionavoidancehasnotbeen exploited.Demandbyexistingbuildingsis largeduetohighrenovationcostsandalackof informationongovernmentfundingavailable. Ifthecurrenttrendcontinues,only10%ofthe required20%ofsavingswillberealised;and itwillnotbepossibletoreachthe50%goal in2050.Therefore,Bavariaisgoingtohave tooptimisethesubsidiestopromoteenergyfocusedbuildingrefurbishmentandtoabolish legalbarriers.Forthisreason,thegovernment planstoincreasetheCO2retrofittingprogram oftheKfWbankinggroupbyanother4billion Euro.Furthermore,theprogrammewillbe extendedindurationandapplicability.Tax incentivesarealsoplannedtosupportthe realisationoftheenergysavingpotential. Thecasestudypresentedinthesecondpartof thetextdealswiththedelayofinvestmentsfor theenergytransitionanditsinterrelationwith economicandsocialfactors. Transportaccountedfor38%oftheCO2 in theyear2010intheregion(BavarianOffice forStatistics).Basedonastudybythe EuropeanCommission,publictransportation willincreasebyonethirduntiltheyear2030in Bavariawhichindicatestheneedforefficient, sustainableandclimate-friendlysystems oftransportation.Withinurbanareas,this impliesconcentrationofresidentialareas includingdecreaseofsoilsealingformotorised transportandbetterdistributionofuseinurban structurestoavoidtraffic,sothatinhabitants canreachtheireverydayneedswithinshort distance(“StadtderkurzenWege”,Shortdistancecity).Furthermore,amorewidespread
88 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS andoptimisedurbantransportsystem enhancingbicycleandpedestriantrafficcould transformtrafficflowstomoreclimate-friendly modes.Finally,itisessentialfortheeconomy inBavariatoguaranteethesecurityofenergy supplyespeciallyforthose,whichdevelop future-proofedtechnologiesnexttocompetitive energy prices. 3. CASE STUDY: URBAN LABORATORY NUREMBERG WESTERN CITY Theimpactsofglobalchangeareincreasingly affectingcitiesandurbanagglomerations. Economic,social,technologicalandecological changes,suchasclimatechangeorthe energypolicytransformationsinGermany (‘Energiewende’=energytransition)impose significantchallenges,whichareofmajor importancefortheexistingneighbourhoods andcommunitiesinurbanareas. Theinterdisciplinaryresearchproject‘City LabNurembergWest’atthe‘Technische UniversitätMünchen’(TUM)commissioned bytheCityofNuremberginvestigatedhow theurbandistrictNurembergWesternCity (Figure 4)dealtwiththesechallenges.Themain goalofthestudywastoestablishlong-term strategiesforthedevelopmentofaliveable andsustainablefutureforthisurbandistrict. Theinnovationofthestudyconsistedofthe energyplanningforanurbanstructuretosuit thelocaleconomicandsocialconditionsofthe districtandtoprovidefeasiblestrategiesfor differentconditions.Themainhypothesisofthis approachwasthatasustainableandenergyefficienturbanareaisonlyachievabletaking intoaccountsocialandeconomicaspects. Figure 4 – District of Nuremberg Western City (Zitat) (Author: Isabell Nemeth) Aninterdisciplinaryteamofscientistshasbeen workingtogetheronthe‘UrbanLaboratory NurembergWest’project.Knowledgeof differentworkingmethods,levelsofdetail andreferenceswascrucialtocreateabase fortheinterdisciplinarycollaborationofthe variousdisciplinesandworkareas,suchas urbanplanning,landscapeplanning,resource consumptionandenergyefficiencyand transportplanning. Initial conditions and local situation LocatedintheGermanstateofBavaria,the cityofNuremberghasapopulationof500,000 inhabitants;themetropolitanregionincludes 3.5millioninhabitants.ThedistrictNuremberg WesternCityconnectsNurembergtothe nearbycityofFürth.Ithas20,000inhabitantsin anareaof3.25km2.Nurembergandparticularly itsthedistrictWesternCityhavebeenimpacted byeconomicchangesincethe1970’swhenthe labourmarketdeclinedandthecity’seconomy shiftedfromtraditionalmanufacturing(metal, steel,andtextiles)toothersectorsincluding communications,energytechnology,and consumerelectronics. Astheseeconomicchangesoccurred,former industrialsitesandtheirrelatedinfrastructure havebecomeincreasinglymarginalised. Analoguetotheurbanstructuresgrownduring industrialisation,thestructuresofenergy demandandsupplyarecomplex.Withrespect toenergydemand,thereisalargerangeof buildingtypesreachingfromfarmhouses withanageofseveralhundredyearstohighly energy-efficientnewbuildings.Morethan halfoftheresidentialbuildingsintheareaof NurembergWesternCitywasconstructed before1948.Asaconsequence,façadesare decorativeresultinginchallengeswithregard tothethermalimprovementofthebuilding envelope.Furthermore,asaresultofthe industrialhistoryofthequarter,morethan50% oftheheatedbuildingsarenon-residential, whichmaychangedependingonfuture development. Thelossofeconomicinvestmentandthe traditionalmanufacturingsectorraises questionsabouttheidentityoftheareaand appropriateurbandevelopmentgoals.Along withtheeconomicchangeandtheassociated
GERMANY |89 joblossesandincreasingpovertylevels inNuremberg,plannersmustalsograpple withpressingissuesofsustainabilityand therelated‘Energiewende’,whichrequires ashifttorenewableenergysourcesand themajorrenovationofexistingbuildings andinfrastructure,suchaswater,energy andtransport.Requirementsoftheenergy transition,whilebenefittingtheenvironment, maynegativelyimpactalreadyvulnerable populationgroupsiftheburdenoftheir implementationfallsonthepoor. Objectives and methods Thegoalofthecasestudywastocreatea strategyforthesustainableredevelopment ofNurembergWesternCity.Theemphasis wasplacedonminimisingthedependencyon fossilfuels.Theresultsofthis‘laboratory’are expectedtoenablethecityofNurembergto implementstrategiesforthefuturedevelopment thataddressthesocial,economic,and ecologicalaspectsofsustainability,andare abletobeimplementedbothatanindividual neighbourhoodaswellasonacitywideand evenregionallevel.Usingthisapproach, thestudywillprovidethecitywithfeasible strategiesfordifferentsituationsofurban development.Furthermore,itisintendedto analysehowthisworkcanbeappliedtoother post-industrialcities,regionsandnations. Long term focus Thisstudyhasalong-termfocusuntiltheyear 2050,whichdistinguishesitfromtheusual techniquesofurbanenergyplanningwhich aretypicallymoreshortterm.Thislong-term approachandstrategicplanningarecrucialwith regardtoeconomicfeasibilityandrealisation ofthesemeasuressuchastheinfrastructure ofthecityincludingenergysystems,individual andpublictransport,aswellaswatersupply andsewagesystems.Particularlywithregard tothedevelopmentofkeyprojects,sitesand locations,long-termstrategiesareinevitable, astheshort-termrealisationofsupposedly appropriateprojectsonspecificlocations mightprohibitthefutureviabilityofsustainable projectsintheselocations.Bytheconducting thisprototyperesearch,theaimistobringthe innovationoflong-termanalysisandstrategy developmenttothepracticeofurbanplanning. Thehorizonto2050isasignificantinnovation asusualintegratedurbandevelopmentplans(= IntegriertesStadtentwicklungskonzept,INSEK) onlytakeaccountofamedium-termperiodin future. Todealwiththeuncertaintyinvolvedwithlongtermplanning,threealternativedevelopment pathsforaplausiblefutureweredefined andexamined.Thesedevelopmentpaths representstrategiestowardsasustainableand liveablecitydependentonpossibleeconomic developmentpatterns,whichareeconomic growth,economicstandstilloreconomic decline.Itisimportanttomention,thatineach ofthesethreevisionstheconceptofaliveable citywastakenasanindispensableelementfor thedevelopment.Aspartoftheoverallworkof theUrbanLaboratoryNurembergWesternCity, thesethreedevelopmentpathswereanalysed withregardtothefunctionalaspectsandthe physicaldevelopmentofthispartofthecity,to theimplicationsontheuseofresourcesandto mobilityandtransport. Themodellingandthestochasticsimulation ofthelong-termenergydemandisbased ontheresidentialbuildingstock,whichwas availableasgeo-referenceddatadescribing thebuilding’sfootprints.Thedataalsoincludes informationontheheightofthebuildingsand thusconformtoCityGMLLevel-of-Detail1. Theuseofthedigitalcadastralmapshown in Figure 5allowedtheidentificationhow thebuildingsaresurroundedbyotherbuilt structures–anaspectthathasahighimpact ontheenergydemand.Thiswascombined withinformationontheconstructionage classificationincertainresidentialblocks, whichallowedforthecalculationofthespecific energydemandwithasatisfactoryaccuracy. Figure 5 – Digital cadastral map of Nuremberg Western City (Zitat) (Author: Isabell Nemeth)
90| SMART ENERGY REGIONS Theenergydemandofnon-residential buildingswasbasedonthedetermination oftheirfunctionandfromassigningspecific energyconsumptionsaccordingtotheiruse. Forbothsectors,themodelincludesthe energyconsumptionofallprocessesinside thebuildings.Inresidentialbuildings,thisis derivedfromtheshapeofthebuilding;innonresidentialbuildings,thetypeofthecompany anditsenergyconsumptiondeterminesthe demandofprocessenergy.Furthermore,the modelincludesretrofittingmeasuresbya stochasticapproach.Themethodassignsa probabilitytothedifferentpartsofthebuildings toberenewedandenergeticallyimproved. Withtheexceptionofthelimitationofalackof informationonthespecifictechnicalequipment oftheheatingsystem,thismethodallowsto simulatetheenergydemandforthespecific conditionswithgoodapproximation. Thesustainableandliveableurbandistrict approachrequirestheintegrationofavery widerangeoftopics,suchaseconomy,health, mobility,culture,identity,foodsupply,qualityof thebuiltenvironmentandmanyotheraspects. Asthisresearchprojectcouldnotincludeall thesetopics,focalpointswerechosen,which coverthedimensionsofsustainabilitywith itsmainenergyconsumersinthedomestic andthetransportsector.Significantfactors intheanalysisinclude‘functionality’,‘energy andresourceconsumption’,‘mobility’and ‘urbanquality’.Itbecomesapparentthatmany differentsectorscontributetotheemergence ofacityworthlivingin,bothintermsofcontent aswellasintermsofthevariousadministrative levels,suchasthestate,thecityandthe privatelevel. Thisintersectoralanalysisanddevelopment requiresanintegrativesystemicview. Thedependenciesofthemanyindividual aspects,relatedtothevarioussectorsand disciplinesleadtoacomplexsystemthat needsconsiderationforalong-termurban development.Todetectandinvestigatethe dependenciesofthevariousfactors,amethod ofsystemsmodellingwasdeveloped,which wasbasedonsensitivitymodellingdescribed byFredericVester(2007).Thismethodology servedtodetecttheinfluencesbetween variablesandtrendsofvarioussectorsin anexpertdiscussionatTUMandtomap theireffects.Onthisbasis,aquantitative systemmodelwasdevelopedandsimulated. Experimentswiththissystemsimulationmodel servedtoexaminethefuturedevelopment paths,theirrelationtotheenergyconsumption andemissions,andtheirinvolvedrisks. Thestochasticmodellingandsimulationof thebuildingstockindetailallowedtoidentify thekeyparameterstoreducetheenergy consumptionandtheinteractionswithother sectors,suchasinvestmentsinbuildingand theeconomicurbanconditions. Theexaminationoftheseparametersby stochasticenergysimulationandthesystems modellingledtostrategiesforlowenergyurban regions. System simulation and results Asresultofthestochasticsimulations,four majorparameterscontrollingtheretrofitofthe buildingstockanditsenergyconsumptionand emissionswerefound.Theseparametersare theretrofittingrate,thequalityofthebuilding envelope,thetypeofenergysources,andthe qualityofthebuildingtechnology,whichare presentedbelow. Theretrofittingactivityofimprovingthe buildingenvelopehasanessentialeffecton thereductionoftheheatenergydemandofthe residentialbuildings.However,accordingto Diefenbachetal.(2010)thecurrentretrofitting rateforbuildingsconstructedbefore1978is approximately0.8%p.a.,whichisfarbelow thepotentialpossiblelevel.Foraclimateneutralbuildingstock,adoublingofthe yearlyretrofittingisassumedtobenecessary. Therefore,inthesimulation,theretrofittingrate wasdoubledandanincreaseoftheenergetical retrofittingwastested. Theparameterbuildingenvelopehasalready beensignificantlyincreased,drivenby regulations(‘Energieeinsparverordnung’, EnEV=energysavingordination).Therefore, increasingtherateofbuildingsenvelope improvementislimited.Consideringthe retrofittingrateandbuildingenvelope, simulationsshowthatthedoublingofthe retrofittingrateandanincreaseofthe energeticallyimprovedretrofittingof10% per10yearsusinganenergetichigh-quality
GERMANY |91 buildingenvelopeaccordingtopassive-house standardhasthepotentialtoreducetheheat demandofresidentialbuildingsby44%until theyear2050comparedto2012inNuremberg WesternCity. Theparameterenergysourceisparticularly wellsituatedinNurembergWesternCity. Theareaofthestudycontainsalargedistrict heatingsystem.Ahighshareofheatforthis systemcomesfromthebiomassheating powerplant,Sandreuth,whichassistswitha massivereductionoftheemissions.Thegoal ofreducingtheemissionsby2050requires anincreaseddevelopmentofthisdistrict heatingnetwork.Forthisreason,theshareof connectedbuildingsuntil2050of45%was increasedto65%.Thiseliminatesthesupplyby coal,oil,andelectricityforheatgenerationand thusmassivelydecreasestheemissionswith respectiveeffectontheairquality. Fortheparameter‘qualityofbuilding technology’,potentialenergyuseislimited duetothewide-spreadapplicationofthe condensingboilertechnologyandassociated efficiencyarealreadyachieved.Therefore,the effectivenessofheatgenerationtechnology willnotchangealotby2050.Heatpumpsare theonlyexceptionwiththeirshareintheheat supplyofbuildingsisestimatedtobe8to10%. However,forthisqualityofbuildingtechnology, thepotentialofreducingprimaryenergy demandandrespectiveemissionsislimited duetotheuseoftheGermanelectricitymix. Systemicinterdependenciesareofmajor importance.Thepotentialtoreduceenergy consumptionandemissionislinkedtoother factorsandparametersinthedistrict.For example,theretrofitofabuilding’senvelope requireseconomicinvestmentsinbuildings. Thisleadstoaneedofeconomicactivityto allowingtheinvestments.Theseactivities haveimpactontransportactivitiesandfurther energyconsumptionasconsequence;also, thepotentialforqualityoflifeandofliveability oftheurbanstructureaccompanieseconomic activitiesandinvestmentsespeciallyinthecase ofNurembergWesternCity. Thedevelopmentofamodelfordynamic systemsimulationoftheperioduntil2050 servestocapturetheseinterdependencies. Firstlythestochasticsimulationofthebuilding stock,allowedformodellingthedependency ofthereductionofenergyconsumption Figure 6 – Systems model of the interdependencies of the built environment and urban transport with the social and economic factors of sustainability
92| SMART ENERGY REGIONS dependingoninvestmentsinthebuilding stock.Furthermore,wellknowstudies,such asKenworthyandLaube(1996)andFischer (1985),andstatisticsoftheCityofNuremberg (2012)servedasadatasourcetodevelop thesystemsmodelanditsquantitative interdependencies.Figure 6showsthepartial effectstructureusedintheNurembergWestern Cityproject.Allinterdependenciesshownin thisfigurearequantifiedeitherbythesimulation orbylookingupstatisticaldataorbyother studiesthatarecomparabletoNuremberg WesternCity. Inmostcases,lineardependenciesdescribed byafactoraandanoffsetbservethe modellingoftheseinterdependencies.Onlyin somecases,suchasthelinkofthebuilding quality(V16)tothemixtureofuse(V12), moresophisticatedfunctionsserveforthe modellingofthedependency;thesefunctions aredescribedbytablesincombinationwith interpolation.Thesystemmodelresultingfrom modellingalltheseinterdependenciesprovides thebaseforthesimulationdescribedinthe followingtext. Inthedynamicsystemsimulation, differentexperimentswerecarriedoutto determinethebehaviourofeachofthe threepotentialdevelopmentpathsunder severalcircumstancesandtolearnmore aboutsensitivitiesandrisksofeachofthese developmentpaths.Figure 7 shows the baselineresults(orangeline)ofthepartial simulationmadeforthescenario“Knowledge economyhub”,whichisaneconomichighactivitydevelopmentpath,togetherwithan experiment(blueline).Thepurposeofthis experimentwastheexaminationwhateffecta delayofinvestmentsbytenyearshasonthe developmentofthedistrict.Thisexperiment helpstoassesstheriskthatthedevelopment pathwillfailduetodelayedinvestments. Furthermore,itdeterminesthesensitivityofthe energyconsumptioninthedevelopmentpath tothisrisk. Intheresultsoftheexperimentshownin Figure 7,thedependenceofthebuilding quality(V16)ontheinvestments(V1)isclearly shown.Buildingqualityincreasesonlyincase ofinvestments.Theseinvestmentsarebased oneconomicprosperity.However,theuser activity(V68)andtherespectivetransport connectedtothiseconomicprosperitylead toenergyconsumptions(V3a)nearlylevelling outtheenergysavingsofretrofittedbuildings. However,theincreaseduseractivityand amorepleasantbuiltenvironmentcause asignificantbetterfulfilmentofindividual interests(V14),theinhabitantsandworking peoplearemorecontent.Therefore,an economicsanestatecanleadtoamore liveableurbanenvironment. Outcomes Thedevelopedmethodsimprovetheenergy efficiencyofurbanstructuresconsidering theinteractionwithitssocialandeconomic conditionsandwiththespecificconditionsof urbanplanning,whichtheapplicationinthe casestudyshows.Thisanalysisprovidesa basetoevidencethatstrategiesarerealisable withinaspecificurbanenvironment.One importantprerequisiteforthedeliveryofthe projectwastheclosecollaborationbetween thedifferentinvolveddisciplinesatTUMand withthecityofNuremberg.Furthermore, theidentificationofinteractions,interfaces andsystemicinterdependencieshelpedto understandthecross-sectoralbehaviour oftheurbanstructureandthusinfluences onitsenergy-efficiencyandtheemissions. Mainbarriersforthedeliveryoftheproject wereregulationsofdataprotectionanddata monopoliesofenergysuppliers.Insummary, theprojectshowedthattheeconomicand socialconditionsofanurbanquarterare importantdriversoftheenergytransition. Furthermore,itisrequiredtoimplement energy-efficiencyandsustainabilityasspecific measuresinurbanplanningtoenabletheir realisation. 4. CONCLUSIONS NurembergWesternCitytypicallyrepresents urbanbuildingstockinBavaria.Thestructure isfrequentlyfoundinnon-centredistricts. Theageoftheresidentialbuildingsisslightly higherwithahigherproportionbuiltbefore 1948.Furthermore,thebuildingstockofthe casestudy’sdistrictisinapoorercondition comparedtotheBavarianaverage.Incontrast, thegoodenergysupplyinfrastructurewithinthe
GERMANY |93 casestudydistrict,namelythehighshareof renewableheatenergyfrombiomass,andthe façadedecoration,bothreducingthepotential offutureenergyefficiencymeasures,which partlyreducesoptionsofenergy-efficiency measures,compensateforthispotentialbias. Therefore,atransferofthecasestudytothe region–limitedtotheurbanstructures–seems appropriate. Themethodofcombinedsystemsmodelling andsimulationformsanintegrativeapproach thatisdeemednecessarytomodeland planarealenergytransitionforspecificbuilt structures.Duetotheinterdependencies ofenergy-efficiencyandemissionson technological,social,andeconomicconditions, across-sectoralapproachisrequired.The detailedstochasticsimulationofthebuilding stockandofitsretrofittingprocessallowsthe correctdeterminationofitsenergy-efficiency potential.Theinclusionofinvestmentsinthe buildingstockandfurthereconomicandsocial factorsfromotherstudiesallowforthelinkage totherelevantfactorsforurbanstructures. Theabstractionandaggregationinasystems modelleadtointegrativeconclusions.Wethink suchasystem-basedapproachisnecessaryto examinethesectorsofurbanstructuresinan integrativeway,toassesspotentialscorrectly andtodevelopfeasiblewell-performing strategiesforasustainableandliveablebuilt environment.Thisnotonlyconcernscitiesof BavariaorGermanybuturbanstructuresin generalasmanyenergyissuesincitieshavea multi-sectoralcharacter. 5. REFERENCES CityofNuremberg(2012). http://www.daten.statistik.nuernberg.de, accessedMay2013,anddatamadeavailable bythecityadministrationrestrictedtothe projectpurposeonly. Diefenbach,N.,Cischinsky,H.,Rodenfels, &Clausnitzer,K.(2010).Datenbasis Gebäudebestand.Datenerhebungzur energetischenQualitätundzuden Modernisierungstrendsimdeutschen Wohngebäudebestand.1.edn.Darmstadt: InstitutWohnenundUmwelt(IWU)andBremer EnergieInstitut(BEI). EEWärmeG,GesetzzurFörderung ErneuerbarerEnergienimWärmebereich’, http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/eew_rmeg/ index.html,accessedOct2013. Energieeinsparverordnung, http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/enev_2007/ index.html,accessedOct2013 FederalStatisticalOffice2012.EnEV,Available: https://www.statistik.bayern.de. FederalWorkingGroupofEnergyBalances 2013. Umweltplanung:dargestelltamBeispiel Hamburg”,Göttingen. Available:http://www.lak-energiebilanzen.de. Fischer,J.H.(1985),“Stadtentwicklungund GovernmentofBavaria(2011): BavarianEnergyStrategy, http://www.bayern.de/Anlage10344945/ BayerischesEnergiekonzeptEnergieinnovativ. pdf,accessedMay2013. Kenworthy,J.R.,Laube,F.B.(1999). “Patternsofautomobiledependenceincities: aninternationaloverviewofkeyphysicaland economicdimensionswithsomeimplications forurbanpolicy”,TransportationResearchPart A:PolicyandPractice,Vol.33,No.7–8, pp.691–723. VesterF.(2007).Theartofinterconnected thinking:ideasandtoolsforanewapproach totacklingcomplexity,MalikManagement, München.
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GREECE | 101 This action plan includes: • demand side management; • information campaign; • improved consumer installations at connection points and internally at the customers; • recommendations to tariff system improvements; • training of the operation staff; • design and quality assurance with installation of accumulator plant of 3000 m3 including operation and SCADA system; • pre-feasibility study for district cooling systems based on absorption cooling (district heating) and mechanical cooling system. Long term focus A Regional Innovation Pole (Best Practice Report, 2010) has been developed in order to cope up with the future challenges. The Regional Pole of Innovation of Western Macedonia (RPIWM) is a union of institutions from private and wider public sector that aim to increase: • the technological and innovative regional records; • the creation of environment of innovation and regional conscience in Western Macedonia in the main axe of Energy; • the increase of competitiveness of regional economy. The institutions that participate in this effort and, under the auspices of the Region of Western Macedonia, constitute a network of collaboration, are the following: • University of Western Macedonia; • ISFTA /CPERI; • polytechnic colleges in Kozani; • laboratories of research of higher education Institutions and polytechnic colleges; • developmental companies; • enterprises and teams of enterprises; • chambers and Contacts of enterprises. The target of the Pole is the reinforcement of regional competitiveness, via the strengthening of research, technological and innovative actions of the Region, as well as the reinforcement of activities of institutions and enterprises in these areas. The Regional InnovationPoleidentifiedthefollowingpriority areas: A.1 Environmental management and support of PPC ’s operational decisions system for the region of Kozani, Ptolemaida, Amyntaio and Florina. A.2 Advanced measures for the improvement of operation of lignite based power plants and for reduction of CO2 emissions. A.3 Co-combustion of secondary fuels (biomass) with lignite in a power plant. A.4 Pilot application of use of cube blocks with highcontentinflyingash. A.5 Development and evaluation of innovative catalytic systems for hydrogen production from biogas. A.6 Promotion of exploitation of wind energy in the region of Western Macedonia. A.7 Development and manufacture of solar air conditioning devices with small power consumption. A.8 Study for energy savings and the optimal use of energy at small medium enterprises. The long-term objectives of RPI of West Macedonia include the following aspects: • support of demand from SME’s of “wider” region of products of research and promotion of technological activities in the enterprises themselves; • institutional support of the technological, organisational and commercial problems that enterprises face; • creation of excellent regional conditions of attracting individual and legal entities, with the existence and maintenance of possibility of access in satisfactory energy inquiring infrastructure and installations of high technology, in IT networks, banks of information, libraries etc; •creationoffavourablefinancingenvironment for the growth of institutions of research and technology with the creation of collaboration andfinancingbyGreekandforeignerbanking orotherfinancinginstitutionsandventure capital companies. Outcomes The District Heating (DH)System in Kozani has resulted not only in abatement of air emissions, but the scheme also brought positive economic and social impacts, including a reduction in energybills.Tobemorespecific,sincethe
102 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS district heating system was set in operation in1993,thefollowingbenefitstothecityof Kozani, its residents as well as the national economy, have been reported: • the operation of the DH system has contributedsignificantlytothereduction of gaseous and particles emissions and especially in a city which is greatly affected by the 60-years old neighbouring lignite industry; • the operation of the DH system substitutes yearly more than 20,000 tons oil equivalent, withanobviousbenefitforthenational economy; • for every resident there is an annual saving of €70 from the use of DH system instead of oil. Consequently, the city of Kozani provides disposable income €2,900,000 per year; • the operation of the DH system provides potential for further development of the are in the primary and secondary sectors of the economy (e.g. greenhouses or special plantations. The district heating system in Kozani has asignificantcontributiontothereduction of gas emissions during the winter period, particularly in smoke concentration and in SO2 concentration. Based on data collected from the Municipal enterprise of Ptolemaida, the average smoke concentration in the air during January 1988 (before DH) was 58 μg/ m3, while in January 1995 (after DH) was 13 μg/ m3. The equivalent values for SO2 were 55 μg/ m3 and 19 μg/m3 respectively. As for Kozani the average smoke concentration in the air during January of 1988 was 62 μg/m3, while in January 1995 it was 22 μg/m3 (District Heating Company of Kozani, 2002). The relevant values for SO2 were 170 μg/m3 and 15 μg/m3 (Figure 9). There is also a reduction in CO2 emissions reaching approximately 45% compared to 1990 levels (www.tpt.gr). The sulphur contained in heating oil and alsothedeficientcombustionconditionsin small central heating boilers in towns are to a large extent the factors responsible for the concentration of sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter in the towns’ atmosphere which have adverse effects on public health and also at the environment. The pricing policy of the district heating company in the town of Kozani since its operation was determined by the following factors: • the legal status and the public welfare character of the companies; • their economic viability; • the attraction of new customers to their district heating networks; •thecoveringofthefinancialandoperating requirementsofthecompanies,andfinally; • the parameters which determine the energy market on a national level and especially the cost of diesel oil. Figure 9 – Average smoke and sulphur oxides air concentration, before (red) and after (blue) the operation of the DH Bearing in mind the above, the selling price of thermal energy for the companies’ consumers is about 65% of its production cost using heatingoil.Todeterminethefinalcost,the length of the heating period – 7 months – and theefficiencyofboilers(0.85–0.90%)were takenintoconsideration.Inpractice,thebenefit for consumers so far from the operation of the installation has been more than 40% if we take into account the fact that the boilers which were replaced were old and poorly maintained andthereforeinefficient. 4. CONCLUSIONS There is a variety of studies document the environmentalbenefitsofDistrictHeating. For instance the Ecoheatcool (Ecoheatcool, 2006) study supported by the European Commissionconfirmsthepossibilityofsaving an extra 404 million tons of CO2 annually (additional to the 113 million tons/year avoided by DH in 2003) in the time horizon 2020 by doubling and improving District Heating across
GREECE | 103 32 European countries. At the same time, higherenergyefficiencywillreduceprimary energy supply by 2.6% (2003) or 2,1 EJ (50,7 Mtoe)/year (equal to primary energy supply of Sweden). Increased security of supply will reduce the import dependency by 4,5 EJ (105,4 Mtoe)/year (equal to primary energy supply of Poland). In this respect, the implementation of district heating system in the Region of West Macedonia will bring environmental,economicandsocialbenefits. In addition, the creation of environmental, social and technical mechanisms of undertaking the research and confrontation of technological, organisational and commercial problems that occupy the enterprises via the Regional Innovation Pole will certainly play a crucial role in the Region’s sustainable energy development. This is in alliancw to the context of the objectives set in the European Commission’s Europe 2020 strategy and specificallytheInnovationUnionflagship action, the Regional Innovation Monitor Plus (RIM Plus), which provides a unique platform for sharing knowledge and know-how on major innovation policy trends in European Union (EU) regions. Based on the work of a network of experts, RIM Plus provides detailed information on regional innovation policies for 20 EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom (Region Innovation Monitor Plus). Having begun over 20 years ago the Kozani District heating system is an example of a sustainable mechanism to reduce air pollution and dependency on oil while increasing the overallefficiencyofpowerstationsbyexploiting the Combined Heat and Power approach. Economicandsocialbenefitsaredirectly related to the end user aiding its acceptability among the population. It is proposed that a numberofEuropeanregionsthatfitthepattern of power stations near moderately populated cities could implement the scheme and reap environmental,economicandsocialbenefits. 5. REFERENCES Wikipedia: http://el.wikipedia.org /wiki/%CE%9A%CE% BF%CE%B6%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE% B7 Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2011: http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ ESYE Regulatory Authority for Energy, 2013 : www.rae.gr Institute for Solid Fuels Technology and Applications (ISFTA): http://www.lignite.gr/en/ Joint Research Center – JRC, 2013 : http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/ C. Koroneos, E.Nanaki, G.Xydis (2011), “Greenhouse Gases Emissions and the Energy System of Greece”, Proceedings of the Global Conference on Global Warming 2011 11 – 14 July, 2011, Lisbon, Portugal. “Ministry of Environment Energy and Climate Change,” Annual Inventory Submission under the Convention and the Kyoto Protocol for greenhouse and other gases for the years 1990 – 2008”, 2009. Ministry of Environment Energy and Climate Change, NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY ACTION PLAN IN THE SCOPE OF DIRECTIVE 2009/28/EC, (NREA). Koroneos, C. and Nanaki, E. “Measuring Greece’s progress towards energy sustainability ”, Int. Journal of Global Energy Issues, Vol. 27, issue 1, pp.77 – 101, 2007ª. Koroneos, C. and Nanaki, E., “Environmental assessment of the Greek transport sector”, Energy Policy 35:5422-5432, 2007b. Balaras C., Gaglia A. et al, European residential buildings and empirical assessment of the Hellenic building stock, energy consumption, emissions and potential energy savings. Journal Building and Environment vol.42, no.3, pp.1298 – 1314, 2007. Healy, J.D., “Housing conditions, energy efficiency,affordabilityandsatisfactionwith housing: a pan-European analysis”. Housing Studies 18, no.3, pp. 409 – 424, 2003. Koroneos C., Nanaki E. and Xydis G., “Solar Air Conditioning systems and their
104 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS applicability – An exergy approach”, Journal of Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 55, Issue 1, pp. 74 – 82. Grontmij :www.grontmij.co.uk Hellenic Republic Ministry of Development, (2008), Assessment of the national potential for combined heat and power in Greece. I3E Consortium, Best Practice Report, 2010, “Regional Innovation Pole of the Region of Western Greece”. Ptolemaida District Heating :www.tpt.gr Ecoheatcool, 2006, “ Possibilities with more district heating in Europe”, Brussels. Region Innovation Monitor Plus: https:// webgate.acceptance.ec.europa.eu/ENTR/ rim_cp/
HUNGARY | 105 AUTHORS Ákos Nemcsics Óbuda University Tavaszmezo utca 17, H-1084 Budapest Ildikó Molnár, Szent István University Thököly út, H-1146, Budapest Antal Ürmös Óbuda University, Tavaszmezo utca 17, H-1084 Budapest 1 OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region The region of Vasvár presented in this case study is located in Vas County in the Western part of the country, which is one of the 19 counties of Hungary. The region of Vasvár is one of the 7 regions of Vas County and is considered to be a medium-sized region (see Figure 1) (1). Figure 1 – Illustration of the Vasvár region as a part of Vas County, which is located in west part of Hungary Hungary covers an area of 93,000 km2 and has a population of approximately ten million inhabitants. Vas County has a territory of 3,336 km2 and it has a population of 261,569 inhabitants (21). Its centre is Szombathely. The Vasvár region is part of Vas County and its territory is 474 km2. It has a population of 14,395 (TEIR, 2010) inhabitants. With 36 inhabitants/km2, the population density is the lowest in the county. Its centre is Vasvár, which is an old historic town. Although initially Vasvár used to be the center of the whole county, nowadays it is the smallest town in Vas County but it has kept its leading cultural role. Other towns in Vas County include Sárvár, Körmend, Celldömölk, Koszeg and Szentgotthárd. The employment rate of the region is good (60%) in comparison to other regions of Hungary. While the unemployment rate in the Eastern part of the country exceeds 20 %, it is below 5% in Vasvár region. GDP per capita in Hungary reaches €10,168. GDP in the Western regions is higher than in the Eastern regions, similarly to the employment rate. The reason this region has been selected is that there are a large number of adobe houses. We have dealt with the renovation of these houses and its impacts on the environment. Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, water, and some kind of fibrous orrganic material (branches, straw, and/or manure), which the builders shape into bricks (using frames) and dry out in the sun. The structure made from these materials is very solid and long-lasting. In Vasvár region this building method has a long history. The building technology is very similar to the technology of moulded wand and slide-jalousie reinforced concrete. The renovation of these houses is not only important from the perspective of the cultural heritage but also from the energy saving aspect as well. Instead of building new houses and demolishing the existing ones, renovating them can result in energy saving and reduced CO2 emission. Figure 2 presents the distribution of building materials within the building stock Due to cheap, local raw materials and good physical properties (thermal and humidity balance effect) adobe architecture has become fashionable again. Houses have been built with this material mainly in Europe but adobe HUNGARY
106 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS walled buildings (churches, research institutes, etc.) are common in Africa or Asia as well. The building technology using adobe walls is very diverse (17,18). Figure 2 – Houses in Hungary according to the building material. A large number of the buildings are from adobe At present, Szombathely is the administrative and economic centre of Vas County. In the past it used to be Vasvár, while nowadays, Vasvár is the smallest town in Vas County. The interrelation of the settlements can be investigated with the help of the measure of complexity. Hence we are going to examine the Vasvár region. We have already described our research in our earlier publications (26, 27). The results of our research can help us in the planning of sustainability. The sizes vs. sequence number graphs are showed in Figure 3. Figure 3 – The sizes vs. sequence number graphs for Vasvár regions. The meaning of the symbols are inserted in the figure Area, population, distances in bee line and motorway, and node degree exponents are calculated for the region (2, 3). The exponents for Vasvár are also in sequence: -5.471x101, -7.852x10-1, -1.999x10-1, -1.989x10-1, -5.012x10-1, respectively.) You can clearly see that the steepnesses are nearly similar, thus the settlement structures are unified. Although Vasvár has lost its role as an economical centre, it has preserved its role as a cultural centre. Energy demand and supply of the Region The percentage of the energy demand in the region is in accordance with the national average (Figure 4). Hungary has more industrialised parts mainly around larger cities or in the Northern middle mountains. There are also agricultural areas where energy varies. The Vasvár region is closer to the average in this perspective. The pie chart below illustrates the percentage of the energy demand (4 – 9). Figure 4 – Distribution of the primary energy demand among the main user sectors. The energy demand of the residential buildings is very important The energy demand of residential buildings accounts for 33% of the total. This value depends on the quality and the type of the buildings. The structure of the settlements influences the type and also the quality of residential buildings. The comparison of the town vs. village ratio is shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 – The structure of the settlements influences the type of residential buildings
HUNGARY | 107 2. CURRENT SITUATION: TARGETS RELATED TO ENERGY POLICY Setting and meeting the targets related to energy policy is primarily based measures of CO2 emissions. Figure 6 illustrates the trend for CO2 emissions changes from 1970 to 2010, including the breakdown for the main sources of emissions (6 – 9). Figure 6 – CO2 emissions of Hungary. The black solid line shows the total amount of pollution. The dotted lines represent the contributions from different primary fuels. The red, green and blue lines represent coal, rockoil, and natural-gas, respectively. CO2 pollution was 48x106 tons. 31% originated from the production of electricity and heat; 27% from traffic, transport; 21% from industrial source; 17% from communal sector; 13% from other sources. The data relates to all of Hungary but it applies to all the region as well. The utilisation of renewable energy sources is very low. The major aim for the future is to use solar energy for water heating in a more efficient way in the region. In this region, the use of solar energy for heating purpose or electric energy is not yet widespread. This can be explained by the fact that the population of the region simply cannot afford it. The region is rich in forests, which are full of wood waste that can be used to operate machines run by biomass. The main aims of the Hungarian energy policy include security of supply, sustainability and competitiveness. The priority of environmental issues and the adjustment to the aims of the EU are emphasised. In order to create a balanced structure of the energy resources, the proportion of domestic energy resources needs to be increased as much as possible. One of the keys to achieve technological development is supporting education and R&D in the field of energy in Hungary. (28, 29) Other important objectives include reducing energy consumption per unit, increasing the proportion of energy gained from waste and supporting environmentally-friendly technologies. It is important to harmonise the Hungarian energy policy with climate policies. By funding the production of fuels made from renewable energy resources, the transport policy can also became more environmentally friendly. One must also take into consideration the importance of funds provided by the state and the EU so that we could achieve these goals. In the public sector it is also essential to increase environmental awareness by introducing environmental studies into the National Curriculum. By building awareness, it is possible that the population might start to reduce its energy consumption. Other Regional targets, barriers and drivers A guideline of the European Parliament and Council 2006/32/EK (ESD) imposes an energy efficiency action plan (NEEAP)* that each member country has to draw up. This action plan outlines all of the running and planned measures of energy efficiency, which will make it possible to reduce energy consumption in Hungary by ca. 10 % in the span of nine years between 2008-2016 (28, 29). The action plan is crucial to achieve the reduction of energy consumption by 20 % until 2020 imposed by the European Union. As a result it will also be possible to reduce the GHG emissions by 20 %. The action plan involves the following areas: the construction requirements of new buildings; the number of residential buildings; the number of communal buildings (especially buildings owned by the state and local councils); education; transportation; public transport; and technologies which can influence the volume of the energy demand. It is clear that residential buildings are of primary importance therefore our case study also reflects on this issue.
108 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS In the public sector the process includes keeping and controlling the energetic regulations of buildings and restricting gradually these regulations. Renewing the buildings of the public sector in view of energy efficiency is of absolute priority. It can demonstrate the state’s commitment towards environmental issues, and it can make energy saving and efficiency campaigns and programs more credible. It can also lead to energy saving, more efficient budget management and more efficient leadership. In the transport sector the following energy policies have been introduced: in order to reduce freight traffic, road tariffs have been imposed on freight vehicles, and the P+R system has been developed to encourage commuters to use public transport. In addition to a more sensible transport system, it is also important to create better transport ethics. A major advantage of this area is that it holds geothermal water at 78°C at 2,100 m below the ground surface. This geothermal water is used in district heating and in thermal baths. The utilised heat energy in 2010 was 13,386 GJ/ year which from thermal water was 3,951 (GJ/ year). The major aim for the future is to utilise more efficiently their available geothermal water resources (23). 3. CASE STUDY: SOME ASPECTS OF THE REGIONAL BUILDING STOCK As the arguments above illustrate, one of the most important factors for energy demand in Hungary is the building stock (10 – 14). In the region that we have studied, the number of adobe houses is substantial. and they are also part of the cultural heritage. In this case study we will look at how it is possible to meet energy efficiency requirements while protecting the cultural heritage. Adobe houses are only known in certain parts of Europe. This is a traditional building method which fits in the local environment perfectly. Walls are contructed with hard composite materials, which made of local resources. Figure 7 – Energy saving potential in the case of different types of buildings. (A) traditional cottage in a village, (B) a detached house in the suburbs of a city or in the country side, (C) in a block of flats of the city centre, (D) a block of flats mainly in suburbs built in the socialist era. The blue cubes represent the total primary energy consumption per year (in PJ), the yellow cubes represent the energy saving potential (in PJ) Despite 73% of the European population living in towns (23 – 25), this value is is only 64% in Hungary. The energy demand for different building types is also different. In the region of our case study, the proportion of the rural population of villages is even higher and they live in adobe houses. Therefore the solution to this problem is a major architectural and energetic task. In the Figure 7 we illustrate the possible volume of energy saving comparing different types of buildings. Buildings and houses in Hungary according to the building material is shown in Figure 6. Energy consumption and saving potential in the case of different building types are shown in Figure 5. There are two types of houses in a village. We can mention the village of Kám as a typical example in this region. The number of
HUNGARY | 109 adobe houses in poorer villages (e.g. Csipkerek) is higher than in wealthier villages (e.g. Alsóújlak). One of the buildings is the traditional rural house (A) built from adobe or brick. The other one is a conventional detached house (B) built from a new type of brick. The third one is a traditional block of flats built from bricks (C). There are three types of the residential buildings in the Vasvár. The fourth one is a block of flats built from reinforced concrete (built in the socialist era). Houses built with adobe walls are very popular in the Hungarian vernacular architecture and are particularly characteristic in the region of our case study. A large number of buildings are built with this material. Objectives and methods The aim is to preserve houses built from adobe, representing Hungary’s cultural heritage by renovating and making them environmentally friendly and comfortable. This can only be achieved if the people living in these houses do not consider them outdated and obsolete, so they will notbuild another house (15 – 17). In addition to technological aspects, cultural aspects – changes in the way of thinking – are also essential. In our investigation Life Cycle Assessment has an important role as well. Long term focus Sustainability has to be taken into account in the long term. However, preserving and renovating old houses and buildings is more important in the short term. Long term sustainability can be problematic as houses made of adobe walls need more care than brick walled houses. However using state of the art materials, one can make these houses modern, so that and additional care is not required. Preserving cultural heritage definitely supports long term solutions. Discussions It is possible to build houses with bricks dried in the sun but the sliding frame solution is also a possibility. The fleckered – plastered structure within the frame is also another possible solution. All of these three technologies used to be common in vernacular architecture in Hungary. Nowadays, only the first two solutions are mainly used. Stokers built with adobe walls are also very common. There are more types of adobe houses. The most common one is the adobe brick dried in the sun, which is used to build traditional brick walls. Another common wall is the wicker built on a wooden structure, which is covered with clay. We also mentioned in the introduction the technique of slided form-work similar to the monolitic reinforced concrete. This is the most common technique. Adobe wall architecture is excellent in the Hungarian climate because winters are cold and summers are hot. It is necessary to store the heat. Due to global warming summers are getting hotter, thus the heat storage capacity of newly built brick and lightweight houses is not needed. As a result, many air conditioners are installed in newly built houses. Wellinsulated lightweight houses are appropriate in the North and in mountainous areas where the temperature does not exceed 20-25 oC in summer. Hungarian climate changed sensibly in the past 25 – 30 years. In summer, it is very common that temperatures rise above 35 oC. Earlier temperatures above 30 oC were unusual and were considered to be tremendously hot. Local people are not accustomed to the new warmer climate , thusthey use air conditioners more often. Unfortunately, air conditioners are not operated by solar cells but by mains electricity, which leads to high CO2 emissions and contributes to global warming. Therefore, the characteristics of adobe homes are favourable to changes in the climate. Figure 8 – Comparison of the life cycle of original adobe walled houses and brick walled houses substituted the original buildings
110 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS In winter, only heating demand requires energy in the case of adobe houses. In the case of newly-built houses, demolishing the old house, constructing the new house and heating/ cooling the space all require additional energy (Figure 8). The environmental impacts of adobewalled houses are lower than those of brick houses (which were built to replace them) since adobewalled houses need heating only in winter. In summer the indoorclimate is very comfortable. Newly built houses are likely to need less heating in winter because they have better insulation. However, in summer the building can often be very warm inside. We can conclude that adobe walled houses have good energetic performance (16 – 20). Finally the demolition of adobe walled houses and the construction of new houses both need additional energy (Figure 8). Figure 9 – Results of LCA analysis We conducted an LCA analysis with the help of the software “Gabi” (30). The results related to CO2 emission generated by heating and cooling are shown in Figure 9. Unfortunately, adobewalled houses are associated with poverty and underdevelopment in Hungary. Therefore, most people have them demolished and have brick houses built instead. Among the educated population, building adobe-walled houses has become fashionable again. People educated with higher education are more concerned with the environment and they are looking for healthier and more environmentally-friendly solutions. Nowadays many publications have been written about adobe clay architecture but unfortunately not enough to change the public attitude. Outcomes and results The most important argument against adobewall buildings in the past was they are quite uncomfortable, however this objection is nowadays no longer valid as high-tech building technologies (e.g. water-tightness) have eliminated this disadvantage. Sometimes the dwellers feel embarrassed that they live in an adobe building, therefore they shape and plaster the appearance of their house, as if the wall is made of brick. Although the excellent physical features of the building remain, the value of the cultural heritage is lost. The main enemy of such an adobe wall building is water (rain, splashed water and ground water). The walls are susceptible of becoming wet if van der Wall forces between Sum-micron particles keep the building materials together instead of chemical bonds. As a result of the humidity, the bonding force weakens. The most important aspect is the roof structure and the cover of the house, which have to be perfectly built. There are several solutions on the market available for water insulation against ground water, including pressed metal plate built-in into the wall, different chemicals inserted into several drilled holes etc. This solution can be achieved individually. Bevel holes must be drilled into the wall above the ground-wall and they have to be filled with chemicals. The chemicals are absorbed by the wall and thus insulate it. It is a cheap and simple solution. In many cases, there is need to renew neglected buildings. Continuous rain and damaged roof can crack the wall; therefore humidity must be eliminated to save the wall. Inorder to stop the wire ropes are fixed to the wall. The fragile surface of the adobe wall cannot hold any painting or plaster, hence there will must be a thin wire mesh fixed on it with large nails, and it must be plastered with a thin layer in a traditional manner. The building with the renewed adobe wall will be more energy efficient and healthy (e.g. humidity balancing), furthermore its traditional space enables a very calming mood.
IRELAND | 117 The average annual energy-related CO2 emissions in the period 2008 – 2011 were 40 Mt, or 34% above 1990 levels (in 2011 it was = 37 Mt or 23% above 1990 levels) (SEAI, 2012a). In 2013, Ireland reaffirmed its commitment to reach the 20% energy savings and 20% renewables by 2020 in its second National Energy Efficiency Action Plan (NEEAP) to 2020, published in February 2013 (DCENR, 2013b). In total the NEEAP outlines 97 actions to meet the targets across six areas: Public Sector, Residential, Business, Transport, Energy Supply, and Cross-Sectoral. In accordance with the European Directive 2006 (EC, 2006) and recognising that they should act as an exemplar the Government has set specific energy savings targets of 33% in the public sector. Ambitious targets have been proposed for the domestic sector. Although specific targets are not outlined, the Residential Energy Roadmap proposes that the average energy consumption of Irish dwellings could be reduced by 60 – 65% (8,000-9,000 kWh) with continued energy efficiency retrofit programmes, first initiated in 2009 (SEAI, 2013a). It is further proposed that total residential CO2 emissions could be reduced by up to 90% by 2050 with an extensive programme of energy efficiency retrofit and deployment of renewable energy. The Government has set a target of 12% renewable heat biomass and geothermal by 2020. Renewable energy contribution to thermal energy (RES-H) was 4.8% in 2011 (SEAI, 2012a). With regard to renewable energy (RE) policy, under Directive 2009/28/EC, Ireland has committed to a binding renewable energy target of 16% of energy demand, by 2020. The National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) sets out measures to deliver this target across three sectors of energy infrastructure, electricity, transport and heating. NREAP sets a target of 40% of electricity production must come from renewable sources. To meet the RES-E 40% target Ireland will need to add approximately 275MW of wind energy per year between 2013 and 2020 (IWEA, 2013). Total renewable energy supply grew, from 168 ktoe (1.95TWh) to 680 ktoe (7.91TWh) between 1990 and 2010, an increase of 305% (7.2% per year on average) over the period (SEAI, 2012b). In 2011, renewable energy grew by 24% to 782 ktoe (9.1TWh) equating to 6.4% of Ireland’s gross final energy use. It is clear that a substantial transformation of the RE infrastructure will have to happen to meet the targets. Irelands GHG emissions for 2011 was 57 MtCO2eq, a reduction of 6.7% from 2010 GHG Figure 6 – GHG emissions share in Ireland in comparison with the EU-27 (2005 data) (Image taken from Chiodi et al., 2013)
118 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS levels. Ireland’s GHG emissions totalled 62.3 MtCO2eq in 2009. This is a decrease from 2005 levels of 69 MtCO2eq, however, in contrast to the EU generally Ireland’s GHG emissions have increased since 1990. A 24% increase is observed between 1990 and 2005 (Chiodi et al., 2013), the years of significant economic growth in Ireland. The reasons for the 2011 reduction include the recession and consequent drop in cement production. However, the increase in the use of wind energy, and changes in vehicle taxation to encourage the use of lower emissions vehicles have also been significant drivers along with milder winter weather. Agriculture remains the single biggest contributor to overall emissions, making up 32% of the total in 2011. Agriculture contributes to global balances of greenhouse gases (GHGs) through emissions of nitrous oxide and methane and through emissions and/ or sequestration of carbon dioxide. Other Regional targets, barriers and drivers Bioenergy is identified in Ireland’s NREAP as having a significant role to play in the production of electricity, transport and heat. The government has set a target for peat power stations to achieve 30% co-firing with biomass by 2015, replacing approximately 900,000 energy tonnes of peat nationally. This is a dependable renewable electricity supply that will help to balance the intermittent supply from wind. Edenderry Power Station, commissioned in 2000, is a 128 MW (gross) baseload, 117.6 MW (net) output plant. The modern bubbling fluidised bed boiler technology, which allows a multi-fuel capability, consumes just over 1 million tonnes (7.7PJ) of fuel each year. The normal bed temperature of the boiler is 9100C. The plant incorporates a sulphur dioxide abatement system, electrostatic precipitator for dust removal and seven forced draft cooling towers. Co-firing trials using sawdust and woodchips commenced in 2002, but it was not until 2008 when final planning consent to permit co-firing was obtained that commercial co-firing commenced. The amount of renewable electricity (RES-E) generated has increased steadily over the period, as shown in Table 1, from 15,200 MWh in 2008 (≈2% co-firing) to 193,800 MWh in 2013. (≈26% co-firing). Achieving 30% co-firing by 2015 which will replace 300,000 energy tonnes of peat, yield ≈258,000 tonnes of CO2 abatement and produce ≈227500 MWh RES-E at the plant looks certain to be achieved. Barriers exist within the biomass industry. Currently there are over 3,000 hectares of energy crops grown in Ireland. However, the market is immature and often the outlet is not within a viable transport distance. Bord Na Mona state that haulage costs outside a 120km radius of their Edenderry Plant is rendering crops uneconomic for producers. Beyond 2015 there is potential to replace 500,000 energy tonnes per year. The plant has a considerable tolerance for both particle size (< 40 mm) and moisture content (10 – 60% for individual biomass materials and 45 – 55% for peat & biomass fuel blend) of biomass materials. The biomass will come from three principal sectors: Irish forests, energy crops and imported agro-industrial residues such as palm kernel shells, almond shells and olive stones. It is recognised that close monitoring and control of the biomass chemical parameters and the ash melting characteristics is required. Willow is preferred as an energy crop over miscanthus owing to the high chlorine content of the latter which affects the efficient running of the plant. The National Renewable Energy Action Plan (NREAP) has factored 75 MW installed capacity with an expected gross electricity generation of 230 GWh from ocean energy into the modelled scenario to meet the binding 2020 targets. This is in expectation of technological and commercial viability by then. The Irish Department of Energy and Natural Resources (DCENR) has developed a Draft Offshore Renewable Energy Development Plan which describes the policy context for development in Irish waters of offshore wind, wave and tidal. However, conflicting views exist to the possible technical success and benefit to the Irish energy sector of these technologies. Some studies have predicted that a fully developed ocean energy sector here could be worth €9 billion (SQW, 2013). However, a recent
IRELAND | 119 Marine Renewables Industry Association study said the technology challenges faced by ocean energy, particularly in the wave field, coupled with the slow pace of policy development and implementation, make these projections unlikely (MRIA, 2013). A 1.2 MW tidal energy device has been operating successfully since 2008 in Strangford Lough in Northern Ireland. One driver for reducing GHG is the focus on energy retrofits in the domestic sector. The government has to date invested €230 million in the retrofit of 139,000 Irish homes. This is expected to bring 950 GWh of saving by 2020. It is proposed that total residential CO2 emissions could be reduced by up to 90% by 2050 with an extensive programme of energy efficiency retrofit (Roadmap 2012). Along with the inadequate transmission grid earlier discussed, a second significant limiting factor to Ireland energy sustainability is the lack of power storage facilities in the state (DCENR, 2013b). The Electricity Supply Board (ESB) runs a single pumped storage facility. Others have been proposed but none yet built. Ireland has been keen to adopt the EU Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD) into national legislation, mainly through the Building Control Act 2005 and Statutory Instrument SI No. 666 European Communities (Energy Performance of Buildings) Regulations 2006. Ireland’s building regulations are relatively strict with an unceasing focus on reducing U values of building elements. However, enforcement is deficient and building assessment is generally limited in Ireland with few buildings having undergone assessment or certification (IGBC, 2013). Since 2009 the SEAI has operated a domestic retrofit funding programme where domestic homeowners may apply online to the National Better Energy Home Scheme to receive 30% funding as a grant towards the cost of energy efficiency retrofit measures implemented. This scheme excluded the most vulnerable in society being those on the social housing list as the fuel poor whom do not own their home, nor have access to 70% of the cost to complete EE retrofit measures in savings or through lending. The Better Energy Homes and Warmer Homes is a follow on programme, launched in 2013, which has allocated €32 million to grants for the energy efficiency retrofit of domestic properties. The Better Energy Communities (BEC) Programme, also launched March 2013, is a national upgrade programme to retrofit Ireland’s building stock to improve the thermal and electrical efficiency, thereby reducing fossil fuel use, running costs and greenhouse gas emissions. The programme is designed to generate innovative and pioneering partnerships at community level whereby one or more organisations come together to develop a single project in one or more locations, in urban or rural settings. These partnerships will encourage cost effective project delivery model and stimulate employment as a result of the upgrading works. This programme is pertinent to the case study presented in the subsequent section. Transport is Ireland’s biggest energy demand sector, and private cars constitute the largest proportion of this sector (see Figure 2). Ireland’s target, under the Renewable Energy Supply Directive, is for 10% of its transport energy to be supplied by renewable sources by 2020. With respect of this, taxation drivers have been implemented. In 2008 the private car taxation system was altered to encourage the use of lower emissions vehicles. Prior to 2008 vehicles had been taxed based on engine size. Now instead they are taxed based on CO2 emissions. Ireland has been proposed as an ideal location for the implementation of a cross-country electric car programme due to its relatively small size and hence proximity of urban centres. The construction industry in Ireland has been in serious decline since 2007. “Green” Public Procurement might now be seen as a real driver for innovation. The Government’s Action Plan on Green Public Procurement – “Green Tenders” – that was published in 2012 aims to provide a framework for procurement in an energy efficient and sustainable way. Focus has also been given to providing professional, fully accredited, targeted training courses to construction workers. Specific energy training for builders has been established as part of an EU-wide initiative (“Build Up Skills,” 2013).
120 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS Kilkenny Borough and Environs, as shown in Figure 7, has a population of 24,423 (borough 8,711 & environs 15,712) according to the 2011 National Census in an area of approximately 10km2. There is a wide range of low-rise domestic building types in Kilkenny ranging in age from a several hundred years old to newly constructed. Housing is predominantly privately owned but there are a number of social housing units provided by the local authority and also by local parish housing communities and other social housing charity agencies. Figure 7 – Kilkenny Borough & Environs (Wikipedia and Google Maps) The Carlow Kilkenny Energy Agency (CKEA) is a local energy agency that operates in the Counties of Carlow and Kilkenny since 2002, supporting and driving sustainable primarily projects for the citizens and the local authorities. As part of this role the CKEA work closely with the Local Authorities in Carlow and Kilkenny to deliver sustainable projects in all sectors. The Kilkenny Local Authority Senior Management Team identified the improvement of the aging social housing as a priority for 2013. As a result the CKEA set about preparing an application the Better Energy Community (BEC) Projects in 2013. The SEAI designed the national BEC programme to test innovative and pioneering partnerships between for example, the public and private sectors for the delivery of energy savings within a community. Funding is awarded on the basis of a competitive assessment criteria, under the following headings (SEAI, 2013b) • Value For Money: Savings in terms of the magnitude of the energy savings, in absolute terms and relative to the cost of implementation and the cost of funding by SEAI; • Partnership: Organisation and development of collaborative delivery models, which will inform longer term initiatives for activating energy retrofit investment; • Innovation/technical aspect: This may be in the form of technological application across multiple solutions, buildings or sites, or of the organisational delivery model with regard to finance, procurement and/ or contractual mechanism; • Quality and Delivery: The quality of the project including robustness of the project plan, project management and capability to complete the project by the deadline. An equal 25 mark weighting is awarded to each evaluation criterion. Objectives and methods Funding for programmes such as the Better Energy Warmer Homes scheme are limited to privately owned properties where the occupier is in, or at risk of, fuel poverty; estimated at 10 – 13% of the Irish households in 2009/2010 (SEAI 2013c) Local Authorities and Voluntary Housing associations are not permitted to apply for this grant aid as the property owners and tenants are not classified as domestic applicants. Though the programmes are beneficial with emphasis being placed on the fuel poor (>10% of income spend on domestic energy) there was a detrimental social effect for privately owned dwellings, where those in ownership of their properties were upgrading them but their socially housed neighbours were not permitted to do so. Prior to the 2013 BEC programme, national funding for the upgrading of local authority (LA) owned housing prioritised returning of vacant stock to use. This is the first time that owners of multiple social and affordable housing units could apply for grant aid to retrofit them and reduce the exposure to fuel poverty for their economically disadvantaged tenants. The CKEA brought the stakeholders together with Kilkenny County Council to describe the potential project. Initial conditions for engagement required that the occupants/ tenants of the dwellings were majority fuel poor 3. CASE STUDY: KILKENNY BOROUGH AND ENVIRONS, BETTER ENERGY COMMUNITIES PROGRAMME
IRELAND | 121 and qualified for fuel allowance through Social Welfare System of Ireland. A total of 7 voluntary housing groups were contacted and invited to engage with the project. Positive feedback from 4 voluntary housing groups resulted in a firm commitment to proceed with a 2013 application. The 4 property owners are: • Kilkenny County Council - 128 housing units; • St. Johns Parish Housing – 6 housing units; • SOS Housing Association – 15 housing units; • Switzers Housing – 18 housing units including apartments. The Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland (SEAI) is supporting the programme with funding through the Irish EU Structural Funds at 50% Capital Cost co-funded by the Irish Government and the European Union. In accordance with Part 5 of S.I. No. 542 of 2009, the European Communities (Energy End-use Efficiency and Energy Services) Regulations 2009 Energy Suppliers are obliged to achieve Energy Saving Targets. To do so Energy Suppliers may establish voluntary agreements with their final customers for the purpose of promoting energy efficiency. The BEC programme promotes a partnership approach whereby the energy supplier can claim credits for the project if they are involved from the outset and bring additional expertise and funding. One of Ireland’s major utility suppliers was chosen as the preferred partner and is contributing 3.5% of the capital budget in exchange for the savings credits. The credits are awarded to the project based on savings made where 1 kWh/year= 1 credit. The credits help the utility supplier meet its Energy Saving Targets set in accordance with Regulation 16 and 17 of SI 542/2009. The technical stakeholders include the: • Carlow Kilkenny Energy Agency – Project co-ordination; • Kilkenny County Council Housing Department – Project management and contractor procurement; • Waterford Institute of Technology – Energy Monitoring Programme; • Electric Ireland – Energy Credit Management. The Total Capital Expenditure for Project is estimated at €2.5 million: • SEAI (EU and National Funding) – 80%; • Obliged Utility Partner – 3.5%; • LA Funding – 16.5%. Each measure completed on each housing unit is eligible for Credits for which the obligated party will secure in return for their capital contribution. A sample of the measure credits is shown in Table 1. Measure and Specification Apartment House Roof Insulation Insula tion as per TGD L 2008 800 1,300 Ceiling U-Va lue 0.16 W/m 2 K Ra fter U-Value 0.2W/m 2 K Flat Roof U-Va lue 0.22 W/m 2 K Wall Insulation External U-Va lue 0.27 W/m 2 K3,750 5,900 Interna l dry lining U-Value 0.27 W/m 2 K3,200 5,000 Cavity Wall U-Va lue 0.50 W/m 2 K2,050 3,250 Floor Insulation External U-Va lue 0.36 W/m 2 K700 1,100 Windows and Doors Full window a nd doors U-Va lue 1.4 W/m 2 K1,050 1,650 Boiler High Efficiency (90% +) ga s/oil boiler with 4,900 7,700 integrated he ating controls and full zone control on spa ce and wa ter hea ting Energy Credits kW h/yr Table 1 – Energy Saving Credits Sample – Taken from (SEAI, 2013b) Typical interventions of each dwelling where applicable included: • attic insulation - on the rafter; • pumped cavity wall insulation where practicable; • window and external door replacement; • high efficiency gas boiler with programmable heating controls; • high efficiency multi-fuel stove; • whole house energy efficient lighting. All works under the scheme were to be completed by 30th October 2013. A pre-and post-upgrading Building Energy Rating (BER) was completed on each dwelling to certify the improvement in building performance. This, in reality, is an estimated saving
122 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS generated. On-going monitoring of 10% of the upgraded dwellings is tracking actual building performance, allowing a critical analysis of theoretical savings from the BER. Monitoring will be complete in November 2014. The multi-fuel stoves were installed in place of the traditional open fireplaces. There were 16 local contractors employed through local authority framework of builders engaged to implement these measures throughout the project. Approximately 100 construction professionals were employed to complete the project. Throughout the implementation stage the workers attended practical training and up-skill talks on retrofit measures. Results It is anticipated that the total savings generated by the project will be in the region of 2,152,482 kWh per year; equating to an average 12,889 kWh per annum per dwelling. Based on Ireland’s fuel mix, this in credit terms equates to 5,701 kgCO2 per dwelling being saved annually for the conversion factors as listed by SEAI (SEAI, 2013b). 4. CONCLUSIONS The programme embraces a transparent and competitive selection process. The Better Energy Community programme encourages housing agencies to act as a collective and access >50% grant aid through SEAI administered EU and National Funding. The main benefit of large scale upgrading was the efficient procurement of the project resulting in a considerable lowering of cost per measure. The average upgrade costs according to the DoECLG in 2011 were circa €15,000 plus VAT nationally to bring houses to a C1 standard 150-175 kWh/m2yr total primary energy consumption) in the DEAP Building Energy Rating. DEAP is the national methodology for calculating and assessing the energy performance of dwellings. Compared to the national average, cost savings in the region of 40% were realised through the efficient delivery of this project. There are many real issues that affect the performance of a building and these will be monitored and recorded to better educate the tenants and housing bodies in terms of maximising the reduction in energy consumption and assisting the drive to Nearly Zero Buildings for socially deprived. Based on the successful implementation of the project, the CKEA plan to develop a next generation model for clustered social housing extending to more communities in the region. This will require integration of a social housing procurement software program that is currently under development and hoped to be implemented in 2014. It is intended in 2014 to widen out to larger groups of voluntary housing entities. Launched in early 2014, a new standardised National Local Authority Framework for Contractors has come into effect, increasing transparency and competition. The scale of speed of implementation of the process will build momentum within the community. 5. REFERENCES E.P.A., 2013. Ireland’s Greenhouse Gas Emission’s projections (WWW Document). Environ. Prot. Agency EPA. URL http://erc. epa.ie/safer/iso19115/displayISO19115. jsp?isoID=202 (accessed 8.6.13). AIEA, 2013. Association of Irish Energy Agencies > Home (WWW Document). URL http://aiea.ie/home (accessed 10.21.13). Build Up Skills (WWW Document), 2013. URL http://ireland.buildupskills.eu/ (accessed 11.7.13). Chiodi, A., Gargiulo, M., Rogan, F., Deane, J.P., Lavigne, D., Rout, U.K., Ó Gallachóir, B.P., 2013. Modelling the impacts of challenging 2050 European climate mitigation targets on Ireland’s energy system. Energy Policy 53, 169 –189. doi:10.1016/j. enpol.2012.10.045 CSO, 2011. Census 2011 This is Ireland (Part 1) (WWW Document). URL http:// www.cso.ie/en/census/census2011reports/ census2011thisisirelandpart1/ (accessed 7.30.13). DCENR, 2013a. Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government (WWW Document). Dep. Environ. Community Local Gov. URL http://www.environ.ie/en/
IRELAND | 123 Environment/Atmosphere/ClimateChange/ ClimateChangeResponseBill2010Consultation/ (accessed 7.30.13). DCENR, 2013b. National Energy Efficiency Action Plan – Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources (WWW Document). URL (accessed 8.30.13). Department of Communications, Energy and Natural Resources, n.d. Options for Future Renewable Energy Policy, Targets and Programme (WWW Document). URL http://www.dcenr.gov.ie/Energy/ Latest+News/Options+for+Future+Renewable +Energy+Policy+Targets +and+Programme.htm (accessed 8.2.13). EC, 2006. Directive 2006/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on energy end-use efficiency and energy services and repealing Council Directive 93/76/EEC (WWW Document). URL http:// europa.eu/legislation_summaries/energy/ energy_efficiency/l27057_en.htm (accessed 10.25.13). EC, 2013. Energy: Statistics pocketbook 2013 (WWW Document). URL http://ec.europa.eu/ energy/observatory/statistics/statistics_en.htm (accessed 8.2.13). EirGrid, 2013. EirGrid : Grid25 (WWW Document). URL http://www. eirgridprojects.com/grid25/what-is-grid25/ (accessed 8.2.13). ESRI, 2013. The Effect of Re-domiciled Plcs on Irish Output Measures and the Balance of Payment (WWW Document). URL http://www. esri.ie/publications/latest_publications/view/ index.xml?id=3742 (accessed 8.2.13). Eurostat, 2013. Unemployment rate by sex and age groups (WWW Document). URL http:// appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show. do?dataset=une_rt_a&lang=en (accessed 7.30.13). EWEA, 2012. Wind in power: 2012 European statistics (WWW Document). URL http://www. ewea.org/statistics/ (accessed 8.2.13). EWEA, 2011. Pure Power 2011, Wind Energy Targets for 2020 and 2030 (WWW Document). URL http://www.ewea.org/publications/ reports/?no_cache=1&tx_err_ pi1%5Bshow Report%5D=12&cHash=7f7bb69f4cfb2a 1fdea67d5973d686e7 (accessed 8.2.13). IEA, 2009. IEA Energy Statistics - Electricity for Ireland (WWW Document). URL https://www. iea.org/stats/electricitydata.asp?COUNTRY_ CODE=IE (accessed 7.30.13). International Energy Agency, n.d. IEA - Publication:- Key World Energy Statistics 2012 (WWW Document). URL http://www.iea. org/publications/freepublications/publication/ name,31287,en.html (accessed 7.30.13). IRENA, 2013. IRENA | Renewable Energy Country Profiles (WWW Document). URL http:// www.irena.org/REmaps/europe.aspx (accessed 10.21.13). IWEA, 2013. Irish Wind Energy Association (WWW Document). URL http://www.iwea. com/index.cfm/page/workinginwind (accessed 11.7.13). MRIA, 2013. Marine Renewables Industry Association (WWW Document). URL http:// www.mria.ie/ (accessed 8.2.13). SEAI, 2012a. Energy in Ireland 1990 - 2011 (WWW Document). URL http://www.seai.ie/ Publications/Statistics_Publications/Energy_in_ Ireland/ (accessed 7.30.13). SEAI, 2012b. Renewable Energy 2011 Update (WWW Document). URL http:// www.seai.ie/Publications/Statistics_ Publications/Renewable_Energy_in_Ireland/ (accessed 7.30.13). SEAI, 2013a. SEAI 2050 Energy Roadmaps (WWW Document). URL http://www.seai. ie/Publications/Energy_Modelling_Group_/ SEAI_2050_Energy_Roadmaps/ (accessed 10.25.13). SEAI, 2013b. Better Energy Communities (WWW Document). URL http://www.seai.ie/ Grants/Better_Energy_Communities/ (accessed 10.25.13). SQW, 2013. Economic Study for Ocean Energy Development in Ireland - A report to the Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland and Invest Northern Ireland (WWW Document). URL http://www.sqw.co.uk/publications (accessed 8.2.13).
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ITALY | 125 AUTHORS Senatro Di Leo E: [email protected] Monica Salvia E: [email protected] National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Methodologies for Environmental Analysis (CNR-IMAA), C.da Santa Loja, 85050 Tito Scalo (PZ), Italy. 1 OVERVIEW OF THE REGION Characteristics of the Region Basilicata is a small region in Southern Italy, with 577,562 inhabitants (2011), which covers an area of 9,992 square kilometres, representing only 3.3% of the Italian surface. It is one of the 20 regions of the Italian Republic (Figure 1). Basilicata is split into two provinces: Province of Potenza and Province of Matera. Basilicata is bounded to the west by Campania, to the north and east by Puglia and to the south by Calabria and has two small coastlines, on Tyrrhenian Sea (to the west) and on Ionian Sea (to the south-east). Figure 1 – The Basilicata Region The trend of the population is in decline (Figure 2). From 2001 to 2011 there was a reduction of about twenty thousand inhabitants mainly due to low birth rates and migration towards other regions. After Valle d’Aosta, Basilicata is the Italian region with the lowest population density, with about 60.8 inhabitants per square kilometres respect to the national average of 201 inhabitants per square kilometre. This is mainly due to the prevalent mountainous morphology of the territory and a low economic growth. 565000 570000 575000 580000 585000 590000 595000 600000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Figure 2 – Population of Basilicata 2001 – 2011 (Source: Istat, 2013) In 2007 the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Basilicata was about €18,900 per capita, slightly higher than the average value in Southern Italy (€17,300 per capita) but consistently lower than the national average GDP (€26,000 per capita) (Table 1). Euro per capita 2005 2006 2007 Province of Potenza 17,300 18,400 19,200 Province of Matera 16,700 17,700 18,300 Basilicata Region 17,100 18,200 18,900 Southern Italy 16,100 16,800 17,300 Italy 24,400 25,200 26,000 Table 1 – GDP values in 2005-2007 (Source: Regional Statistics Yearbook, Basilicata 2010) ITALY
126 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS The local economy is based on agriculture, in particular cereals, potatoes, vines and olives. The Basilicata industry sector is dominated by food and drink, artificial fibres, non-metallic mineral and chemical industries. In the Val d’Agri area considerable mining of hydrocarbons is present, with preliminary treatment of extracted oil. In the North of the Region the largest Italian car maker (FIAT) has an important industrial centre. Tourism is increasing, mainly on the coastal areas, but it is still under the national average. The total employment rate in Basilicata (37.6%) is lower than the national average (44.9%). In 2012, the labour market in Basilicata was affected by the contraction in economic activity with a decline of employees and hours worked. This has resulted in an increase in the unemployment rate (14.5% in 2012), which remains lower than the average value of Southern Italy but higher than the average Italian total. The unemployment rate by level of education is always lower than national values. In particular, 8.4% of graduates and doctorates were unemployed in 2009 (Table 2). Level of education Basilicata Italy Primary school 10.9 9.9 Secondary school of first degree 12.5 9.4 Secondary school of second degree (2 – 3 years) 10.4 7.6 Secondary school of second degree (4 – 5 years) 11.6 7.2 Degree/ Doctorate 8.4 5.5 Total 11.2 7.8 Table 2 – Unemployment rate (%) by level of education. Years 2009 (Source: Regional Statistics Yearbook, Basilicata 2010) Energy demand and supply of the Region In 2010 the Basilicata Regional Authority approved the Regional Environmental Energy Plan (PIEAR) containing the regional energy strategy to be implemented to 2020. According to the PIEAR, in 2007 the total energy consumption was 59.23 PJ, mainly due to the Industrial sector (47%), followed by Transport (29%), Residential (13%), Commercial (8%) and Agriculture (4%) (Figure 3). Natural gas and diesel are the most used fuels (23%): natural gas is mainly consumed by Industry (6.3 PJ) and Residential (5 PJ), whereas Transport is the largest consumer of diesel (10.5 PJ). Also electricity contributes substantially to the final energy consumption (18%), with 10.5 PJ of which 6.3 PJ in Industry, 2.02 PJ in Commercial and 1.84 PJ in Residential (Figure 4). 13% 8% 47% 4% 29% Residential Commercial Industry Agriculture Transport Figure 3 – Share of energy consumption by sector, 2007 1% 23% 1% 23% 2% 14% 18% 18% Wood & Other solids Natural gas LPG Diesel Fuel oil Other Petroleum products Electricity Heat Figure 4 – Share of energy consumption by fuel, 2007 In Table 3 a summary of energy consumption in 2007, by fuel and sector, is reported.
SERBIA | 229 produced from carbon-intensive fuels – coal in power plants with low efficiency. Electricity consumption per capita in Serbia is shown in Table 5. Republic of Serbia 2010 2011 2012 Efficiency of transformation (FE/PE) 0.57 0.57 0.59 Consumption of PE (kg en/capita) 2134 2224.5 2232.6 Electricity consumption (kWh/capita) 3789 3878 3898 Share of household electricity consumption% 53 52 53 Table 5 – Electricity consumption per capita in Serbia (Energy balance of RS, 2012) GHG emission factor for electricity from grid According to the regulations on energy efficiency in buildings, CO2 emissions, which occur during the operation of the buildings, shall be determined on the basis of specific CO2 emission data for individual energy sources. The annual primary energy required for the operation of the building by source of energy, must be multiplied by the specific data of CO2 emissions, which is given in the Regulations and specific emissions for electricity is 0.53 kg/ kWh. Data regarding carbon dioxide emissions in Serbia are presented in Table 6. Carbon dioxide emissions Total Carbon intensity Per capita Kg per 2005 PPP $ of GDP Thousand metric tons Kg per kg of oil equivalent energy use Metric tons 1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009 46.25 3.0 6.3 0.7 Table 6 – Carbon dioxide emissions, Serbia (World Development indicators, 2013) Serbia is an energy intensive country, as well as Belgrade region – energy is not used efficiently. In addition, the electrical and thermal energy are produced in the most ancient plants that mainly use lignite as a fuel that has a relatively high level of emissions of greenhouse gases. Serbian energy sector has been hit hard by falling behind in maintenance and investments 90s, and suffered considerable damage during the war in 1999 year. Total emissions of greenhouse gases (Figure 5) measured per unit of gross domestic product (intensity of emission of gases with greenhouse effect Serbian economy) are among the highest in Europe (Energy profile of Republic of Serbia). Figure 5 – Carbon dioxide emissions per unit of GDP/a measured by purchasing power parity in the 2009th (International Energy Agency, 2011) Share of energy sources for thermal energy production (%) For heat generation in the Belgrade district heating plants natural gas, liquid fuel, coal and municipality waste are used. Share of energy sources for thermal energy production is shown in Table 7 and Figure 6. Year 2006 2012 Natural gas 82.1 85.3 Liquid fuel 14.8 12.0 Coal 3.1 2.5 Municipal waste 0.0 0.2 Table 7 – Structure of fuel in district heating systems, %
230 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS Figure 6 – The structure of heat power by fuels in Belgrade`s region 2. CURRENT SITUATION: TARGETS RELATED TO ENERGY POLICY In order to reduce energy dependence of Serbia, it is necessary to fulfill three conditions (Energy profile of Republic of Serbia): • to increase the production of energy from its own energy resources, primarily refers to hydro because Serbia has a dense river network, as well as to increase production of energy from renewable sources; • to change the pricing policy that Serbia made only losses. Changing the pricing policy would mean higher prices and billing of electricity consumption according to actual consumption, rather than m2 heating area. Both measures would certainly lead to a more rational use of electricity by households, and the decline in energy deficit RS, and indirectly reducing the import of electricity and energy; • to set the legal and institutional framework to enable the production and sale of electricity to residents and companies. Department of Energy, Secretariat of Housing and Municipal Affairs of the City of Belgrade, in cooperation with “Energoprojekt Entel” a. d. and the expert committee, formed by the City, created the Energy Development Strategy of the City of Belgrade. Energy Development Strategy of the City of Belgrade is in line with the objectives, concept and strategy to priority set out in the Strategy for Development of the City of Belgrade and the Strategy of Energy Development of the Republic of Serbia. As part of the Energy Strategy of Belgrade, which covers the period up to 2030, the current situation in all aspects of production, transmission and consumption of all forms of energy is analysed and such strategic directions of the strategy are defined allowing the objectives to be achieved by ensuring sustainable development and efficient management of energy. When drafting this document modern statistical methods, Eurostat have been applied in order to achieve optimal effects while satisfying the energy needs of the City. Calculation of final energy consumption by 2030, indicates that the following factors have a relatively large impact on energy consumption in Belgrade: assumed dynamics of growth of living standards and industrial production and dynamics of increasing energy efficiency, especially in the heating of buildings. The highest energy consumption is in households, and lowest in agriculture, and hence the fastest growing its percentage share of final energy consumption. In the case of achieving the projected growth of certain sectors, the total annual final energy consumption in Belgrade in 2030 would reach 39,860 KWh (Table 8), or 3,247,343 toe, so that consumption per capita increased from 1.31 toe (in 2006) to 2.14 toe by the year 2030. Final energy consumption, GWh Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Industry 5037 5450 5800 6300 6920 Housing sector 7930 8150 8800 10560 12350 Commercial sector 5130 5820 6840 8000 9280 Transport 5807 6310 6950 8060 9450 Agriculture 491 755 1060 1495 1860 Total 24395 26485 29450 34415 39860 Share in percent, % Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Industry 20.65 20.58 19.69 18.31 17.36 Housing sector 32.51 30.78 29.88 30.68 30.98 Commercial sector 21.03 21.97 23.23 23.25 23.28 Transport 23.80 23.82 23.60 23.42 23.71 Agriculture 2.01 2.85 3.60 4.34 4.67 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Table 8 – Appraisal of final energy consumption of Belgrade region according to sectors with projections by 2030
SERBIA | 231 Appraisal of final energy consumption of Belgrade region according to sectors and energy sources with projections by 2030 is shown in Figure 7. Primary (Total) energy consumption, GWh Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Industry 8378 9014 9468 10443 10984 Housing sector 16429 16088 15663 17853 19960 Commercial sector 8812 9679 11006 12410 13779 Transport 6020 6834 7819 9492 11386 Agriculture 610 955 1369 1852 2344 Total 40249 42570 45326 52050 58453 Share in percent, % Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Industry 20.81 21.17 20.89 20.06 18.79 Housing sector 40.81 37.79 34.56 34.30 34.15 Commercial sector 21.91 22.74 24.28 23.84 23.57 Transport 14.95 16.05 17.25 18.24 19.48 Agriculture 1.52 2.25 3.02 3.56 4.01 Total 100.0 100.00 100.0 100. 100.0 Table 9 – Appraisal of Primary (Total) energy consumption of Belgrade region according to sectors with projections by 2030 The assumed structure of final energy consumption by type of fuel is given in Table 10 and Figure 8 (Energoprojekt Entel, 2008b, p.60 data). It can be concluded that the commitment to the reduction of the share of coal and liquid fuels in final energy consumption is present, due to environmental reasons and in order to increase the consumption of natural gas. However, liquid fuels remain the dominant fuel in the final energy consumption despite the partial substitution with natural gas. Share of electrical energy is maintained at almost the same level (by 2030 dropped by only 1%), similar to the share of thermal energy (by 2030, rising only by 1%). The strategic decision to increase the share of renewable energy is evident. Figure 8 – Projections of the structure of total final energy consumption in Belgrade region according to types of fuel, until 2030 PRIMARY (TOTAL) ENERGY, GWH/A, (%) YEAR 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Renewable energy source 1065.0 (4.37) 990.0 (3.74) 1420.0 (4.82) 2130.0 (6.19) 3000.0 (7.53) Solid fuel 1927.7 (7.90) 170.05 (6.44) 1190.0 (4.04) 885.0 (2.57) 620.0 (1.56) Natural gas 896.8 (3.68) 2050.0 (7.74) 3550.0 (12.05) 4850.0 (14.09) 5940.0 (14.98) Liquid gas 10602 (43.45) 11120 (41.99) 11780 (40.00) 12890 (37.45) 14050 (35.25) Electrical energy 7099.0 (29.10) 7500.0 (28.31) 8010.0 (27.20) 9500.0 (27.61) 11220 (28.14) Thermal energy 2805.0 (11.5) 3120.0 (11.8) 3500.0 (11.9) 4160.0 (12.1) 5000.0 (12.5) Total 24395 (100) 26485 (100) 29450 (100) 34415 (100) 39860 (100) Table 10 – Appraisal of final energy consumption of Belgrade region according to type of fuel with projections by 2030 Appraisal of primary (total) energy consumption of Belgrade region according to sources of energy sectors with projections by 2030.is shown in Table 11 and Figure 9 (Energoprojekt Entel, 2008b, p.65). 9 – Appraisal of Primary (Total) energy consumption of Belgrade region according to sources of energy with projections by 2030
232 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS PRIMARY (TOTAL) ENERGY, GWH/A, (%) YEAR 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Renewable energy source 1065 (2.65) 990 (2.34) 1420 (3.13) 2130 (4.09) 3000 (5.13) Coal 21860 (54.31) 21587 (50.71) 19637 (43.32) 20959 (40.27) 21560 (36.88) Natural gas 3409 (8.47) 5738 (13.46) 9501 (20.96) 13072 (25.11) 16682 (24.71) Oil and liquid gas 11270 (28.00) 11733 (27.56) 12318 (27.18) 13416 (25.77) 14441 (24.71) Hydro power 2645 (6.57) 2522 (5.93) 2449 (5.41) 2475 (4.75) 2770 (4.74) Total 40249 (100.0) 42570 (100.0) 45336 (100.0) 52052 (100.0) 58353 (100.0) Table 11 – Appraisal of Primary (Total) energy consumption of Belgrade region according to sources of energy with projections by 2030 Bearing in mind the level of efficiency of thermal power plants, with their improvements through rehabilitation of existing and construction of new facilities (Table 12), especially those with a combined gas-steam cycle, and the gradual reduction of losses (Table 13) in the distribution of electricity, amount of primary energy (coal, liquid fuels and gas) needed for the production of electricity required for the area of the City of Belgrade, is analysed. Use of hydropower and wind, as renewable energy sources, is taken into consideration in the assessment of electrical energy production. Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Thermal power plants 71.31 71.77 65.15 61.92 56.27 Hydro power plants 28.22 25.86 22.14 24.30 22.07 Cogeneration of natural gas 0.47 2.14 11.82 11.23 18.42 Renewable sources 0.00 0.23 0.89 2.55 3.24 Table 12 – Structure of electricity production in Serbia (%) with projection by 2030 Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Final consumption GWh/a 7099.2 7500 8010 9500 11220 Losses in distribution % 14.7 14 13 12 11 Amount of losses GWh/a 1222 1221 1197 1295 1387 Primary (total) energy 8321.2 8721 9207 10795 12607 Table 13 – Appraisal of electrical energy consumption and losses In the process of heat production priority is given to natural gas (Table 14), which contributes to reduction of environmental pollution. Year 2006 2012 2018 2024 2030 Natural gas 82.1 85.3 89.1 92.7 94.5 Liquid fuel 14.8 12.0 7.8 3.9 1.4 Coal 3.1 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.1 Municipal waste 0.0 0.2 0.8 1.2 2.0 Table 14 – Structure of fuel in district heating system (%) with projection by 2030 According to a most recent study, entitled European Green City Index, Belgrade is in 27th place by the state of key environmental parameters (score 40.3/100) (Economist Intelligence Unit 2009). One of the included parameters is CO2 emissions. According to those criteria, Belgrade is in 28th place, and according to transport criteria it is in 29th place. Cities were evaluated based on eight environmental categories. The categories include CO2 emissions, energy, buildings, transport, water, land use, and air quality. The best ranking for Belgrade was for the energy parameter (17th place). The reason for this lies in the decline and reduction of heavy industry, as a consequence of the situation in the 1990s. The worst result for Belgrade was in the field of transport and water. In these categories Belgrade ranked 29th of 30 European cities (transport 3.98/8.81; water 3.90/9.21). CO2 emissions per capita are 3.9t compared to the average CO2 emissions of 5.2t. Considering this sub-category Belgrade is ranked 7th in the overall ranking and 1st in the category of mid-
SERBIA | 233 size cities. The reason for this is reflected in the fact that the majority of electricity production in Serbia comes from hydropower (Djukic, Vukmirovic, IJJTE, 2011). Serbia has not yet conducted a full greenhouse gas inventory and is yet to submit its First National Communication under the UNFCCC. Based on vehicle inventories, fuel use and vehicle mode share, the estimated total GHG emissions in 2008 from Belgrade’s passenger road transport is 449,490 tonnes. It is estimated that over 60% percent of the total air emissions in Belgrade come directly from automobile sources, with private cars constituting a growing fraction of these emissions (Support to Sustainable Transport in the City of Belgrade, 2010). The transport sector, which accounted for 11% of total CO2 emissions in Serbia already in 1999, represents the fastest growing source of CO2 emissions in Serbia and Belgrade today. The main factors contributing to GHG emissions in the transport sector in Belgrade are: (1) the large number of vehicles registered and operating in Belgrade (more than 420,000 cars in 2007, or one third of all vehicles in the country); (2) a relatively high proportion of old cars, with an average car age of 13 years and corresponding high levels of gasoline consumption exceeding 10 liters/100 km (or about 0.23 kg CO2 /km); (3) increasing road congestion, which results in stop-and-go maneuvering and therefore poor fuel economy and higher emissions of GHG; (4) high intensity of freight transport (11,000 lorries and trucks enter the city every day); (5) 8000 taxis are operating in the city (Support to Sustainable Transport in the City Of Belgrade Project Document). The study shows that 40% of people go to work using public transport while the remaining 35% walk or use bikes. This is 75% which is more than the 63% of using a non-motor transport as the average value for European cities. This result was achieved thanks to the extensive public transport system. However, public transport vehicles (buses, trams and trolleys) are in very bad condition, so work is needed to modernise them. The traffic control and management system is outdated (Economist Intelligence Unit 2009). Specific energy-related technology present in the region The Electric Power Industry of Serbia (EPS) encompasses coal mines, electric power sources (hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants, heating plants) and grid distribution systems (Environment in Serbia, 2007, SEEPA). The 1990 – 2005 period was characterised by reduced energy consumption by 6% and a predominant use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). However, a trend of slow reduction of fossil fuel consumption is perceptible as their share decreased from 97.9% to 93.6% and the energy consumption from renewable resources (hydroelectric power plants) increased from 4.7% to 6.9% (Environment in Serbia, 2007, SEEPA). Over the 1990 – 2005 periods, the structure of energy consumption changed significantly. The highest increase in energy consumption was achieved in the transport sector – 29.5%, slightly lower in the sectors of households, agriculture, public and commerce – 10.4%, while a decline of 36.7% was recorded in the industrial sector (Environment in Serbia, 2007, SEEPA). Current Situation Initiatives and measures for improving the state of transport and CO2 emissions The strategic approach of Belgrade in this domain is defined in the General Plan of Belgrade 2021, Transportation Model of Belgrade 2007, Traffic Master Plan of Belgrade: Smart Plan 2021 and the Development Strategy for the City of Belgrade 2012. One of the targets for the Belgrade region is reduction of GHG emissions and increasing use of sustainable and non-motorised modes of travel, as well as reduction of 285 tons of CO2 per year until 2014 in the transport sector. In accordance with these documents, the Secretariat of Transport of the City of Belgrade and other institutions implement various initiatives and projects in order to resolve these problems. The aim is to increase the use of public transport to a level of 50%, and in addition to encourage other forms of sustainable transport, i.e. walking and cycling.
234 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS One of the projects of that kind, which showed good results, is the implementation of parking zones in the centre of the city. This project restricts the duration of parking to 1 hour, 2 hours and 3 hours depending on the zone. When the time expires, the driver is required to move the car to another location. This measure led to the reduction in the number of cars in the central city area (City of Belgrade, 2011). In accordance with these goals pedestrian and bicycle transport should be significantly improved. The main tasks related to this are: freeing public space intended for pedestrians from parked vehicles and other barriers, increasing attractiveness of public transport, and creating conditions for realisation of attractive pedestrian and cycle spaces and routes. Regional targets, barriers and drivers Climate-friendly mobility The City of Belgrade Development Strategy from 2009, in the topic area related to traffic, provides for the construction and development of the transport system of Belgrade. This will allow sustainable mobility of citizens, still supporting the rapid development of the city and its competitiveness in the region of Southern Europe (Stojkov, 2008). One of the operational goals is the implementation of a transport system that will contribute to the environmental optimisation of the city. This will be achieved by: • construction of the first line of the high capacity public transport system in Belgrade; • stimulating the use of Beovoz trains in commuter transport (shorter but more reliable intervals) in the public transport system of the City; • reorganisation of public city transport in the vicinity of the Beovoz train corridor as well as within the whole network; • introduction of river passenger transport; • increasing the attractiveness of trolley buses and trams (which are powered by electricity); • increased level of transport safety; • development of new technologies (traffic management and control, ITS); • development of bicycle transport; • stimulating pedestrian transport; • rehabilitation and modernisation of city streets in urban centre in line with transport demands and standards; • Modernisation of local roads (Stojkov, 2008); • Fuel shifting towards low-carbon fuels. Reducing the average distance of trips (mode-shifting to higher capacity public transport options will improve the load factor; and better integration of land-use planning around transport corridors combined with improved parking management). The Strategy envisages the retaining of the level of passenger car travel, amounting to 25 – 30%. The use of public transport must reach the level of 45 – 50% of daily trips and ensure a high level of service. Walking is planned at a level of 20 – 25% in intercity movement. Para transit (cycling, taxi and other types of collective transport) must reach the level of 5 – 10% of daily trips (City of Belgrade, 2005). As part of its Transportation Management Plan, the City of Belgrade has initiated various programs such as Park and Ride facilities and increased bus lines to reduce congestion into Central Belgrade. Karaburma is a residential area and one of the most populous neighbourhoods of Belgrade, with a combined population of 34,343. The buildings were built in the late 1950s and early 1960s for workers who were employed in factories in the area. During the 1980s and 1990s most of the factories were closed. The fact that buildings were designed without consideration to energy consumption, as well as the building deterioration, are the reasons of negative consequences in terms of the poor living conditions, health problems of the residents and greater wasting of energy. The main technical problems can be summarised as follows: poor thermal and noise insulation of the envelope (facades, roofs, ground floors) and noise insulating efficiency of door and window frames; leaking of the roofs; lack of district heating. A technical problem that should also be indicated is accessibility for disabled, particularly caused by the lack of elevators. 3. CASE STUDY: REFURBISHMENT OF SUBURBAN APARTMENT BUILDINGS, KARABURMA
SERBIA | 235 The renovation has been funded by by private investors (building contractors). Through the improvement of the existing buildings investors gain the right to annex the attic or a few floors, which results in construction of new housing units. The investors gain profit by selling these additional flats. Although the main motivation of investors is profit, it can be concluded that the improvement of housing conditions is achieved which promotes the refurbishment of suburban districts affected by social, economic and architectural deterioration. Objectives and methods The refurbishment of about hundreds of similar detached buildings was carried out along the main streets around the settlement (see Figure 10). Figure 10 – Buildings in Vojvode Micka Street, Karaburma, bird’s eye view The main objectives of the refurbishment are the compliance with new regulation in terms of accessibility and energy efficiency, the fulfillment of the real needs of the users as well as the improvement of the building’s architectural and technical quality. The following main refurbishment strategies are foreseen: improvement of living comfort, especially thermal comfort and energy efficiency of buildings, as well as visual identity and appearance of buildings and settlement. Figure 11a – View of the buildings type 2 (in the streets Vojvode Micka) before the refurbishment (source: Krstic-Furundzic A., 2012) Figure 11b – View of the buildings type 2 (in the streets Vojvode Micka) after the refurbishment (source: Krstic-Furundzic A., 2012) The improvement of living comfort and building appearance was achieved by annex of attics, addition of balconies as new structures and organised closing (glazing) of balconies, as well as by laying of thermal insulation on the facade surface and painting in different colors resulting in housing variation (see Figures 11a, b). The refurbishment undertaken involves the building system and main roof load-bearing members being made of the same material as the building (masonry construction) while the roof structure is wooden. The addition of balconies is created as the new concrete structures (see Figures 11a, b). The balconies’ slabs are supported partly by the building structure and partly by columns placed on the front. The same concept is applied in case of enlargement of existing balconies, which enabled better usability of the balcony, glazing options provided in advance and good appearance of the building. These interventions resulted in: • the recovery of lodgings with new typology of flats coming from attic annex; • creation of improved dwelling typology by addition of new or enlargement of existing balconies; • organised closing (glazing) of balconies or glazing options provided in advance creating new living spaces. As masonry walls had no thermal insulation, their thermal performance was as follows: walls have high thermal transmittance, i.e.
236 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS U-value=1.06W/m2K; low inner surface temperature is obvious, thermal bridges are present, condensation is present; walls are wet and freezing is possible; mold growth is noticeable. Box type windows with float glass (4mm) are unfavourable, U-value=3.5W/m2K. Resulting high heat losses during the winter period, led to an increase of conventional fuels consumption and environmental pollution. Improvement of thermal performances of external walls included installing thermal insulation, breaking thermal bridges and replacing windows. All these measures were applied in case of refurbishment of existing buildings in Karaburma settlement. The refurbishment of the envelopes of existing buildings included: • laying of thermal insulation on the facade external surfaces – 5cm of expanded polystyrene is added to masonry 19cm tick walls which provided U-value=0,46W/m2K; • replacement of existing wooden windows with double glazed windows made of three or five-chamber PVC profiles, U-value=2.3W/ m2K (subject to consent of the tenant); • placing of thermal insulation of 10cm of expanded polystyrene (U=0,171W/m2K) on the new roof structures. Results Installation of external wall insulation enables thermal bridges to be broken, as moisture is reduced, the temperature of inner wall surface is higher and provides existing external massive wall to be converted into energy rational structure consisting of three layers: existing solid wall as thermal storage layer, thermal insulation and external protective and final layer as re-cladding (Krstic-Furundzic), A.,1998). After improvement U-value=0,46W/m2K of external walls is litter higher than defined by actual regulations (0,40W/m2K), that is due the refurbishment was done before new regulations on energy efficiency of buildings. Since the refurbishment took place in the last three years, monitoring period has not long enough to provide conclusive evidence. However, by interviewing residents data on energy consumption for heating before and after refurbishment were provided (see Table 15). Heated floor area (m2) (kWh/ month) (kWh/a) (kWh/ m2/a) Before refurbishment 64 4750 28500 445.30 15105 After refurbishment 69 2750 16500 239.12 8745 Savings/CO2 reduction 2000 12000 206.18 6360 Table 16 – Primary energy demands for heating and CO2 emissions before and after refurbishment (data for one standard flat) In analysis of CO2 emissions, as the apartments are heated with electrical energy, there were taken into account characteristics of electrical power network of Serbia (Regulations on Energy Efficiency of Buildings), indicating that the electrical power network for production of 1 kWh realises the emissions of 0.53 kgCO2/ kWh. CO2 emissions before and after refurbishment are shown in Table 16. Application of the described refurbishment measures enabled: improvement of spatial and thermal comfort, higher inner surface temperature, thermal bridges break, reduction in heat losses in winter and overheating in summer, thereby achieving energy savings and reduces consumption of conventional energy sources and environmental pollution. New appearance of buildings and blocks of flats is achieved by balconies and attic annex and variously painted facades. Intervention is significant, but it is necessary that all buildings which were designed without consideration to energy consumption should be refurbished. Therefore, a transfer of the case study to the region—limited to the residential area of multi-family housing – seems appropriate. Outcomes In general terms, renovation of residential buildings in Karaburma could be recognised as a successful rehabilitation funded by private investors (building contractors). CO2 emissions (kg/a) Primarly energy demands for heating
SERBIA | 237 It could be apply on the improvement of the existing privately owned multi-family residential buildings where investors gain profit by selling additional flats. Apart from the resulting abatement of CO2 emissions, and improvement of energy performances, the refurbishment also brought positive economic and social impacts, including a reduction in energy bills. Many interventions such as external wall insulation, glazing of balconies and replacement of windows have improved the thermal comfort of the properties together with their external appearance. An important positive effect of the largescale and regional approach is - recognising the affordable model due to the coast of intervention and investors. Despite the positive overall outcomes, a set of issues have been identified as barriers to the achievement of better results: • of investments, the improvement was just from energy class G to D; • shortage of knowledge and skills on innovative measures among the professionals and the workers involved in the retrofits; • private ownership of apartments in multi-family houses. On the other hand, a series of conditions have been identified as active drivers: • energy savings of about 40%: • increase of the value of a property (apartments) for 30%. 4. CONCLUSIONS As regards the Republic of Serbia, in conformity with Decision 2009/05 of the Ministerial Council of the Energy Community, the first Action Plan covers the period from 2010 to 2012 and sets the average indicative target for this period at 1.5% of domestic energy end use in 2008, and the end target at a minimum of 9% of energy end use in the ninth year of implementation (at the end of 2018). The energy end-use savings target of 1.5% will be attained by implementing measures towards increasing energy efficiency in household, public and commercial sectors (0.0235 Mtoe), industry (0.0566 Mtoe) and transportation (0.0453 Mtoe). During the APEE implementation period, the Republic of Serbia should continue introducing considerable legislative, fiscal, financial and organisational measures in the interest of full implementation of and adherence to the Directive. In Belgrade, many of housing settlements dating from the late fifties and the sixties of the 20th century and represent a large percentage of the city’s building stock. Most of them are consisted of a numerous of buildings with the same or similar layouts. Up to the seventies the buildings were designed without consideration of energy demands and consumption. Nowadays they are characterised by some social, architectural and technical problems, but building decay is the main problem. Old-age, lack of maintenance, poor quality of materials and improper design cause deterioration of buildings. Improvement of housing settlements is becoming increasingly inevitable. The same characteristics were feature of housing settlement Karaburma until the building refurbishment began in 2009. The improvement of living comfort and building appearance was achieved by annex of attics, addition of balconies as new structures and organised closing (glazing) of balconies, as well as by laying of thermal insulation on the facade surface and it’s painting in different colours resulting in housing diversity as well as improvement of facade thermal performances. It is evident that heating demands are less for about 40 percent compared with heating demands before refurbishment, which means that the energy savings of about 40 percent are achieved and thus reduced environmental pollution. Achieved benefits contribute to other tenants opt for intervention. Applied intervention for improving the energy performance of the multi-family housing sector can bring environmental, economic and social benefits, both on local and regional level. It could be applied also in residential area in cities and towns throughout Serbia.
238 | SMART ENERGY REGIONS 5. REFERENCES Biomass Action Plan, 2010 – 2012 World Development indicators, http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/worlddevelopment-indicators Decision on determining the energy balance of the Republic of Serbia for the 2013, Official Gazette of RS, No.122/2012. Djukic, A & Vukmirovic, M., 2012, Walking as a Climate Friendly Transportation mode in Urban Environment: Case study Belgrade, IJTTEInternational Journal for Traffic and Transport Engineering, Volume 7, Number 4, 11/12, pp. 214 – 230. Earth Trends 2003, Climate and Atmosphere Serbia and Montenegro, Available at: “http://earthtrends.wri.org “http:// earthtrends.wri.org > (Accessed 2011) Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009, European Green City Index, Siemens AG, Munich. Energy Strategy of the Republic of Serbia until 2015, Official Gazette of RS, No. 17/2007, 73/2007, 99/2009 and 27/2010. Energoprojekt Entel, 2008a, Energy Development Strategy of the City of Belgrade, Part II: The current energy supply in Belgrade, City of Belgrade, Department of Energy, Belgrade. Energoprojekt Entel, 2008b, Energy Development Strategy of the City of Belgrade, Part III: Projections of future energy consumption in Belgrade, City of Belgrade, Department of Energy, Belgrade. Energoprojekt Entel, 2008c, Energy Development Strategy of the City of Belgrade, Part IV: Future capacity for energy supply, City of Belgrade, Department of Energy, Belgrade. Energoprojekt Entel, 2008d, Energy Development Strategy of the City of Belgrade, Part V: Future capacity for energy supply, City of Belgrade, Department of Energy, Belgrade. Energy balance of Republic of Serbia, 2013. Official Gazette of RS, No. 122/2012 Energy Sector Development Strategy of the Republic of Serbia, Official Gazette of RS, No. 44/2005. Energy Law, Official Gazette of RS, No. 57/2011, 80/2011 – corr., 93/2012, 124/2012. Energy profile of Republic of Serbia, www.seeinstitute.com/?page_id=3971 Environment in Serbia – an indicator based review, 2007, SEEPA, Belgrade. European Conference of Ministers of Transport 2003, Cutting Transport CO2 Emission, OECD Publishing, Paris. GDP per unit of energy use (constant 2005 PPP $ per kg of oil equivalent), http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ EG.GDP. PUSE.KO.PP.KD City of Belgrade 2005, Konkursna dokumentacija za izradu Saobraćajnog master plana (SmartPlan), Grad Beograd, Beograd. Krstic-Furundzic, A. & Djukic, A., 2009, Chapter XV: Serbia, in P Jones, P Phino, J Patterson, C Tweed (eds.), European Carbon Atlas: Low Carbon Urban Built Environment, The Welsh School of Architecture Cardiff University, Cardiff. Krstic(-Furundzic), A., 1998, Measures and Techniques for Bioclimatic Rehabilitations of Existing Buildings Aimed to Produce Energy Rational and Efficient Buildings, in M Sala (ed.), 2nd International Conference for Teachers of Architecture, Facolta di Architettura, Universita degli Studi di Firenze, Oxford Brookes University, UK, , pp. 2.05. – 2.06. Law on Planning and Construction, Official Gazette of RS, No. 72/2009, 81/2009 – corr., 64/2010, 24/2011 and 121/2012. Regulations on energy efficiency of buildings, Official Gazette of RS, No. 61/2011. Regulations on the conditions, content and manner of issuing certificates of energy performance of buildings, Official Gazette of RS, No. 69/2012. Regulation on establishing the program for realising the power supply development strategy up to 2015, 2007 – 2012). Stojkov, B. (ed.), 2008, City of Belgrade Development Strategy, PALGO Centre, Belgrade.
SLOVENIA | 245 started with systematical collection of the data on it in public buildings. In municipalities, public buildings include administration and office buildings, primary schools, and kindergartens. The EnergaP coordinated the energy management system in form of different initiatives for city districts supporting the introduction of the centralised energy management system, incorporating the data on energy consumption, energy costs and CO2 emissions, and the integration of REP. EnergaP, established by financial support of EU, acts also as a contact point for European networks, serving the local, regional, and national players, as well as for the collaboration in the field of energy-management incentive funds at national and EU level. Additionally, in the transport sector sustainable mobility was the topic of several research projects conducted by EnergaP. They set the theoretical and practical basis for increasing the awareness of the efficient energy use, followed by presenting the best practice models to the community. In order to achieve the LEC’s objectives, the EnergaP also integrated the motivation of the industrial and commercial sector, which interest for the energy issues seemed to be declining. One of the first projects initiated by the EnergaP was the international three-year’ ‘Minus3%’ Project, established by five European cities as project partners: Dublin, Derry, Graz, Malacky, Teruel, and Maribor in the period 2009 – 2011. The main objective was to develop innovative methodology for the monitoring and assessment of energy consumption in existing buildings as a new instrument adaptable for other regions. The ‘showcase project’ was dedicated to the analyses and monitoring the energy-efficiency in 120 public buildings. As a main idea, the financial model on how to achieve the 3% savings yearly was systematically prepared. The first part focused on the step-by-step energy management process, dealing with the commitments, roles, and responsibilities of the energy manager and his team, the setting up of the energy database, and action plan, which integrates the implementation of appropriate measures in practice. The second part was a showcase project dedicated to concrete renovation of the building of the primary school (Osnovna šola Tone Cufar) in Maribor that integrated the refurbishment of facades, roof and floors, the retrofitting of entrance doors and windows, and the renovation of the heating system. In case of the renovation of heating system, the modern gas condensation boilers replaced old fuel driven boilers. Within the Minus3% Project the Central Energy Management System (CEMS), launched in September 2008, has been tested. As one of the main initiatives by EnergaP, the CEMS was prepared in collaboration with experts and companies for controlling and monitoring the energy consumption for electricity and heating in public buildings. Among them, for the MOM primary schools and kindergartens were most relevant in view of energy costs, as well as GHG emissions. Based on the information and communication technologies, the CEMS enables the access to energy database for individual units, buildings, and group of buildings via Internet. The database’s intention was primarily recording of authorised persons for monthly controlling of electricity and heat consumption, including costs, taxes and fees. Additional data on certain values, such as weather conditions, fuel prices, specific energy delivery agreements, and physical characteristics of buildings are included in the model. The system automatically calculates the GHG emissions concerning the source of energy for individual building, analyses the data and presents the results in different modes. The most indicative data is the calculation of costs of energy consumption in € per unit of one m2 or user per building. The controlling of energy consumption, costs, and CO2 is based on the comparison between the calculated and the predicted savings over years. It enables the controlling of the system’s functionality, and, in parallel, motivates the users for savings higher than the calculated ones. In such a case, the costs are attributed back to the users. Since the CEMS is based on the four-steps-principle planning– doing–checking–acting, the EnergaP acts as the main manager to overview both, the users’ and buildings’ energy consumption.
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