Exploring the context and meaning of expatriation: a sensemaking approach

1 Running title: The context and meaning of expatriation Exploring the context and meaning of expatriation: a sensemaking approach Abstract Sensemaking is a collaborative and on-going process through which organizational members create shared awareness and meaning out of ambiguous or uncertain situations. From a sensemaking perspective, this study explores how employees build an expatriation shared-meaning, generate expectations, form a decision of staying or leaving, enact expatriation success and ultimately assess expatriation value. Data from a case study within the retail sector were collected, using a qualitative approach. Although small scaled by design, this qualitative case study shows how the sensemaking theory helps understand the concept and value of expatriation. This paper contributes to the expatriation and sensemaking theories by exposing how expatriation shared meaning drives attitudes, expectations and motives toward expatriation, and how international workers enact expatriation success, thus influencing their willingness to relocate. Implications for IHRM theory and practice are also discussed. Keywords: expatriation, international assignment, sensemaking, shared-meaning, IHRM 2 Introduction The expansion of activity and academic interest in the field of International Human Resource Management (IHRM) has done much to develop present knowledge on the issue of global staffing. Many progresses have been made on the organizational motives to use expatriates (Dickmann, Doherty, Mills and Brewster, 2008; Edstrom and Galbraith, 1997; Harzing, 2000; 2001) and the challenges associated with expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment and adjustment outcomes (Bhaskar-Shrinivas, Harrison, Shaffer and Luk, 2005; Black, Mendenhall and Oddou, 1991; Shay and Baack, 2004). Yet, as the field continues developing, there are increasing calls to study other forms of international mobility, and to further explore the link between organizations’ strategy and IHRM outcomes (Bonache, Brewster and Suutari, 2001; Bonache, Brewster, Suutari and Petra de Saá, 2010; Collings, Scullion and Dowling, 2009). Some potential directions for the field have been suggested (Bonache et al., 2010; Caligiuri and Colakoglu, 2007; Collings et al., 2009), including: (1) expanding the research object – from classic expatriation to other forms of international assignments (e.g. frequent travelling, self-initiated expatriation, short-term assignments, commuting, and virtual working); (2) shifting the epistemological direction – from an objectivist ontological and epistemological view towards a constructionist approach, which envisions international assignments as something collectively created and constructed; (3) focusing the heterogeneity among international assignments, featuring the contexts in which they are embedded; (4) directing efforts to do more process-oriented research within work on global staffing and expatriation literature; and (5) employing new theoretical approaches to reframe old questions and generate new insights. In sum, to further extend the research on expatriation, it is helpful to posit new questions, such as the meaning and value of expatriation for stakeholders involved; 3 adopt new methodological approaches that help build a more nuanced and detailed picture of expatriation, through the use of qualitative methods including case studies and narratives; and study new contexts, including new regions and new industries. On the basis of these suggestions, this paper explores the concept of sensemaking (Weick, 1995) in understanding the meaning and value of expatriation. Data from a case study within the retail sector were collected, using a qualitative approach. By tackling these less studied questions and theoretical framework, this study adds to the existing knowledge of IHRM and expatriation, and offers empirical insights, which enrich the field. Although small scaled by design, this qualitative case study shows how the sensemaking theory helps understand the concept and value of expatriation, how shared meaning drives attitudes, expectations and motives toward expatriation, and how international workers enact expatriation success. Expatriation Traditionally, expatriation has been defined as a temporary displacement to a different country during which expatriates are expected to attain business goals. The distinction made by Inkson, Arthur, Pringle and Barry (1997) between expatriate assignment (EA) and overseas experience (OE) is still useful to distinguish expatriation from other forms of corporate and individual international mobility. Expatriation is a corporate initiative that differs from other corporate assignments, such as frequent travelling, short-term assignments, commuter assignments, and virtual working, essentially for its longer-term relationship, which justifies the move of partner and family (Bonache et al., 2010; Meyskens, Von Glinow, Werther and Clarke, 2009). Expatriation also differs from other mobility initiatives, such as self-initiated expatriation and migration, essentially because it is grounded in the company. 4 While international mobility can assume multiple forms, which may evolve over time and even overlap (e.g., someone may initiate a short-term assignment and become a long-term emigrant), this study focuses solely expatriation. Expatriation is herein defined as a company assignment initiative, through which the employing organization displaces an employee to another country, on a long-term but temporary basis, where he or she is expected to accomplish pre-defined business goals, such as searching for local market opportunities, launch a host subsidiary, share business knowledge, control, or simply fill a local skill gap. Expatriation involves new challenges and usually provides the opportunity for the development of personal and professional competencies (e.g. Kohonen, 2004; Mäkelä and Suutari, 2009), including financial incentives (Tornikoski, 2011; Warneke and Schneider, 2011), and career implications (e.g. Benson and Pattie, 2008; Dickmann and Harris, 2005; Jokinen, 2010; Stahl and Cerdin, 2004; Stahl, Chua, Caligiuri, Cerdin and Taniguchi, 2009). Of the studies that have explicitly addressed motivations to go abroad, most have taken an individual motivational approach (see Brett and Stroh, 1995; Haines III, Saba and Choquette, 2008; Hippler 2009; Pinto, Cabral-Cardoso and Werther, 2012), or a career related approach (see Dickmann et al., 2008; Riusala and Suutari, 2000; Suutari, 2003); while others have compared corporate expatriates’ motivations with the motivations of other populations, such as self-initiated expatriates (e.g. Doherty, Dickmann and Mills, 2011) and students (e.g. Doherty, Dickmann and Mills, 2010). Although there is considerable information on the motivations of corporate expatriates, there are still opportunities for further research, including the exploration of the decision-making process and how sensemaking unfolds this process. The extent to which corporate employees are aware of the organizational motives to expatriate is likely to shape their sensemaking process, their own motivations and 5 expectations about expatriation and thereafter, their decision to relocate. Previous expatriation literature has also suggested that pre-departure preparation may foster anticipatory adjustment and therefore influence expatriation success (Black et al., 1991; Zimmermann, Holman and Sparrow, 2003). However, the adoption of a sensemaking approach, highlights the idea that anticipatory and in-country adjustment are nothing more than “frozen schemes” (Glanz, Williams and Hoeksema, 2001), and expatriation is likely to start, in the mind of corporate employees, much before the acceptance of an assignment. Likewise, expatriation expectations and employees’ willingness to relocate are likely to be influenced by the organizational context and meaning of expatriation, which is enlightened by a sensemaking approach. For instance Doherty and Dickmann (2009) provided an empirical illustration of the symbolic capital associated with traditional international assignments. Through a case study approach, they showed that in the firm studied, international experience was considered essential to business development and career progression. Such organizational context moulded the organizational policies and practices related with the international assignments, which shaped their symbolic capital and the perceptions of their economic utility. Expatriates’ expectations and perception of the benefits of an international assignment were rooted in the organizational context, and in the recognition of others, which show that expatriation careers are also symbolically constructed. Overall, the sensemaking theory constitutes a comprehensive framework through which expatriation experience and worth can be further explored. Therefore, this paper explores the concept of sensemaking, examines its central features, and attempts to uncover how sensemaking can be used to expose the value and meaning of expatriation in the study context. 6 Sensemaking According to Weick (1995), sensemaking is a central concept to understand organizations because it is a collaborative and on-going process through which organizational members create shared awareness and meaning out of ambiguous or uncertain situations. To distinguish the concept from other competing constructs, Weick proposed some basic moments to describe the process of sensemaking (Weick, Sutcliffe and Obstfeld, 2005). First, sensemaking starts from chaos and disruptive events. It starts with individuals becoming aware of new issues and differences (e.g. a foreign venture). It is this initial step, which is influenced by life experience, training and previous organizational involvement that guide subsequent actions. For instance, the employee noticing the company is investing out of the country, may become aware of firm’s international initiatives and co-workers experience abroad. Second, sensemaking involves categorization and labelling: observed events and cues are named and categorized, in a way that aid future actions. At this stage, categories are prototypical and likely to alter (Weick et al., 2005). For instance, in case of expatriation, employees may become aware of the existence of different forms of international assignments within the firm, some temporary and short-term, and others involving longer term displacements. These categories are further used to interpret and sort the information and guide employees’ attitudes and actions about international duties. Third, sensemaking involves retrospection, which occurs when people rationalize and name their actions (Weick et al., 2005). Sensemaking is an unfolding process, which means people often label an event or action (e.g. expatriation), without fully capturing what is on-going. Certainly the ‘meaning’ of expatriation fully extends beyond the label, though this initial labelling carries already a symbolic meaning (Doherty and Dickmann, 2009). 7 Fourth, sensemaking connects abstractions with actions: is about ‘presumption’ (Weick et al., 2005, p. 412). It is through the language and construction of narratives that people understand what they think. This enactment applied to the expatriation context means it is through action and reflection that people understand and organize their international experience. Fifth, sensemaking is a social and systemic activity, influenced by many interpersonal variables. As sensemaking is contextualized and unfolds gradually from interactions, this means that information and knowledge on expatriation is not just in the heads of expatriates, but it is disseminated through the organization, including home and host co-workers. Sixth, sensemaking is acted out: talk leads to action, which in turn leads to talk, in an iterative and sequential flux (Weick et al., 2005). This means that expatriates (and colleagues) make sense of the international experience by acting reflexively: they first use their existing frameworks to subsequently test new interpretations and new frameworks. Finally, sensemaking involves ‘symbolically encoded representations’ (Weick et al., 2005, p. 413), taking place in interactive communications. As in any context, during expatriation, tacit knowledge is iteratively made explicit and ordered through language and communication. Expatriates try to create meaning (of themselves, the events and others), from how others create meaning of events, in an interdependent interactive process. In sum, the conceptualization of expatriation as a sensemaking process draws more on the contextual factors influencing it than on individual characteristics. Overall, this approach favours plausibility over accuracy (Weick, 1995; Weick et al, 2005), in the accounting of events, which directs expatriation research to a more process-oriented view. Despite the fact that Black et al. (1991) have incorporated Louis model (Louis, 1980) and sensemaking theory into the interpretation of role transitions and the 8 description of expatriation adjustment, not much subsequent research has followed this approach. In their work on sensemaking in expatriation, Glanz et al. (2001) reframed previous contributions to propose a hypothetical model relating sensemaking with expatriates’ acculturation responses, such as adjustment, satisfaction with the assignment, and further willingness to relocate. In this conceptual framework, the expatriation sensemaking process encompasses four main inputs: broad individual characteristics, past experience, influence of others, and local interpretation schemes. These inputs are then mediated by a ‘sense of coherence’ and ‘sociocultural brokerage’ to operationalize the expatriation sensemaking concept (Glanz et al., 2001, p. 104). In accordance with this model, past experience is a key component of the sensemaking process within a firm, influencing others and shaping company expatriation shared scheme. Thus, a corporate employee who sees difficulties and problems affecting expatriates and/or repatriates colleagues may be making sense for himself about the interest and value of expatriation, thus decreasing his or her expectations and willingness to relocate. Inversely, corporate employees who see potential difficulties and problems being overcome by assignees, and being supported by organizational policies and practices, will make sense for themselves about the interest and value of expatriation, which will influence their expectations, their willingness to relocate, and ultimately might enact their future expatriation success. Under a sensemaking approach, expatriation is a dynamic process: cues are used to construct expatriation frameworks and cognitive representations, and these frameworks provide cues for further action. In this continuous process, outputs are just snapshot moments (Glanz et al, 2001; Weick, 1995), which can be depicted and explored. From the same background, Kelly and Morley (2011) developed a model of repatriation sensemaking, which includes triggers and inputs of repatriation 9 sensemaking, and a description of the repatriation sensemaking process and its outcomes. Triggers of repatriation sensemaking include change, contrast, and surprise, while inputs comprise past experience, personal characteristics, local interpretation schemes and the influence of others (Kelly and Morley, 2011). In returning home, repatriates face a number of changes, which are personally perceived, contrasted, and are a source of surprise. The information from others, together with the possession of personal resources, such as self-efficacy and relational skills, the experience in relocating, and the integration into the dominant corporate code of conduct, facilitate the repatriation sensemaking process. When this sensemaking process is disrupted, because the changes undergone during the assignment altered the expatriate identification and commitment with the company, and his/her ability to make sense of the experience, negative outcomes might arise, such as lack of well-being, dissatisfaction, withdrawal cognitions and turnover. In sum, these models have proposed a sensemaking approach to understand the meaning of expatriation and repatriation, which emphasize the importance of context and its interplay with social cognitions. Yet, empirical evidence on expatriationrepatriation sensemaking is scarce. One of the few exceptions is the work of Kohonen (2004), who investigated the impact of international experience on expatriates’ identities. Based on the narratives of four Finnish expatriates, she found that their international experience influenced their identities, which were perceived and reflected in their narratives. Further, expatriation was perceived as a significant experience that opened new opportunities for self-awareness, development, and self-knowledge. As a result of this self-exploration, and self-construction process, some expatriates developed new management competencies, while others went through cultural identity changes. 16 Theme 1: What is the meaning of expatriation (in context)? To analyse the meaning of expatriation in the organization studied, were considered the perceptions of interviewed managers according to their situation (e.g. being an invited domestic worker, an expatriate, or a repatriate), highlighting their retrospective accounts about the beginning and continuance of the assignment. Also data were gathered on the sources of this information. For these individuals, two sources of meaning were relevant: from within the company (e.g. top managers and co-workers); and from outside (e.g. friends and relatives). Overall, three themes were common in the perceptions of all interviewees regarding expatriation. First, emerged the idea that an expatriation depends much on the destination: "one thing is to go to a country that we know of, and we have more or less an idea of how it works... (…) but Angola, India, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, etc…, which are countries that we need to face because that's where the business opportunities are… I mean, people cannot go "blind fully", because these countries are very different from ours, have many other issues that we are not used to…” (Invited manager to Angola). Second, emerged the reference that an expatriation entails determination and effort to adjust, which can be hard depending on the destination: "it is the whole process of adjustment, we like it or not… We live in a peaceful country without security problems, (so) when we have to spend time with these basic concerns, clearly that affects our work" (Expatriate in Spain). Third, emerged the common conviction that an expatriation is more than a career step because it accrues professional and personal self-development: “I think I wanted to have this experience, because it adds value… I think it opens up the mind... I think we won it!” (Repatriate from Brazil). 17 These representations are shared among research participants and form the basis of a collective expatriation shared-meaning. In terms of differences in the meaning of expatriation, Table 1 outlines the main findings, reported in accordance with participants’ situation. ------------------------------ Insert Table 1 about here ------------------------------ Within this organization, invited workers were concerned with the assignment and its potential risks, as stressed by one invited manager to Angola: “the company, throughout its history, has made a series of bets in new businesses, and not all have been successful or successful enough to endure. That is, there have been some bets that have not been as good, or as positive, or as successfully as others (...). But this does not mean that it may happen again…” Yet, this concern is not echoed by expatriates and repatriates, who outlined the risk of return instead: “today the return of expatriates is a problem (…), even when the internationalization process is successful, when they return home they may not find the structure or an appropriate job…” (Repatriate from Spain). Among the invited workers also emerged the perception that an expatriation is a career opportunity, which entails risk but also gratitude: “I consider it a career development and I know that, once again, to take a step forward, I have to prove that I deserve to be on the role that I was entrusted.” (Invited manager to Turkey). Likewise, another manager invited to Angola, considered expatriation so critical to the success of the company international growth that claims it should be mandatory: “nowadays no professional can afford not aiming an international career (…) in fact no company should employ people who are not available for an international career! It makes no 18 sense, within a global market, to employ people who just want to remain where they are. They simply don’t add value to the company”. In summary, the meaning of expatriation in this organization is constructed by the people involved, either directly or indirectly, through the influence and interaction with others, inside and outside the company. Constructed frameworks reveal a collective shared-meaning of expatriation voicing the idea that it is a corporate venture, which depends on the destination country, demands individual effort, and entails professional and personal self-development. As expected, this sensemaking process is embedded in past experiences, which raised pre-departure perceptions of uncertainty and risk, but outstretched the conviction that the company can leverage expatriation success: “I think (international success) has more to do with the company, which is prepared to pursue any challenge, than to the fact that it failed the operation in Brazil... I think (success) has more to do with the attributes of this company.” Theme 2: What are the expectations (in context)? The expectations about expatriation were explored as the subjective perceptions held by the interviewees about the company goals to use international assignments, and their own personal motives to work abroad. On the company motives to use expatriation, there is consensus along the idea that international assignments are core to the company investments abroad, and expatriation is a fundamental cornerstone of its international growth. The company needs the involvement of its best, which was reflected among the motivations to go abroad: “it is the connection with the company. Look, we work for this company (we) do not work for another one! And we enjoy working for this company and this company is internationalizing, so..." (Invited manager to Turkey). 19 Based on Louis (1980) expectations dimensions; and Caligiuri, Philips, Lazarova, Tarique and Burgi (2001) work, showing that the lack of information and clarity regarding the assignment influence initial expectations, three dimensions were added to the content analysis, to account for expatriation expectations. These dimensions are: information about the assignment, the focus of expectations, and expectations alignment, which are presented in Table 2. ------------------------------ Insert Table 2 about here ------------------------------ As it is outlined in Table 2, expatriates and repatriates agree in considering the information prior to the assignment sufficient. Only invited managers feel at ease with the information provided by the company, vis-à-vis personal matters: “I have good indications of what I am expected to do there, and how I should do it, but in personal terms nothing was discussed yet.” Regarding the focus of expectations, six categories emerged from data: three were common to all assignment situations (e.g., destination project/role, host country and self-development), two were common to invited domestic employees and repatriates (e.g., family and repatriation), and only the category ‘anxiety’ was mentioned by two invited assignees. Expectations regarding the destination project, the host country, and the repatriation process dominated the references of all interviewees. Invited managers were generally more unease, and some were anxious about the assignment: “much is expected about the project - building something different, creating something new, creating an area of activity in Angola”; “on the other hand, I'll come back a better professional, even if I do not return for a better position, at least immediately, I believe I will be better prepared to progress”; “so, it is the belief that I'm 20 going to learn a lot that feeds me.” Concern for the consequences of the assignment on family members is also mentioned by invited domestic employees and repatriates: “our ability to adapt as a family in a different environment, we will have to have that strength, and I'm also hoping to see that.” Finally, regarding the (mis)alignment of expectations, one invited manager to Angola referred he did not hold expectations to prevent future disappointments: “I'll tell you that now, when we are approaching the date, I think ... (…) I do not have many expectations ... I am looking for…, I will not have many expectations, neither good nor bad, you know? It is to be as open as possible, to receive information, to filter it, and wait for things to start, and then understand how I will ‘play the ball’ so to speak...” This management of expectations is also present among expatriates and repatriates, who mentioned several disappointments, mainly related with the repatriation process and their own self-development. The following statements illustrate these misalignments: “I did not know that the market was so different from ours (…) the labour market is completely different from ours” (Repatriate from Brazil); “I expected the return to be easier (…) I've read several articles about it, even when repatriates say goodbye and leave the company, also friends... I saw it happen, but haven’t thought it would happen to me, but it happened...” (Repatriate from Brazil); “professionally, I was waiting for a career path upon return that I hadn’t. At that time, I asked myself "why I came?” (Repatriate from Brazil). In summary, these data suggest the management of expectations is more effective focusing the professional dimensions of the assignment (e.g. the destination project and role), than the aspects affecting personal and family life. Expectations are also better managed before the move than after the assignment. 21 Theme 3: How is the decision-process? To understand the decision-process linked to the acceptance of expatriation, we ran an analysis of respondents’ perceptions of the inputs and contextual factors influencing this decision. For these individuals, the contextual triggers for the assignment were the firm business strategy coupled with employees’ technical expertise and previous international experience: “In accordance with my previous work experience in the company: I knew the brand, I knew the key players in this business, I knew all the business processes… It was much easier to relocate someone like me to launch the business and introduce the brand in the host market.” (Repatriate from Spain). As a consequence, the expatriation was perceived as a natural role outcome for people holding management accountabilities in the company, even if it defied a long negotiation process: “it was a corporate invitation, an invitation for… Well, my colleague who was posted in Spain had repatriated, the company needed someone in Spain, so the invitation come” (Expatriate in Spain). In summary, three key findings emerged from data. First, the company was perceived to place international assignments as part of its business strategy, and thereafter, the expatriation was seen as a role extension and a predictable outcome of the working-contract. Second, this role outcome was perceived as a positive cue, being presented as an appreciation of expertise, and communicated as a call. Third, this communication was meant to be distinctive, and thus the invitation was only target to those who could add value (to the project and the company). It is this presumption that the company needs its best, recognizes their expertize, and values their commitment, that makes the expatriation call undeniable: “well, the invitation come from… the faith among us was so high, there is such a personal spirit of doing things right among all, 22 from the president, to the vice-president, to the lower-level worker, that when we have to move to someplace, we move! And it is to suffer and to win!” (Expatriate in Spain). Theme 4: What should people do (in context)? Having explored the meaning of expatriation in the case organization, the expectations about the international assignments and the expatriation decision-process, this theme describes employees’ willingness to relocate. Among research participants, five managers were keen to relocate again, in part for the interest in leaving the home country, and for the conviction that expatriation is part of a manager’s role in the company. On contrary, six managers were sceptical about accepting another assignment, which would depend on the fulfilment of three premises: the destination country, the expatriation package, and the family situation: “when I say ‘I would accept’ depends on many things… (...) everything has a price” (Repatriate from Brazil). Finally, two managers expressed their unwillingness to relocate in future: “I think everyone has to do his share and I've done mine. I don’t say ‘no’ to help launching another business for a few months, or mentor someone to go abroad, but going again to Brazil or Angola, certainly not!” (Expatriate in Spain). In summary, these observations suggest a shared ambivalence: on one hand expatriation is core to the company expansion and so managers consent to hold its share; on the other hand, expatriation is a deal with no immediate or guaranteed payoff that requires further thinking. The onus of this decision is on employees’ shoulders, as was made explicit by one senior expatriate: “I think that in such cases people have to… but depends on what, which country is, in which circumstances... For example, Angola, is a country that does not please, you know? So it depends...” 23 Theme 5: What is the worth of expatriation (in context)? This theme describes the references on the worth of an international assignment, through the view-point of invited workers (before leaving), expatriates, and repatriates. In particular, participants were asked about the worth of an expatriation and how they valued their present or last assignment. Among respondents, there was a common perception of mixed outcomes. One interviewee commented how workload and work strain occupied his days: “the amount of work and things that need to be treated is so great, that despite being a busy day, we arrive at night without noticing the day has passed” (Expatriate in Spain); while other focused the separation from family: “obviously being away from family is always a downside, but it doesn’t affect me much, because (Spain) is a close culture.” To a certain extent all interviewees expected and attained some added capital (e.g. financial, social, and symbolic) from expatriation: “no one agrees to go abroad thinking on returning for worse (...) Having pursued the assignment in Angola, I do not expect to stay in Angola for long, (…), and therefore my expectation is to return, and obviously to come back for the better (…). For the best: in terms of career, in terms of position in the company, etc.” Yet, the worth of this accumulated capital was perceived to depend on the company: “I thought (expatriation) would add value to my career, (...) I expected a career plan, which in my opinion did not exist. When I say ‘a plan’, is not only the money, which is obviously important but ... It is to say clearly: ‘this went wrong for that …, and this ran well for this and this, so you'll have that’. I think there must be a relationship; which I think never existed, never worked, and therefore, that part was bad...” (Repatriate from Brazil). Overall, the value of expatriation for these managers is ruled by the organizational context, which is consistent with the expectations they held and the 24 shared-meaning of expatriation. The value of expatriation and its potential contributions to further personal development and career progression outside the firm, were absent from the comments. This ‘company focus’ is well reflected on the words of one invited manager: “I am very involved with this project, and this involvement with the project also calls for my involvement with the company, and the experience and the challenge, and the professional growth that may arise therefrom. (...) What expectations do I have? I expect the company to be more consolidated in three years from now.” Discussion and Conclusions This study explored, from a sensemaking approach, how the organizational context and social interactions influence the meaning of expatriation. The empirical analysis focused five key themes: (1) the meaning of expatriation; (2) the expectations about expatriation; (3) the decision making process leading to the expatriation decision; (4) the willingness to expatriate; and (5) the worth of expatriation. Several interesting findings emerged from the analysis. First, data from this case study show that an international assignment begins in the mind of each person much before the acceptance, and certainly before the move. The expatriation sensemaking unfolded from noticing cues (e.g. “the company is investing abroad”), from interpreting them (e.g. “the company needed someone”), and from labelling (e.g. “so the invitation”). Even if discrepancies and particularities persist among interviewed managers, a shared-meaning of expatriation emerged: built around the conviction that expatriation is a temporary company endeavour that entails effort in keeping with the challenges of the destination, and has ambiguous consequences that exceeds career outcomes. As shown, the locus of this expatriation knowledge was 25 spread in the company, across the managers involved in this research, but also emerging among workers who have never been abroad. Second, the findings of this study show that international moves were determined by company changes and corporate investment decisions. Not much selfdirectedness was observed, which contradicts previous findings on the importance of an internationalism career anchor (Suutari and Taka, 2004), or a boundaryless career orientation (Suutari, Tornikoski and Mäkelä, 2012). Some managers did not hold anticipatory expectations either, which suggest they had no clear sense of what they aimed with the expatriation, nor had an unambiguous view of the next step. Third, the decision process voiced by international managers’ shows that organizational change and employees’ commitment with the company were the main drivers of this decision. Many managers became expatriates without any aspiration or previous international experience, thus corroborating previous empirical evidence on global managers’ career triggers (e.g. Cappellen and Janssens, 2010). Most managers entered into expatriation through a corporate invitation, which was perceived as a call of duty in credit for their technical and managerial expertise. Fourth, sensemaking is also about action (Weick et al, 2005) that culminated with the unfolding of the assignment. In this firm, expatriation was more important to the company than to employees involved. As data show, there is a collective consent to hold one share to engage in the corporate venture of international growth, but reiteration is largely unwelcomed. In accordance with the sensemaking approach, to ‘make sense’ is to iteratively connect the abstraction with the action (Weick et al, 2005). It is connecting the meaning of expatriation with the action of being an expatriate. In this case, the retrospective rationalization of the action of being an expatriate, who do not hold high expectations 32 Kelly, G., and Morley, M. J. 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(2003), ‘Unravelling adjustment mechanisms: adjustment of German expatriates to intercultural interactions, work, and living conditions in the People’s Republic of China,’ Intercultural Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 3(1), 45-66. 35 Appendix 1. Sample demographics N Percent N Percent N Percent Number of interviews 4 30.77% 4 30.77% 5 38.46% Age Average; st. Deviation 41.0; 6.88 37.2; 6.90 38.8; 4.76 [Min, Max] [36, 51] [28; 43] [32; 45] Gender Male 4 100% 4 100% 3 60% Female 0 0% 0 0% 2 40% Marital status Married 4 100% 3 75% 3 60% Unmarried 0 0% 1 25% 2 40% Education High School 0 0% 1 25% 2 40% College 4 100% 3 75% 3 60% Tenure in the assignment (months) Average; st. Deviation 34.3; 4.99 31.4; 5.55 [Min, Max] [29; 38] [24; 36] Seniority in the company Average; st. Deviation 16.5; 5.45 12.6; 7.86 11.8; 2.06 [Min, Max] [12; 24] [4; 19] [10; 14] With previous international experience 0 1 2 Destination Country Angola 2 50% 0 0% 0 0% Brazil 0 0% 0 0% 3 60% Spain 1 25% 4 100% 2 40% Turkey 1 25% 0 0% 0 0% Invited Domestic Employee Expatriate Repatriate Sample Demographics 36 Table 1. The meaning of expatriation in context: differences between invited domestic employees, expatriates and repatriates Meanings of Expatriation Before the Assignment After the Assignment Invited Domestic Employee • Expatriation depends on the company • Expatriation (in the actual context) involves high risks • Expatriation entails gratitude “proving it is well deserved” • Expatriation should be mandatory • Not applicable Expatriate • Expatriation enhances professional and personal self-development • It is through local immersion and action that expatriation can be assessed • Expatriation requires skill: adaptability and resilience Repatriate • Expatriation is not always good • Expatriation is “once in a lifetime” 37 Table 2. The expectations about expatriation among invited domestic employees, expatriates and repatriates Expectations about expatriation Information about the assignment Focus of expectations Alignment of expectations Invited Domestic Employee • Insufficient, reflecting added uncertainty on personal matters • Destination Project/Role • Host country • Repatriation • Self-development • Family • Anxiety • No initial expectations Expatriate • Sufficient • Destination Project/Role • Host country • Self-development • Local reality aligned with initial expectations • Misalignment with host country expectations Repatriate • Sufficient • Destination Project/Role • Host country • Repatriation • Self-development • Family • Misalignment because of local unplanned changes • Misalignment with repatriation expectations • Misalignment with selfdevelopment expectations