«Reinstalling the Old City of Goa as an Eternal Light of Portuguese Spirituality»: The Plan for the Reintegration of Old Goa at the End of the Colonial Period

SANTOS, Joaquim Rod igues dos. “«Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y»: The Plan o he Rein eg a ion o Old Goa a he End o he Colonial Pe iod”. In: A chi ec u al His o ies. Lond es: Ubiqui y P ess, 2016, ol.4, n .1, pp.1-21. San os, J R 2016 ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’: The Plan o he Rein eg a ion o Old Goa a he End o he Colonial Pe iod. A chi ec u al His o ies, 4(1): 9, pp. 1–21, DOI: h p://dx.doi.o g/10.5334/ah.58 * ARTIS — Ins i u e o His o y o A , PT † School o A s and Humani ies, Uni e si y o Lisbon, PT joaquim .san [email protected] $UFKLWHFWXUDO +LVWRULHV RESEARCH ARTICLE ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’: The Plan o he Rein eg a ion o Old Goa a he End o he Colonial Pe iod Joaquim Rod igues San os*,† On he e e o he Indian in asion o he Po uguese Es ado da Índia, o Po uguese India, a commission led by Ismael G acias, c ea ed an idealized plan o he ein eg a ion o Old Goa, he o me capi al o he Po uguese Eas e n Empi e. Fo he Po uguese dic a o ial egime, he ambien o c isis caused by h ea s o an imminen Indian in asion gene a ed a need o jus i y he Po uguese pe manence in India. This would be accomplished by showing he wo ld he secula his o y o he Po uguese p esence in India, isible symbolically in he g ea a chi ec u al monumen s o Old Goa. The Goan monumen s o Po u- guese in luence hus became a powe ul and ideological ins umen o p opaganda, alida ing he he i age ac i i y on hem. This a icle will ocus on he in ended plan o he G acias commission, as well as i s epe cussions wi hin he echnical s a and he poli ical leade s bo h in Po ugal and in he Es ado da Índia. Based on esea ch o p ima y Po uguese sou ces, his a icle con ibu es o he li le-s udied and ela i ely unknown ield o he p ese a ion o he a chi ec u al he i age in he Po uguese Es ado da Índia, and b ie ly compa es his case wi h simila ones om he colonial pe iod. Resumo Nas éspe as da in asão Indiana do Es ado da Índia po uguesa, ou Índia Po uguesa, oi idealizado um plano pa a a ein eg ação de Velha Goa, a an iga capi al do Impé io Po uguês do O ien e, po uma comissão lide ada po Ismael G acias. Pa a o egime di a o ial po uguês, o ambien e de c ise, o iginado po ameaças de uma emi- nen e in asão indiana, ge ou a necessidade de jus i ica a pe manência po uguesa na Índia. Tal deside a o se ia alcançado mos ando ao mundo a secula his ó ia da p esença po uguesa na Índia, simbolicamen e isí el na g andiosa a qui ec u a dos monumen os de Velha Goa. Os monumen os goeses com in luência po uguesa o - na am-se assim pode osos ins umen os ideológicos de p opaganda, alidando as acções pa imoniais ealizadas sob e eles. Es e a igo p e ende analisa o plano conce- bido pela comissão de Ismael G acias, bem como as suas epe cussões nos co pos écnicos e nas lide anças polí icas de Po ugal e do Es ado da Índia. Baseando-se numa pes- quisa em on es p imá ias po uguesas, o a igo con ibui pa a o conhecimen o num campo ainda pouco es u- dado e ela i amen e desconhecido, o da p ese ação do pa imónio a qui ec ónico no Es ado da Índia po uguesa, compa ando es e caso com ou os simila es do pe íodo colonial. Po uguese Poli ics: Monumen s as P opaganda The Exposição do Mundo Po uguês (Exhibi ion o he Po uguese Wo ld) ha ook place be ween July and Decembe 1940, pa o he celeb a ion con ex on he Duplo Cen ená io da Fundação e Res au ação da Independência de Po ugal (Double Cen ena y o he Founda ion and Res o a ion o he Independence o Po - ugal), was he p opagandis ic apogee o he Po uguese dic a o ship’s colonial policy, unde he sign o he Po - uguese impe ialis mys ique. While he es o he wo ld was sinking in o he bloodies con lic in his o y, a mag- ni icen celeb a ion on he g ea ness o he Po uguese people was aking place in Po ugal, na a ing glo ious e en s o i s his o y. A ha ime, Po ugal was go e ned by An ónio de Oli ei a Salaza (1889–1970), in a dic a o ial egime called he Es ado No o (New S a e). This egime, ins i u ed by a new Po uguese Cons i u ion in 1933, de eloped an ideological p og amme ha cha ac e ized he Po uguese dic a o ship, un il i s end in 1974, wi h a Ca holic adi ion- alis , na ionalis and colonialis conse a ism, p esen ing oman ic eelings o nos algia o he p esumably ‘pe ec pas ’ when Po ugal had o med i sel and hen c ea ed a as o e seas empi e, becoming a wo ld-class na ion.1 The impe ialis agenda o he dic a o ial egime was clea ly assumed wi h he app o al o he Ac o Colonial (Colonial Ac ) in 1930, included in he Cons i u ion o 1933. By his Ac , he o e seas e i o ies unde Po uguese ule we e designa ed he Impé io Colonial Po uguês (Po uguese Colonial Empi e), and he al eady limi ed San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 2 o 21 au onomy o he colonies was u he es ic ed, e lec ing he cen alizing impe ialis cha ac e o he Es ado No o. The igh o conque , explo e, missionize and ci ilize he colonies was in ac implici in he Ac . The eno mous impo ance o he colonial empi e o he egime could be seen h ough he Exposição Colonial (Colonial Exhibi ion) held in Opo o in 1934, a majes ic e en in ended o ecall he abulous pe iod o he ‘Po uguese Disco e ies’ and o legi imize he Po uguese ule in i s colonies. Unde he sac osanc ini y o ‘Deus, Pá ia e Família’ (God, Na ion and Family), he p opaganda based on he g ea na ional Pas became a powe ul ideological ins u- men , my hologizing he Po uguese people and he Po uguese soul: i s cul u e, adi ions, e hnici y and his- o y.2 The a chi ec u al monumen s we e pe soni ied as ‘sublime books o s one ull o memo ies’3 abou his o ical ac s, na ional he oes and ances al alues ha Po uguese people should be p oud o . These monumen s we e seen by he egime as p i ileged es imonies o na ional o igins and na ional expansion, and by linking buildings o ‘glo i- ous’ Po uguese e en s o ‘ he Pas ’, he egime con eyed i s ideological messages in a way ha was easy o unde - s and. Wi h he goal o embodying a messianic au a o a na ional sa iou ha would ennoble Po ugal once again, eco e ing he los splendou o he pas , he egime p omo ed a as campaign o he i age wo k on he mos symbolic Po uguese monumen s.4 ‘Res au ação ma e ial, es au ação mo al, es au ação nacional’ (Ma e ial es o- a ion, mo al es o a ion, na ional es o a ion) became a s ong mo o, equen ly epea ed by he egime. In 1929 he Di ecção-Ge al dos Edi ícios e Monumen os Nacional (DGEMN; Gene al Bu eau o he Buildings and Na ional Monumen s) was c ea ed as he Po uguese s a e en i y esponsible o he public wo ks, including he in e en ions in a chi ec u al he i age. Despi e he in luences om some Eu opean coun ies, he ac i i y o DGEMN on he a chi ec u al he i age in Po ugal had, in many aspec s, a singula ou e. Bu some s udy missions o Spain, I aly and F ance by DGEMN’s echnicians o lea n abou he he i age pano ama ab oad we e indeed conduc ed du ing he Es ado No o pe iod.5 Al hough F ance adi ionally had a as cul u al in luence on Po ugal, I alian ideas abou he i age conse a ion we e pe haps conside ed he mos ma u e a ha ime, mak- ing hem gene ally well ecei ed. In addi ion, o a long ime bo h I aly and neighbou ing Spain had na ionalis dic a o ships ha s ongly in luenced he Es ado No o egime, including i s use o a chi ec u al monumen s as ideological ins umen s o he go e nmen ’s own na ion- alis p opaganda. Unde he DGEMN, nume ous in e en ions we e ca - ied ou on na ional monumen s, especially he medie al and ea ly-mode n o i ica ions and chu ches associa ed wi h he o ma ion o Po ugal and i s o e seas expansion. The egime hough ha he a chi ec u al monumen s, o be easily pe cei ed and iden i ied wi h his o ical e en s o pe sons by he Po uguese people, should be e u ned o hei o iginal pu e shape by eleasing hem om he ‘spu ious addi ions’ a ached in he ollowing ‘decaden ’ pe iods ha obs uc ed o dis o ed hei image. The pa imonial and public wo ks and he ideological p opaganda could con e ge pe ec ly in he celeb a ions o he Double Cen ena y in 1940, which commemo a ed wo his o ical ac s wi h a emendous symbolism in he Po uguese memo y. The associa ion wi h e oca i e cel- eb a ions o iumphal his o ical e en s and he oes was usually exagge a ed by he egime. Howe e , i e yea s a e his magni icen celeb a ion o he Po uguese wo ld, he end o Wo ld Wa II b ough a huge change in global poli ical poke ela ed wi h colonial policies. Because o i s colonies in A ica and Asia, he Po uguese egime immedia ely el h ea ened by hose winds o change ha we e sweeping h ough he Eu opean colonial e i- o ies. Conce ning he Po uguese Es ado da Índia (S a e o India), he imminen independence o India caused g ea conce n among he Po uguese leade s. Adminis a ed by Po ugal since he i s hal o he 16 h cen u y, he Es ado da Índia was a ha ime a se o e i o ies si ua ed in he Indian subcon inen , comp ising Goa ( he e i o y o Goa wi h Anjadip Island), Daman ( he e i o y a ound Daman wi h he encla es o Dad a and Naga Ha eli) and Diu ( he e i o y encompassing he island o Diu wi h he peninsula o Gogolá and he excla e o Simbo ). The Ideological Legi ima ion o he Po uguese in India In Augus 1946, on he e e o he Indian independ- ence, he Cong ess Wo king Commi ee — he poli ical o ganiza ion ep esen ing he Indian pa du ing he independence p ocess — decla ed ha Goa was a pa o India unde o eign ule. Some days la e Jawaha lal Neh u (1889–1964), he u u e p esiden o India, e ealed a sim- ila posi ion. A he same ime began he poli ical p o es s o sa yag aha agains he Po uguese p esence in India, s a ing wi h peace ul in asions o he Po uguese e i- o ies o he Es ado da Índia (A ela 2012: 226–227). On Sep embe 1946 Oli ei a Salaza said i was ‘con enien o s a hinking abou his p oblem, in o de o p epa e elemen s o all kinds — his o ical, legal, s a is ical — o de end ou sel es in any in e na ional o um o e en o he Wo ld’ (Léona d 1999: 33–34). Oli ei a Salaza was clea ly op ing o a diploma ic de ence, ecognizing he mili a y weakness o Po ugal in he ace o supe io Indian mili a y powe . Fo he Po uguese egime, losing e en he inies pa cel o i s o e seas e i o ies was unaccep able; i would jeopa dize all he colonial empi e and, ul ima ely, he Es ado No o egime i sel . Fo Oli ei a Salaza , an e en ual wa would be los by Po ugal, bu he Po uguese na ional honou would be sa ed. And pe haps he mos impo an ac o : a policy o ic imiza ion could be used by he Po uguese egime o gua an ee he suppo o o he na ions in o de o main ain i s o he e i o ies, especially Angola and Mozambique, he iches ones. Theo e ically, in any case he Es ado da Índia could no be los , o i would mean he beginning o he end o he Po uguese Empi e. The independence o he Dominion o India om he B i ish ule was o malized on 17 Augus 1947, being pa o he successi e independence p ocess o he o me Eu opean colonies. A icle 2 o he Indian Independence San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’ A . 9, page 3 o 21 Ac p oclaimed ha e i o ies in he Indian subcon inen which we e no pa o Pakis an would be in eg a ed in o he Dominion o India — an explici e e ence o Indian e i o ies emaining unde Po uguese and F ench ule. By Janua y 1950 he Dominion o India changed i s na ional cons i u ion and became he Republic o India, and he so e eign y o e all Hindus ani e i o ies unde o eign ule was once again eclaimed. In July 1950 Oli ei a Salaza su e ed his i s majo se back, being o ced o sign wi h he Holy See an ag ee- men in which he Po uguese go e nmen enounced i s p i ilege o Pad oado Po uguês do O ien e (Po uguese Pa onage o he Eas ).6 This ac was no jus a se e e blow o he deeply Ca holic leade o he Po uguese egime: e en hough i had no poli ical o adminis a i e powe ou side he bo de s o he Es ado da Índia, he Po uguese Pa onage o he Eas had been a majo symbol, albei a emnan , o he o me powe he Po uguese Eas e n Empi e once had. Ne e heless, Oli ei a Salaza con inued o be in ansi- gen , and in Decembe 1950 he p esen ed a p ojec o he e ision o he Po uguese Cons i u ion, ocusing also on he Po uguese Colonial Ac . As a esul , he o e seas e i o ies unde Po uguese adminis a ion began o be ega ded as o e seas p o inces a he han colonies and he Po uguese Colonial Empi e changed i s name o Po uguese O e seas P o inces. This subs an ial in e sion in he Po uguese colonial policy, in which Po ugal and i s colonies (supposedly) became a single plu icon inen- al na ion, eme ged o jus i y poli ically, his o ically, cul- u ally and sociologically he con inua ion o he union be ween Po ugal and i s o e seas e i o ies. Va ious ac i i ies o s eng hen he ideological p e en- ions o he Po uguese o main aining he Es ado da Índia included p omo ing socio-cul u al and his o ical s udies abou he e i o y, inc easing a policy o public wo ks, de eloping an e ec i e ideological p opaganda, and changing some o he colonial policies. The o me p opagandis ic ideals o impe ialism and acial supe io i y we e abandoned in a ou o de eloping ano he ideology subs an ia ed on a p esumable uni y o he Po uguese wo ld wi h egional di e si ies. Fo he Po uguese egime, his was possible mainly because o he p esupposed ease owa d miscegena ion ha Po uguese people ha e wi h o he people (a beha iou based on he supposed non- exis ence o acism in Po uguese o e seas p o inces), he luid adap a ion o Po uguese people o local cus oms and condi ions, and he c ea ion o mul icul u al expe i- ences. Acco ding o he new p opagandis ic p ecep s o he Es ado No o, hese speci ici ies, esul ing om he so-called ‘Lusi anian colonial o iginali y’, allowed he Po uguese o e seas e i o ies o be dis inc om o he Eu opean colonies. The S udy Missions and he Subs an ia ion o Po uguese Claims The u gency o jus i y his o ically and cul u ally he a ini- ies be ween Po ugal and i s Indian e i o ies induced Manuel Sa men o Rod igues (1899–1979), he Po uguese Minis o do Ul ama (Minis e o Po ugal O e seas), o in i e he amous B azilian sociologis Gilbe o F ey e (1900–87), o unde ake an o icial s udy oyage o Po - ugal and o i s o e seas e i o ies. Du ing his s ay in he Es ado da Índia, Gilbe o F ey e held a con e ence in No embe 1951 in he Vasco da Gama Ins i u e, en i- led ‘Uma cul u al mode na: A luso- opical’ (One mod- e n cul u e: The luso- opical), whe e o he i s ime he concep o ‘luso opicalism’ was a icula ed and de eloped.7 This concep , acco ding o Gilbe o F ey e, is cha ac e ized by an easy miscegena ion, adap a ion o opical cus oms and clima e, cul u al usion and absence o acial disc imina ion in he Po uguese colonial model, allied wi h a s ong Ca holic componen esul ing om an assumed e angelizing mission. This ision idealized by Gilbe o F ey e was pe cei ed as use ul o he ideologi- cal p e ensions o he Po uguese egime, conceding an academic subs an ia ion de eloped by a epu able non- Po uguese esea che . The pu sui o academic subs an ia ion o he main enance o he Es ado da Índia unde Po uguese adminis a ion p oceeded in he same yea wi h he expedi ion o he Missão de Es udo aos Monumen os de Goa, Damão e Diu (S udy Mission on Monumen s o Goa, Daman and Diu). This mission comp ised he a his o ians Má io Ta a es Chicó (1905–66) and Ca los de Aze edo (1918–74), along wi h Ma inho Humbe o dos Reis (b. 1904), an a chi ec om he DGEMN wi h a as expe ience o he Po uguese a chi ec u al he i age, and he pho og aphe José Ca alho Hen iques. Suppo ed by he Jun a das Missões Geog á icas e de In es igações Coloniais (Commi ee o Geog aphical Missions and Colonial In es iga ions), he s udy mission’s main objec i e was o su ey wi h pho og aphs and igo - ous d awings he majo Po uguese a chi ec u al monu- men s in he Es ado da Índia — whe he hey we e in good condi ion o in uins — and he u ban ea u es o he main ci ies. This mission was no innocen : mo e han a me e his o ical and a is ic signi icance, i also had a poli ical agenda. By showing he wo ld he exis ence o a as se o Po uguese and Indo-Po uguese buildings and u ban s uc u es, he Es ado No o was assuming ha i s posses- sions in India we e indeed di e en om he B i ish and F ench ones. This dis inc ion was no based on he pe cep ion o a highe concen a ion o Po uguese edi ica ions, compa ed wi h B i ish and F ench e i o ies in India (whose s uc u es we e also plen i ul); a he , o he Po uguese egime, he main di e ence in he a chi- ec u al he i age was he age o he buildings — he Po uguese ones we e mos ly olde .8 The e o e, as hap- pened wi h he a chi ec u al he i age in Po ugal, his he i age o Po uguese in luence in India became a p i - ileged ins umen o ideological p opaganda, used by he dic a o ial egime as a physical and isual ema k- able e idence o he ances al Po uguese p esence in India. A chi ec u e was pe haps he mos imp essi e symbol o he Po uguese ule in he Es ado da Índia no only because o i s isual impac , as a eminde o who buil i , bu also because i s ill could be used, el , admi ed and ouched. San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 4 o 21 Mos o he a chi ec u al monumen s s udied du ing he su ey we e old Ca holic chu ches and chapels, along wi h some Po uguese o i ica ions (only a ew examples o ci il buildings we e men ioned). The isi ed ci ies o he Es ado da Índia we e he ones wi h a s ong Po uguese in luence. As o he non-Ca holic emples (Hindu mandi s and Muslim mosques), he mission epo con- enien ly e e ed o only a small numbe , ha ing a pa ic- ula agenda: a glimpse o in luences om he Po uguese/ Eu opean a chi ec u e. Based on his, he Es ado No o could a gue ha jus by obse ing he landscape o he Es ado da Índia, cons i u ed by ci ies and ields punc u- a ed by Ca holic chu ches and Po uguese o esses, i can be e i ied ha his ‘lusi anized’ e i o y was indeed close o Po ugal and o i s o e seas p o inces, and di e - en om he o he Hindus ani e i o ies.9 These s udy missions in luenced decisi ely he p opa- gandis ic o ien a ion o he Po uguese egime conce n- ing he o e seas e i o ies. I showed he exis ence o an ‘Indo-Po uguese’ cul u e as pa adigm o luso opical- ism, by displaying a cohe en usion be ween Po uguese and Indian cul u es. Simila o wha was happening in Po ugal, he commemo a i e celeb a ions also p o ided p e ex s o exal ing na ional i ues and o he na ional ideological p opaganda on ‘lusi anism’. Beginning o he End: The In asion o Dad a and Naga Ha eli The a gumen s wielded by he Po uguese egime wen agains he Indian agenda. In he ace o Po ugal’s in lexibili y, India b oke o diploma ic ela ions wi h Po ugal in July 1953, and by he end o he yea dec eed a land blockade o he Es ado da Índia, esul ing in he isola ion o he encla es o Dad a and Naga Ha eli, nea Daman. A he same ime, India inc eased he sa yag aha wi h peace ul in asions o he Es ado da Índia by Indian ci izens, along wi h iolen gue illa a med ac ions by Indian igh e s. The consequence was he de ini i e occu- pa ion o he encla es o Dad a and Naga Ha eli in July 1954 by Indian ci izens a med and suppo ed by mili a y o ces.10 Wi h he loss o hose encla es o India, and inc eas- ingly in e na ionally ha assed by he g owing numbe o A ican and Asian coun ies ecen ly independen ha we e accep ed in he Uni ed Na ions, Oli ei a Salaza con- inued o de end he Po uguese legi imacy o i s o e seas e i o ies: Po ugal appealed o he In e na ional Cou o Jus ice in The Hague, demanding he immedia e es- i u ion o he encla es o Dad a and Naga Ha eli. The in lexible Po uguese ac ions gene a ed a adicaliza- ion in India, and in Sep embe 1956 a much p essu ed Jawaha lal Neh u decla ed ha ‘ he Po uguese will ha e o lea e om Goa, e en i Goans wan hem he e’ (A ela 2012: 265). Bo h sides became mo e and mo e adicalized, and in he mids o his ba le o he o ic, people om he Es ado da Índia we e no asked abou wha hey wan ed o hei u u e: hei own na ion, con inuing inside he Po uguese wo ld wi h some kind o au onomy, o in e- g a ion wi h he ‘g ea mo he India’. The in asion o he Po uguese encla es o Dad a and Naga Ha eli ein o ced he sense o p eca iousness and mili a y weakness o he Es ado da Índia. I made clea ha he only easible way he Po uguese egime could hope o main ain he Po uguese p esence in India was by explo ing he his- o ical, cul u al, eligious and o he di e ences be ween India and he Es ado da Índia, a he same ime p o id- ing e idence o he a ini ies be ween he la e and he Po uguese wo ld. Ideological P ese a ion o A chi ec u al He i age in Eu opean Colonies The in ended e e ence o he Po uguese ances al mem- o y in i s Indian e i o ies — o which he mode n Es ado da Índia was conside ed a legi ima e successo — was supposed o ollow a se o he i age p ac ices, e lec ing he egime’s p ocedu es in Po ugal: he a chi ec u al he i age was used as a powe ul ideological ins umen o p opaganda. Among he elemen s wi h he po en ial o symbolize a pas ma ked by ‘po ugali y/lusi ani y’, a chi ec u al he i age was one o he mos palpable and undoub edly he one wi h bigge isual impac . Such monumen s began being conside ed p io i y objec s o be alo ised, especially hose in Old Goa, he o me mag- ni icen Po uguese capi al once called ‘Golden Goa’ and ‘Rome o he Eas ’. Howe e , he use o a chi ec u al he i age as an ideo- logical and poli ical ins umen in Hindus ani e i o ies was no a p ac ise used exclusi ely by Po ugal; he same was alid o o he colonial ules, including he B i ish and F ench ones. The B i ish ule a ibu ed majo impo ance o he a chi ec u al he i age in hei Indian dominions, using i as a symbolical means o consolida e hei powe .11 Since he ime o he Eas India Company some a emp s a p ese a ion o a ew Mughal a chi ec u al s uc u es we e made, especially in Ag a and Delhi. These e o s had a symbolic and poli ical pu pose. The B i ish conside ed he Mughal dynas y as he las g ea Hindus an poli ical powe be o e he es ablishmen o hei own dominance, and he wo k on Mughal a chi ec u al he i age was seen as one way o legi imize B i ish ule as a na u al successo o he Mughal empi e. The new B i ish ule s had assumed ha Hindus an people had los hei capaci y o ule hemsel es, due o hei p og essi e decay. The e o e, he B i ish conside ed hemsel es as na u al successo s o he p e ious Hindus ani poli ical powe s (Cohn 1983: 166). The B i ish in e es in Hindus ani a chi ec u al he i - age coincided wi h bo h he Roman ic mo emen and he deba e abou cul u al pa imony in Eu ope, which soon ex ended o India. In 1784 William Jones (1746–94) ounded he Asia ic Socie y o Bengal in Kolka a, capi al o he B i ish Raj, which in luenced he beginning o a con- se a ion mo emen in India and mos p obably he i s egula ion o he p o ec ion o monumen s in India, in 1810. As he new ule , he B i ish adminis a ion assumed he cus odianship o he Indian a chi ec u al he i age as a esponsible obliga ion, hus p o ec ing he memo y o he Indian pas ha was h ea ened by decadence. The c ea- ion o he A chaeological Su ey o India (ASI) in 1861 by Alexande Cunningham (1814–93) a emp ed o p e en San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’ A . 9, page 5 o 21 he des uc ion o Indian a chi ec u al he i age, especially du ing and a e he go e nmen o Geo ge Na haniel Cu zon (1859–1925), Vice oy o India om 1899 o 1905. Alexande Cu zon had a genuine in e es in p ese ing he Indian a chi ec u al he i age, seeing i as a du y o he B i ish colonial adminis a ion. In 1902 he eo ganized he ASI, nomina ing John Hube Ma shall (1876–1958) as Di ec o Gene al, and in 1904 he Ancien Monumen P ese a ion Ac was p oclaimed. In 1923 he Conse a ion Manual was published by John Ma shall, a code wi h ig- o ous ules o he p ac ice o in e en ions in he Indian a chi ec u al he i age ha allowed he de elopmen o a uni o m basis o he he i age pano ama. Du ing his ime, nume ous a chaeological exca a ions and he i age wo k was conduc ed a Indian si es, among hem such Mughal monumen s as he Taj Mahal, he Red Fo com- plex in Delhi, Sikand a and Fa ehpu Sik i. I B i ish Raj was he ‘jewel in he c own’ o he B i ish empi e, o he F ench he mos impo an colonial e i- o ies we e Magh eb (especially Alge ia) and Indochina.12 The É ablissemen s F ançais dans l’Inde (F ench Es ablishmen s in India, commonly known as Comp oi s de l’Inde) we e seen as a esidual pa o he F ench colonial empi e, om when F ance was he mos in lu- en Eu opean na ion in he Hindus an (be o e he B i ish de ea ed hem). In addi ion, he Comp oi s de l’Inde we e a e ed e i o ies, and his discon inui y was p opi ious o nei he he de elopmen o as plans asse ing he F ench ule no he inc ease o a s ong Indo-F ench cul u e. The e o e, he p e e en ial a eas o majo he - i age p ojec s we e Magh eb and Indochina (wi h some epe cussions in Sy ia and Mali).13 He i age Ac i i y in Po uguese Colonial Te i o ies in A ica Fo he Po uguese egime, he Es ado da Índia p esen ed subs an ial di e ences om he B i ish Raj and he Comp oi s de l’Inde, di e ences ha we e isible in he Indo-Po uguese socie y exis ing he e. The a chi ec u al monumen s o Old Goa o Po uguese in luence g adually became conside ed undamen al elemen s in he con- s uc ion o Indo-Po uguese iden i y, and he e o e we e p og essi ely con e ed in o ene able pa io ic symbols in hose dis an Lusi anian eas e n lands. The escue o hese e e ed symbols ep esen ed an ideological way o legi imize he Po uguese egime and i s adminis a ion in India, no only o he Indo-Po uguese socie y bu also he wo ld, aising he memo y o he p esen o he same le el as he p es igious pas . Besides being undamen al symbolic elemen s o he cons uc ion o he Indo-Po uguese iden i y, he a chi- ec u al monumen s o Old Goa ma ked e i o ial con- ol because o hei isibili y, ac ing as iden i ica ion landma ks. They hus became objec s o in e es o he Po uguese egime, no only because o hei a is ic and his o ical alue, bu also because hey could ac as bea - e s o he ideological messages gene a ed by he egime conce ning he Po uguese claims on he Es ado da Índia. The same ole o a chi ec u al monumen s as ideologi- cal ins umen used by he egime in Po ugal began o be used in he Es ado da Índia and in he o he o e seas e i o ies, es ablishing he alue o he Po uguese legacy and legi imizing Po uguese ule.14 The conce ns wi h colonial a chi ec u e and u ban- ism in he Po uguese o e seas e i o ies mo i a ed he c ea ion in 1944 o he Gabine e de U banização Colonial (O ice o Colonial U baniza ion), unc ioning inside he Minis é io do Ul ama . This en i y in ended o cen al- ize in Lisbon all he a chi ec u al and u ban plans o he Po uguese colonies. The pu pose o p ese ing he a chi- ec u al he i age o Po uguese in luence in he colonies inally gained consis ency wi h he p omulga ion in 1958 o a dec ee ha ins uc ed he Di ecção-Ge al de Ob as Públicas e Comunicações (Gene al Bu eau o Public Wo ks and Communica ions) o he Minis é io do Ul ama o su ey and classi y na ional monumen s in he Po uguese colonies and o p ese e hem, guiding es o a ion and conse a ion ac i i y. This en i y also supe ised he he i - age commissions in he colonies, as well as he ac i i ies in he colonies wi hou commissions, s anda dizing p o- cedu es be ween hem. Since 1922 he Comissão P o incial dos Monumen os Nacionais de Angola (P o incial Commission o he Na ional Monumen s o Angola) had exis ed o su ey, classi y, conse e and es o e he monumen s in Angola. Bu i was he a chi ec Fe nando Ba alha (1908–2012) who ini ia ed a mo e sys ema ic p ese a ion o he a chi ec u al he i age o Po uguese in luence, h ough in en o ies, classi ica ion and p omo ion o ha he i - age; in addi ion, he did some es o a ion ha ollowed he idea o ‘c ea i e ecomposi ion’. Mozambique was he o he Po uguese colony in A ica wi h a he i age en i y: he Comissão dos Monumen os e Relíquias His ó icas de Moçambique (Commission o he Monumen s and His o ic Relics o Mozambique) was c ea ed in 1943, ha - ing as objec i es he inc ease o he in es iga ion on he Mozambican he i age, he su ey and classi ica ion o monumen s and elics, he ac ions o conse a ion and es o a ion o his he i age, and he p omo ion o i s dis- closu e and ou is ic exploi a ion. The main ac o wi hin he a chi ec u al he i age scene in Mozambique was he a chi ec Ped o Qui ino da Fonseca (1922–2001), who eac i a ed he p e-exis ing he i age commission, su - eyed and classi ied nume ous monumen s and elics and conduc ed in e en ions on a chi ec u al monumen s. Elsewhe e in A ica, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Ve de, and São Tomé and P íncipe did no ha e any he i age en i y; howe e , he a chi ec Luís Bena en e (1902–93) de o ed himsel o he p ese a ion o he a chi ec u al he i age o Po uguese in luence in hese e i o ies. Luís Bena en e indeed possessed a as knowledge abou in e en ions in a chi ec u al he i age, i s ly se ing in he DGEMN and hen in he Minis é io do Ul ama . He used his acqui ed know-how o p opose he classi ica ion o he Po uguese monumen s o e seas, p esen ed in 1960; in his p oposal he de ined egula ions and a way o su ey and classi y monumen s. His ac i i y in he Po uguese colonial e - i o ies began in 1958, when he wen o São Tomé and P íncipe o su ey and es o e monumen s, mo ing on o Guinea-Bissau and Cape Ve de. Luís Bena en e was also San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 6 o 21 in ol ed in ac i i ies ela ed o he he i age o Po uguese in luence in o he coun ies. Ea ly He i age Conce ns in he Es ado da Índia In he Es ado da Índia, he i age conce ns a ose much ea - lie han in he o he Po uguese colonies, especially gi en wha was happening in he B i ish Raj. The decline o Goa began in he 17 h cen u y, despi e a emp s o egene a e he ci y. The ex inc ion o he eligious o de s in Po ugal and in i s colonies (1835) and he ise o Panjim15 as a ci y and as capi al o he Es ado da Índia (in 1848) seemed o seal Goa’s a e. In 1859, as pa o he celeb a ions o he i s 19 h-cen u y public exhibi ion o he elics and body o Sain F ancis Xa ie , he local ci y council implemen ed ac ions o amelio a e he image o Old Goa: imp o emen and epa a ion wo ks in eligious buildings, and demoli- ion o uined s uc u es. These p ac ices con inued un il he end o he cen u y.16 The scale o des uc ion gene a ed mo e and mo e p o- es s agains he des uc ion o his o ic he i age, and in 1895, he go e no -gene al o Es ado da Índia, Elesbão José de Be encou Lapa (1831–99), c ea ed he Comissão Pe manen e de A queologia (Pe manen Commission o A chaeology), whose objec i e was he su ey, esea ch and classi ica ion o monumen s o Po uguese in luence in India, as well as o p opose measu es o conse e, epai and es o e hem. In he ollowing yea he Real Museu da Índia Po uguesa (Royal Museum o he Po uguese India), was c ea ed and ins alled in he building a ached o he Chu ch o Ou Lady o Di ine P o idence in he Con en o Sain Caje an in Old Goa — la e expanded in o he Con en o Sain F ancis o Assisi). In 1902 he Comissão dos Monumen os do Dis i o de Diu (Commission o Monumen s o he Diu Dis ic ) and he Museu A queológico de Diu (A chaeological Museum o Diu) was c ea ed and ins alled in he Chu ch o Sain Thomas. Bu only in 1932 we e se e al buildings o Old Goa and i s su - oundings classi ied as na ional monumen s. Despi e i s as con ibu ion o he p ese a ion o he Goan he i age, he Comissão Pe manen e de A queologia was dissol ed in 1950. In ha same yea Bal aza da Sil a Cas o (1891–1967), an a chi ec wi h a as expe ience in he i age ac i i y in Po ugal — he was a o me di ec o o he Se iço dos Monumen os Nacionais (Se ice o Na ional Monumen s) o DGEMN — a i ed in Es ado da Índia. In addi- ion o esuming he i age ac i i ies in he Es ado da Índia ollowing he elimina ion o he Comissão Pe manen e de A queologia, he was commissioned o coo dina e he es- o a ion o monumen s in Old Goa, p epa ing hem o he celeb a ion o he IV Cen ená io da Mo e de São F ancisco Xa ie (4 h Cen ena y o he Dea h o Sain F ancis Xa ie ). This celeb a ion showed he impo ance ha his kind o c owd es i i ies had o he Po uguese dic a o ial egime, which usually used hem in i s p opaganda. This celeb a ion had a special symbolism, hough, associa ed as i was wi h a his o ic he o along wi h a eligious com- ponen : Sain F ancis Xa ie was he ‘Apos le o he Eas ’, o whom millions o Ca holics in he Eas we e de o ed, and his omb in Old Goa was he objec o nume ous pil- g images. No only was a he o connec ed wi h Po ugal celeb a ed in his e en , bu also Ca holicism i sel was solemnized, con ibu ing eno mously o he p opagandis- ic agenda o he Po uguese egime by showing a Ca holic Es ado da Índia, di e en om India. In he celeb a ion o 1952, he p og amme included he ealiza ion o se - e al u ban imp o emen p ojec s in Old Goa, along wi h in e en ions on Goan monumen s unde he supe i- sion o Bal aza Cas o (Figs. 1 and 2).17 His ac i i ies had a huge impac on he a chi ec u al he i age o Old Goa. Figu e 1: A ch o he Vice oys in 1951, be o e he in e - en ion o Bal aza de Cas o, pho og aphed du ing he s udy mission led by Má io Chicó. Image cou esy o he Fundação Má io Soa es, ‘Má io e Alice Chicó’ onds, e . n . 07127.000.240 ‘A co dos Vice-Reis’. Figu e 2: A ch o he Vice oys in 1959, a e he es o a ion by Bal aza Cas o, pho og aphed by he a chi ec Naguesha Pissu lenca . Image cou esy o he A qui o Nacional da To e do Tombo, onds ‘Luís Bena en e’, box 4 ‘Índia’, ile 1, doc. n . 14. San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’ A . 9, page 7 o 21 His in e en ions he e e lec ed his p e ious p ac ice in he DGEMN: in some wo ks, he in ended he ec ea ion o idealized images o he monumen s, esul ing in hei adul e a ion, since hey acqui ed an image ha hey ne e had be o e. Vassalo e Sil a’s Plan o Rein eg a e Old Goa In 1960 he Po uguese egime p omo ed wha would be i s las g ea p opagandis ic celeb a ion, he V Cen- ená io da Mo e do In an e Dom Hen ique o Na egado (5 h Cen ena y o he Dea h o P ince Hen y he Na iga- o ), which di ec ly connec ed Po ugal wi h i s o e seas p o inces. These commemo a ions acqui ed a huge impo ance in he Po uguese ideological con ex : o he Po uguese egime, hey would be he culmina ion o he p ocess o ‘Luso-Ch is ian in eg a ion’ in o he ‘Po - uguese wo ld’, ein o cing he s a emen ha Po ugal was a single coun y o med by se e al equali a ian o e - seas p o inces, opposing in ha way he in e na ional an i-colonial c i icism. Gilbe F ey e had my hologized P ince Hen y he Na iga o (1394–1460) as he majo suppo e o Po uguese o e seas expansion who had p omo ed wo ld e angeliza ion, o e ing ci iliza ion o less de eloped peo- ple and ins iga ing in e ela ions be ween se e al peoples and cul u es, hus laying he g oundwo k o he way a luso opicalis cul u e would sp ead all o e he wo ld. In Po ugal, he DGEMN selec ed se e al monumen s ela ed o P ince Hen y and he Po uguese Disco e ies o ecei e in e en ions. These he i age ac i i ies we e ex ended o he Po uguese o e seas e i o ies, inc easing he p op- agandis ic impac emphasizing he his o ic igh s o e hese colonies, ad oca ed by he dic a o ial egime. A he same ime, he Es ado da Índia was p epa ing he com- memo a ion o he Po uguese conques o i s capi al Goa, which was aken by Al onso de Albuque que (1453–1515) in 1510, 450 yea s ea lie . In Decembe 1958, in his con ex o inc easing in es - men in in as uc u e, cul u e, sani a ion and he i age p ese a ion in he Es ado da Índia, he go e no -gene al Manuel An ónio Vassalo e Sil a (1899–1985) a i ed in Goa. The a i al o Vassalo e Sil a p omp ed an inc ease in he de elopmen o he Es ado da Índia, pa icula ly in he e i o y o Goa. The p ese a ion o he he i age o Po uguese in luence in he e i o y was in ended no only because o he di ec i es om he Po uguese egime, bu also because o Vassalo e Sil a’s own con- ic ions abou he alue o he i age monumen s. Th ee mon hs a e his a i al, Vassalo e Sil a ecei ed a epo om he Goan a chi ec Naguesha Pissu lenca abou he classi ied monumen s o Old Goa, which included a small desc ip ion o each monumen oge he wi h some pho- os. Six mon hs la e , Vassalo e Sil a c ea ed a commis- sion wi h he objec i e o p oposing an ambi ious plan called he ‘Rein eg ação da Cidade de Velha Goa no seu Ambien e His ó ico, A queológico, Monás ico e Religioso’ (Rein eg a ion o he Ci y o Old Goa in i s His o ic, A chaeological, Monas ic and Religious Ambien ), he eby combining he (supposed) wishes o he Goan people wi h he p opagandis ic in en ions o he Po uguese egime. Because o Old Goa’s eno mous symbolism as he ‘ o - me b igh capi al’ o he ‘once magni icen Po uguese Eas e n Empi e’, he go e no -gene al belie ed he ci y should be allowed o decay o he poin whe e i anished comple ely. I was no jus he memo y o his ‘ esplenden pe iod’ ha was disappea ing; i was also he Po uguese hegemony in he Es ado da Índia ha was in jeopa dy. The e o e, i was impe a i e o e e se he decay o Old Goa; a he same ime he Po uguese ule in he Es ado da Índia would also be me apho ically aised up. This would be ano he s ong symbolic wa ning agains India’s p e- en ions on he Po uguese e i o ies. Vassalo e Sil a nomina ed a se o eminen pe sonali- ies om he colonial adminis a ion and om he Goan a chdiocese o be pa o he execu i e commission, in which he p opo ion be ween Goan and Po uguese was equal. The commission was led by Goan José An ónio Ismael G acias J . (1903–93), he p ominen p esiden o he T ibunal da Relação (Cou o Appeal) o he Es ado da Índia and son o he illus ious Goan his o ian and w i e , José An ónio Ismael G acias S . (1857–1919). By Augus 1959 he wo k o he commission was con- cluded, and a epo con ained conclusions and p opos- als.18 In Janua y 1960, in a con e ence held in he Vasco da Gama Ins i u e in Panjim and a ended by Ped o Teo ónio Pe ei a (1902–72), Po uguese Minis o da P esidência (Minis e o P esidency), Ismael G acias J . a i med he commission’s in en : ‘I am su e ha , wi h he e o s o all, wi h ou passiona e will, wi h ou en husiasm, we will achie e ou ideal: eins alling he old ci y o Goa as an e e nal ligh o Po uguese spi i uali y’ (G acias 1960, 34–36). The idea o Po ugal’s unique con ibu ion o he colonial p ocess — as men ioned ea lie , he Po uguese (supposedly) mixed wi h na i e people, ‘ci ilized’ and con e ed hem o Ca holicism, did no ha m hem (com- pa ed o how o he colonialis coun ies ea ed he na i e people), accep ed hem as Po uguese ci izens, e c. — ha legi imized he Po uguese adminis a ion in i s o e - seas e i o ies, was s ill p esen among Po uguese go - e no s and some Goan eli e in ima ely connec ed wi h he Po uguese adminis a ion. The p esence o he Po uguese Minis o da P esidência himsel , a i ed om Po ugal, a he o icial inaugu a ion o he wo ks in Old Goa, demons a es ha . The Ini ial Plan o Ismael G acias’ Commission By Sep embe 1960 he commission’s epo had been sen o Lisbon, along wi h a plan called ‘d awing H93’ (Fig. 3). Supe imposed on a su ey plan o Old Goa made in 1910 by he Depa amen o de Ob as Públicas (Depa - men o Public Wo ks) o he Es ado da Índia, he com- mission echnicians and ad ise s ske ched a p oposal o a s ee layou wi h new a enues, squa es and ga dens, an icipa ing he execu i e p og amme o he u baniza- ion and ees ablishmen o he his o ic and ou is ic ‘Old Ci y o Goa’.19 Bo h he epo and plan p o ide an insigh in o he commission’s p oposal o Old Goa. The commission was subdi ided in o h ee g oups: one esponsible o p oposing u ban imp o emen s in Old Goa, one o assign adap i e unc ions o he exis ing buildings, San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 8 o 21 and one o p epa e he inal epo o he commission, based on he collec ed ma e ial. A se o esolu ions app o ed by he commission was also p epa ed, based on he epo s o he sub-commissions. As well as p oposing solu ions o se e al aspec s conce ning he ehabili a- ion o Old Goa, nume ous hypo heses we e sugges ed along di e en hemes, which could be chosen as u u e solu ions. Rega ding he u ban imp o emen s, he com- mission p oposed o de elop he wo k in s ages, he i s one being he es o a ion o monumen s and uins and he placemen o a s a ue (made by Ma ins Co eia) o he Po uguese poe Luís Vaz de Camões (1524–80) in Old Goa, as pa o he celeb a ions o he V Cen ená io da Mo e do In an e Dom Hen ique o Na egado . Immedia ely a e (and pa ially o e lapping) he i s s age, oads and squa es and sani a ion in as uc u e would be cons uc ed and public spaces plan ed. In D awing H93 ha accompanied he desc ip ion o he p oposal o he s ee layou (Fig. 3), in which he oads and ga dened spaces we e de ined wi h a g een colou , new denomina ions o public spaces we e also p oposed, as well as wo op ions o he s a ue o Luís Vaz de Camões. Despi e p esen ing new a eas and public spaces,20 he p o- posed oads would ollow subs an ially he p e-exis ing s ee s, wi h some ec i ica ions and enla gemen s;21 se - e al p e-exis ing oads would be conse ed and epai ed acco ding o hei his o ical alue. As o he new unc ions p oposed o he monumen s o Old Goa, he commission dec eed ha i chu ches and chapels we e s ill used o hei o iginal pu pose, hey should con inue o be used as such. The Con en o Sain John o God should be ese ed o se ing up he A qui o His ó ico do Es ado da Índia (His o ical A chi e o he Es ado da Índia); i s chu ch should empo a ily house he u u e Museu de A e Sac a (Museum o Sac ed A ) un il i s de ini i e ans e o he Con en o Sain Monica. All monumen s should ha e a p o ec ion zone delimi ed by compe en echnicians. The main goal o he p ojec would be he eanima ion o Old Goa. The commission isualized ‘ he ci y o Old Goa ebo n in a u u e mo e o less emo e as an u ban conglome a e, as an ex ension o he capi al o he Es ado da Índia [Panjim]’,22 an icipa ing he c ea ion o a eas o u u e cons uc ion, sugges ing he e o e he cons uc ion o some new speci ic buildings. Po ugal had as expe ience in u ban planning in i s colonial e i o ies. In ac , du ing he Es ado No o egime, in addi ion o u ban plans de eloped in Po ugal, u bani- za ion plans in he colonies inc eased subs an ially, espe- cially in Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique a e he Wo ld Wa II. The u ban plans de eloped by echnicians unde he Es ado No o egime usually adop ed a ional- is p inciples a ou ing adial and axial u ban s uc u es, di iding he u ban space in di e en sec o s. In he colo- nial ci ies, hese new u ban spaces gene ally had low den- si ies allowing he in e pene a ion o g een spaces — a so o ga den ci y. The ep esen a ion o he Po uguese s a e was hen ein o ced h ough ema kable public and eligious buildings placed in s a egic spo s, he c ea ion o emblema ic plazas and main a enues, he ehabili a- ion and monumen aliza ion o his o ical monumen s, and he de elopmen o an ideological p og amme con- sis ing o s a ua y and public a a key u ban loca ions.23 Despi e hei modes size, in he Es ado da Índia u ban plans we e de eloped o Panjim, Vasco da Gama, Ma gao and Mapusa. Ano he impo an ac was ha he B i ish planned New Delhi o be hei new colonial capi al side by side wi h he ancien Delhi — now he capi al o independ- en India. The Po uguese, howe e , in ended o e i e he o me Po uguese capi al side by side wi h he mod- e n capi al o Panjim. The Po uguese cha ac e o Old Goa in ol ed a egula isa ion o he s ee layou , he Figu e 3: ‘D awing H93’, showing he ini ial p oposal made by he Goan commission o a new s ee layou o Old Goa, con aining a enues, squa es and ga dens. Image cou esy o he A qui o His ó ico do Camões — Ins i u o da Coope ação e da Língua, onds o he o me Minis é io do Ul ama , collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14672. San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’ A . 9, page 15 o 21 ha e a use ul unc ion ha allowed i s p ese a ion wi hin socie y. These we e p inciples he de ended h ee yea s la e in 1964, du ing he he i age deba e ha p oduced he Venice Cha e o he Conse a ion and Res o a ion o Monumen s and Si es, o which he was one o he signa o ies. Ne e heless, Luís Bena en e con inued o de end he ep is ina ion o some a chi ec u al monumen s, in o de o eco e hei p imi i e image. Bu his de ense o he p is- ine o iginal was qui e mode a e compa ed o he ac ions o Bal aza Cas o in Old Goa and in Po ugal. This was jus one o he isible con adic ions be ween he o icial speech o he poli ical leade s and he ac ions de ended by he echnicians: wi hou en i ely adop ing his no ion, he na ionalis and impe ialis discou se o he Es ado No o, e en i disguised as a mul icul u al and open egime, became uc onic and s opped in ime. On he o he hand, he echnical s a was mo e open o in luences om ou - side Po ugal, and so hey we e awa e ha he Goan plan, as i was p esen ed, could no be accomplished, whe he i was because he inancial esou ces we e ex emely high and p ohibi i e, o because i was no echnically achie able, o — mos likely — because he he i age con- ce ns e ol ed wi h ime (a oiding he ein eg a ion in s yle, demanding he p ominence o au hen ici y, e c.). In ac , his con lic o he i age policy be ween leade s, who de ended he ein eg a ion in s yle, and echnicians, who de ended mode a e in e en ions, e lec ed wha had been happening in Po ugal since he ea ly 1950s. A Pe manen Indo-Po uguese he i age On 18 Decembe 1961, an e en occu ed ha b ough o an end no jus he p ojec o he ein eg a ion o Old Goa, as delinea ed by he Goan commission unde he auspices o Vassalo e Sil a, bu he hopes o he Po uguese egime in main aining a Po uguese p esence on he Indian sub- con inen . A dawn ha day, Ope a ion Vijay began — he in asion o he Es ado da Índia by Indian oops.43 Despi e he o de o Oli ei a Salaza o esis un il he las man was s anding, go e no -gene al Vassalo e Sil a decided o su ende o he Indian oops he nex day, hus ending 450 yea s o Po uguese so e eign y o e his e i o y.44 Howe e , he Po uguese egime in Lisbon would no ecognize his annexa ion un il he Es ado No o ell on 25 Ap il 1974; Indian so e eign y o e i s o me e i o ies was o malized on 31 Decembe 1974. Because Vassalo e Sil a su ende ed, he was denounced by he egime in Po ugal. No only we e nume ous li es spa ed because o his decision o e use o accep he o de s o Oli ei a Salaza , hus a oiding a wo hless bloodba h, bu he cul- u al pa imony o Po uguese in luence in he o me Es ado da Índia also bene i ed. In he ace o he imminen Indian in asion, Oli ei a Salaza had o de ed ha he el- ics o Sain F ancis Xa ie be immedia ely sen o Lisbon, and ha he Adilshahi Palace in Panjim — he headqua - e s o he go e nmen -gene al o he Es ado da Índia — be des oyed. Vassalo e Sil a s ic ly e used o comply wi h hese o de s, because ‘Sain F ancis Xa ie was a sain om he Eas , and hus his place was he e’, and because ‘by no means was i accep able o des oy es imonies o he ancien Po uguese g ea ness in Eas ’ (Mo ais 1995: 116– 119). As o he a chi ec Luís Bena en e, he was o de ed o a oid being aken p isone and o sa e any documen a- ion ela ed o he a chi ec u al he i age o he Es ado da Figu e 12: Basilica o Bom Jesus be o e he in e en ion pe o med by Bal aza Cas o, pho og aphed du ing he s udy mission led by Má io Chicó in 1951. Image cou - esy o he Fundação Má io Soa es, ‘Má io e Alice Chicó’ onds, e . n . 07127.000.133 ‘Ig eja de São Cae ano’. Figu e 13: Basilica o Bom Jesus a e he in e en ion pe - o med by Bal aza Cas o, pho og aphed by F ancis Rog- e s in 1964. Image cou esy o he Fundação Calous e Gulbenkian, ‘F ancis Mille Roge s 1962’ onds, e . n . 726(540.55)”15/17”(084.121) ‘Basílica do Bom Jesus’. San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 16 o 21 Índia. He managed o pa ially ollow hese o de s — he ook e uge aboa d he I alian ca go ship Con idenza.45 O he p og amme o he ein eg a ion o Old Goa, only he wo ks ini ia ed du ing Po uguese ule we e com- ple ed a e he ans e ence o he Indian so e eign y. I seems ha in he ea ly pe iod, he Indian adminis a- ion made no signi ican changes in he he i age policy and s a in Old Goa; he A chaeological Su ey o India adop ed a cau ious and conse a i e posi ion. Indeed, o ha ini ial ambi ious p og amme, only epai s o s abilize a ew buildings we e done, some p oposed s ee s we e opened and he ga den space comple ed be ween he Basilica o Bom Jesus and he See Ca hed al, whe e he s a ue o Luís Vaz de Camões emained a leas un il he la e 1980s. The Ins i u o Pio X de Teologia Pas o al was also comple ed, and in se e al public spaces he ege a ion con inued o be clea ed away. In 1986, when he monumen s o Old Goa we e classi ied as a Wo ld He i age Si e by he UNESCO, hese monu- men s and hei su oundings did no di e subs an ially om he idealizing plan o he Goan commission led by Ismael G acias J ., pa ially app o ed and pe o med by he Po uguese au ho i ies (Fig. 14). Since he mid-1940s he Po uguese dic a o ial egime had likely been awa e o he p eca ious posi ion and mili- a y weakness o he Es ado da Índia in acing he h ea s o an imminen in asion by he ecen ly independen India. Obs ina ely esis ing he inc easing an i-colonialis opinions h oughou he es o he wo ld, he Es ado No o el ha , mo e han losing a his o ical and symbolic e i o y, he loss o he Es ado da Índia would imply he dange o also losing i s A ican colonies. The Po uguese egime hus p oceeded wi h an in ensi e p opagandis ic p og amme, in ending o jus i y he Po uguese pe ma- nence in India h ough ideological, his o ical and cul- u al easons. By showing a ‘lusi anized’ Es ado da Índia absolu ely di e en om he o he Hindus ani e i o ies, he esul o a dis inc kind o colonisa ion, he Es ado da Índia was, he e o e, close o Po ugal han o India in aspec s mo e impo an han he geog aphical ones. As one o he mos isible and palpable signs possible, a chi ec u e monumen s we e p opi ious o use as ideo- logical ins umen s wi h p opagandis ic in en ions. Fo ha eason, he Es ado No o decided o apply he same p ocedu es used in he Es ado da Índia ha i had used in Po ugal in he las wo decades: by in e ening in he a chi ec u al he i age and using i as a powe ul p opa- gandis ic ins umen . The e o e, Old Goa and i s a chi ec- u al monumen s we e used o suppo he jus i ica ion o he Po uguese pe manence on he Indian subcon i- nen . The Goan commission de eloped an ambi ious plan, p oposing he ein eg a ion o Old Goa by es o ing i s monumen s and de eloping an u ban plan. The o me magni icen capi al would be ebo n as a g ea monumen in ended o symbolize he ‘e e nal ligh o he Po uguese spi i uali y’ in he Es ado da Índia. Howe e , he ime and ci cums ances we e signi i- can ly di e en om hose in Po ugal when ideological p ocedu es we e applied o a chi ec u al he i age, which accoun s o he clea age be ween he o icial speech o he Es ado No o leade s and he measu es subsequen ly adop ed by echnicians. The p io i ies in A ica di ec ed he esou ces he e, especially a e he beginning o he colonial wa , and he inancial esou ces o suppo he Goan plan we e ex emely limi ed. In addi ion, he he - i age pano ama had also changed eno mously, especially he conce ns abou au hen ici y, alues, e-use and e en he symbolism associa ed wi h ha he i age. And inally, he eno mous dis ance be ween Po ugal and he Es ado da Índia in se e al undamen al ma e s (physical dis- ance, cul u e, e hnici y, poli ical ule, e c.) con ibu ed o ende he Goan plan imp ac icable — as was also he main enance o he Po uguese p esence he e unde hose ci cums ances. Despi e he ob ious e o s made by he Po uguese egime o p ese e he a chi ec u al he i age o Old Goa, aiming o ideologically poli icize i and use i as an ins u- men o legi ima e he main enance o he Po uguese Es ado da Índia, a he end o 1961 he Po uguese so e eign y in he Hindus an e ec i ely ended. Al hough Figu e 14: Sain F ancis Xa ie Squa e, loca ed be ween he See Ca hed al and he Basilica o Bom Jesus, in he 1970s a e he Es ado da Índia became pa o India, showing he in e en ion p oposed by he Goan com- mission. Image cou esy o he A chaeological Su ey o India, Goa Ci cle. Figu e 15: Pano ama o Old Goa om he chu chya d o he Chapel o Ou Lady o he Moun . Pho o by he au ho . San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’ A . 9, page 17 o 21 he he i age ac i i ies in Old Goa did no p e en his long-an icipa ed denouemen , hey played a undamen al ole in he con inua ion o he Po uguese p esence, wi h i s subs an ial cul u al he i age ha emains o his day (Fig. 15), many classi ied by UNESCO as Wo ld He i age si es. Thousands o Indian and o eigne ou is s oam he spaces o he ancien Po ugal capi al o he Es ado da Índia, deligh ing in he disco e y o he emains o he my hic Golden Goa. Acknowledgemen This s udy was de eloped as pa o he pos -doc o al in es iga ion ‘Sa egua ding o he A chi ec u al He i age o Po uguese In luence in India: Con ex ualiza ion and C i icism’, unded by he esea ch g an wi h he e e - ence SFRH/BPD/96087/2013 om he Fundação pa a a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT; Founda ion o he Science and he Technology) o Po ugal. No es 1 The main ideas o he Po uguese egime’s o icial discou se, sp ead by i s p opaganda appa a us, p o- claimed he ein en ion o a Po ugal his o ically mod- elled by i s o e seas empi e, by he Ca holic eligion and by a co po a i e socie y based on a hie a chical and cohesi e na ion led by a s ong leade , in end- ing o eco e om he secula pe iods o decadence be o e he es ablishmen o he Es ado No o (Pin o 2004: 61). The wo ac s mo e obsessi ely men ioned by he egime we e he exal a ion o Po ugal as he oldes coun y in Eu ope, hus p oclaiming he e - i o ial, e hnic, cul u al and poli ical uni y, and he p omo ion o he glo ious Po uguese Disco e ies, e ealing a uni e sal oca ion o dwell wi h o he cul- u es (Melo 2001: 39). 2 On he ideologies and p opaganda o he Es ado No o egime, see Cunha (2001); Melo (2001); Leal (2000); Ó (1999); Medina (1993); Pin o (1987). 3 In e spe sed h oughou his pape a e ph ases wi hin quo a ion ma ks ha a e ypical o he language ound in p opaganda ma e ial o he egime. 4 On he a chi ec u al he i age ac i i ies unde he Es ado No o egime, see San os (2012); Cus ódio (2011); Cus ódio (2010); Tomé (2002); Ne o (2001). 5 Fo ins ance, Po ugal did no su e massi e des uc- ion o a chi ec u al he i age caused by Wo ld Wa II (o by he ci il wa in Spain, a ew yea s be o e), and hus i s he i age conce ns we e qui e di e en om hose o o he Eu opean coun ies. The gene al Po - uguese con ex du ing he Es ado No o was e y es ic ed and closed o ou side in luences in i s ini ial decades by imposi ion o he egime, and only a e he Second Wo ld Wa did i became sligh ly mo e open. Ne e heless, some ma ching poin s can be ound be ween he DGEMN and simila ins i u ions in Spain and I aly. In hese h ee coun ies, all unde na ionalis dic a o ial egimes, he i age p ese a ion was s ongly cen alized by he s a e, bu while in Po - ugal i subsis ed unde he supe ision o he minis- y in cha ge o public wo ks, in Spain and I aly i was assigned o he minis ies esponsible o educa ion: in Spain, he a chi ec u al he i age was sa egua ded by he Di ección Gene al de Bellas A es (Gene al Bu eau o Fine A s), and in I aly by he Consiglio Supe io e di An ichi à e Belle A i (Supe io Council o An iqui ies and Fine A s). In F ance he Agences des Bâ imen s de F ance (Agency o he Buildings o F ance) was c ea ed a e Wo ld Wa II, ha ing a echnical s a o a chi ec s o he p ese a ion o monumen s. 6 The A chdiocese o Goa was es ic ed only o he Po uguese e i o y, and he me opoli an and pa i- a chal digni y o he See Ca hed al o Goa was main- ained. Howe e , he o me igh o nomina e bishops o he Indian dioceses ended, emaining jus o Goa. 7 On he luso opicalism, see Souza (2001); Medina (2000); Cas elo (1999); Venâncio (1996); Macedo (1989). 8 I B i ish and F ench buildings we e mainly om he 18 h, 19 h and e en 20 h cen u ies, he Es ado da Índia had nume ous buildings om he 16 h cen u y — a leas wo cen u ies olde han mos o he B i ish and F ench ones. In ac , some o he Po uguese edi ica- ions we e olde han he much-admi ed Mughal buildings. While he B i ish and F ench buildings we e somehow conside ed mode n, some Po uguese ones we e ene ably old, and se e al o hem had al eady u ned in pic u esque uins, e idencing hei an iqui y. 9 La e , be ween Oc obe 1955 and Feb ua y 1956, he geog aphe s O lando Ribei o (1911–97), Raquel Soei o de B i o (b.1925) and Ma iano Feio (1914–2001) made ano he s udy mission o he Es ado da Índia, esea ch- ing he geog aphical, an h opological and e hno- g aphical aspec s. The epo made by O lando Ribei o con adic ed much o he ideological p esupposi ions o he Po uguese egime and mani es ed in he ideas o Gilbe o F ey e. This s udy mission iden i ied se - e al exis ing elemen s ha could be used in a ou o he Indian claims, showing ha he p omo ion o an Es ado da Índia en i ely Po uguese in i s language, adi ions, eligion and igh s was essen ially an ideo- logical p opaganda. The egime he e o e ne e pub- lically e ealed his documen . Abou he epo , see Ribei o (1999). 10 In No embe o ha same yea , using simila me h- ods o occupa ion, he F ench e i o ies o Comp oi s de l’Inde we e occupied by India. This si ua ion was simila o he one in he Po uguese encla es o Dad a and Naga Ha eli; ne e heless, he Po uguese egime con inued de ending he speci ici y o he Es ado da Índia. 11 On he p ese a ion o he a chi ec u al he i age in he B i ish colonial e i o ies and i s poli ical con- ex ualiza ion, especially in India, see Swenson and Mandle (2013); E e (2012); Rajagopalan and Desai (2012); Sengup a and Ali (2011); Singh (2004); Me cal (2002); Chak aba i (2001); Jukileh o (1999); Edney (1987); Roy (1961). 12 On he p ese a ion o he a chi ec u al he i age in he F ench colonial e i o ies and i s poli ical con- ex ualiza ion, especially in India, see Ald ich (2011); Toulie and Pabois (2005); Ha g ea es (2005). San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 18 o 21 13 Unlike he B i ish, he F ench el he need o show he na i es hei supe io cul u e, and asse ing F ench ule a he same ime. F ench impe ialism p omo ed a p eda o y a i ude conce ning a chi ec u al he i - age, e asing o p esen ed as in e io he indigenous cul u es o jus i y he F ench occupa ion. This unde - mined he na i e poli ical and eligious powe . Wi h he p e ex o elimina ing insalub i y and p omo ing p og ess, se e al old pa s o ci ies we e pulled down and hen e-u banized acco ding o mode n Eu opean p ecep s; a se o new a chi ec u al monumen s was c ea ed side by side wi h p e-colonial ones, o eplac- ing hem, ma king he colonial landscape as glo i- ous symbols o he F ench so e eign y. Ne e heless, along wi h his new colonial he i age being c ea ed as symbolic signs o he F ench ule, he F ench au ho i- ies also implemen ed some measu es o p ese e he na i e he i age. 14 Despi e being sca ce, some wo ks exis on he p es- e a ion o a chi ec u al he i age du ing he Es ado No o egime in he Po uguese colonies, especially in A ica: Ma iz (2012); Raposo (2010); Fe nandes (1997). On he pa imonial wo ks in Goa since he 19 h cen- u y unde Po uguese adminis a ion, see San os and Mendi a a (2012). See also Ga cia (2011). 15 Panjim began o be known as New Goa and Goa as Old Goa. 16 In 1870 a commission was nomina ed o su ey all he s a e buildings o Old Goa and su oundings and o ecommend which should be p ese ed and which should be demolished. In 1890, again in he con ex o he exhibi ion o he elics and body o Sain F an- cis Xa ie , some in e en ions we e made in eligious buildings and in Sain F ancis Xa ie Squa e, al hough uins con inue o be demolished. 17 Wo k on he A ch o he Vice oys, in he See Ca hed al, in he Chu ch o he Holy Spi i o he Con en o Sain F ancis o Assisi, in he Chapel o Sain Ca he ine, in he Basilica o Bom Jesus, in he uins o he Chu ch o Sain Paul, in he ancien Con en o Sain John o God and in he Con en o Sain Monica can likely be a ibu ed o Bal aza Cas o (San os and Mendi a a 2011: 404–405). 18 The epo was published o he isi o he Minis o da P esidência, ma king he beginning o he i age wo k in Old Goa (Comissão de ‘A Velha Goa’ 1960). 19 O icial communica ion, 30 Sep embe 1959, om he go e no -gene al o he Es ado da Índia o he Minis- o do Ul ama (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14678, o icial communica ion n . 1281 [ ypesc ip ]). 20 Among new public spaces, he commission p oposed cons uc ing a squa e su ounding he A ch o Vice- oys, lanked by ga dened spaces and colonnades, and opened o Mando i i e side; cons uc ing a i e - on a enue along he Mando i Ri e , called A enida In an e D. Hen ique (In an e D. Hen ique A enue) — in honou o Hen y he Na iga o — be ween he uins o he cus omhouse and he ancien Domini- can College o Sain Bona en u e; econs i u ing he o me Rua Di ei a (Main S ee ) be ween he A ch o Vice oys and he c ossing oad Panjim — Pondá wi h Old Goa — Neu á; delinea ing he Vice oys’ Squa e, which would be enamed as Vasco da Gama Plaza, be ween he Ca hed al, he Chu ch o Ou Lady o Di ine P o idence and Con en o Sain Caje an and he u u e In an e D. Hen ique A enue. Du ing i s ses- sions, he commission also s udied he possibili y o building bel ede es in he Holy Moun (nex o he Chu ch o Ou Lady o Rosa y) and in he Moun o Boa Vis a. 21 I is impo an o no e ha many o he p oposed oads would no e ain p e-exis ing names, ins ead aking on he names o g ea Po uguese pe sonali ies deeply connec ed wi h he Po uguese Disco e ies and he Eas , such as Ga cia da O a, Sain F ancis Xa ie , Vasco da Gama, p ince Hen y he Na iga o , João de Cas o, A onso de Albuque que, Dua e Pacheco Pe ei a o Diogo do Cou o. Once again his o y was ideologically e oked, in his case h ough ‘na ional he oes’ chosen by he Po uguese egime as pa o he p opaganda linking he Es ado da Índia o Po ugal. 22 Comissão de ‘A Velha Goa’ (1960: 36). 23 On he u ban planning in he Po uguese colonies, see Milhei o (2012); Fon e (2007); Fe nandes (2002). 24 Monumen alizing he A ch o he Vice oys, a humble bu e e ed monumen , by e o mula ing i s image and su ounding space, ollowed he same commemo- a i e ac i i ies as unde aken, o ins ance, o he A c de T iomphe in Pa is, he Welling on A ch in London, o e en he Rua Augus a A ch in Lisbon. Two simila Indian monumen s may ha e also inspi ed o icials: he Ga eway o India in Mumbai, and he India Ga e in New Delhi, bo h om he 1920s. Despi e hei B i - ish o igin, hese wo commemo a i e a ches became s ong symbols o independen India. The in e en- ion on he A ch o Vice oys in Goa could ha e been an a emp o also es ablish a iumphal a ch in he o me capi al o he Es ado da Índia, wi h i s inhe en na ional symbolism. I s small size would be compen- sa ed by i s an iqui y and his o ic alue. 25 O icial communica ion, 13 Feb ua y 1960, om Eu ico Gonçal es Machado, chie o he Se iço de U banização (Se ice o U baniza ion) o he DSUH (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 67/UH [ ypesc ip ]). 26 O icial communica ion, 14 Ma ch 1960, om he DSUH o he go e no –gene al o he Es ado da Índia (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 1008/188/UH [ ypesc ip ]). 27 Wo k was p oposed o he ollowing: he Chapel o Ou Lady o So ows (co e age, ea es, pa emen s, ex e- io and in e io plas e including hei pain ings, and consolida ion o he su ounding g ound); he Chu ch o Sain Pe e o Panelim (co e age, pa emen s, ex e- io and in e io plas e including hei pain ings, and es o a ion o he al a including i s gilding); he Basilica o Bom Jesus (subs i u ion o he la e i ic s ones and he s onemason y o he acades, co e - San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’ A . 9, page 19 o 21 age o he p o essed house, pain ing o he acade wi h silica e pain , d ainage a ound he building and epai o he al a s); he Chu ch o he Holy Spi i and Con en o Sain F ancis o Assisi (co e age o he con- en and chu ch, pa emen o he i s loo , ex e io and in e io plas e o he con en , a angemen o he museum, ombs ones and d ainage a ound he building); he See Ca hed al ( epa a ion o pa emen s, co e age and plas e in he Episcopal Palace (co e age o he chu ch, and consolida ion o he owe , acade and plas e o he chu ch); he Chu ch o Ou Lady o Di ine P o idence and Con en o Sain Caje an (adap a ion and enla gemen o he ins alla ion o he Ins i u o Pio X de Teologia Pas o al, consolida ion o he owe s and acade o he chu ch, in e io and ex e io plas e , and d ainage a ound he building); he Con en o Sain John o God (d ainage a ound he building); he Chapel o Sain An hony (in e io and ex e io plas e , pa emen , econs uc ion o he sac- is y, d ainage a ound he building and ecomposing o he al a s and hei gilding); he Chu ch o Ou Lady o Rosa y (in e io and ex e io plas e , co e age, pa e- men , d ainage a ound he building and a angemen o he bel ede e); he emains o he owe belonging o he uined Chu ch o Ou Lady o G ace and Con en o Sain Augus ine (cleaning o he ubble allowing o show he ou line o he building, d ainage a ound he building and consolida ion o he owe ); se e al uined s uc u es (cleaning o he ubble allowing o show he ou line o he buildings, c ea ion o p o ec- ion zones and ga dens wi h sea s); and Sain F ancis Xa ie Squa e (a anging i s pa s), wi h he s a ue o Luís Vaz de Camões (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708 [ ypesc ip ]). 28 Repo o he i s s age o he Mas e Plan o he Ci y o Goa (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14672 [ ypesc ip ]). 29 O icial communica ion, 26 Oc obe 1960, om a chi- ec Ressano Ga cia, high echnician o he DSUH (AHC- ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 443/60/UH [ ypesc ip ]). 30 Abou he A ch o Vice oys, whe e a ea men in ‘s yle o a ch o iumph’ was sugges ed by loca ing i in he cen e o a huge squa e ha opened o he i e on and was lanked by buildings, Ressano Ga cia belie ed ha he in eg i y o he a ch, could su i e only wi h ex eme di icul y, gi en i s modes dimensions and low a chi ec u al alue, especially wi hou he ci y wall o lank i . 31 O icial communica ion, 26 Oc obe 1960, om a chi- ec Ressano Ga cia, high echnician o he DSUH (AHC- ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 443/60/UH [ ypesc ip ]). 32 Fo he egime, his ision o monumen s coexis ing wi h uins in Old Goa would e en ually be compa ed wi h he uins o Impe ial Rome, which Beni o Mus- solini had used o suppo his ideological cause some decades ea lie : Goa, he ‘Rome o he Eas ’, had been he magni icen Po uguese capi al o he Es ado da Índia, and he memo y o i as my hic ‘Golden Goa’ alida ed he con inuance o he Po uguese p es- ence in he Indian subcon inen . This allusion was no un ounded; he I alian dic a o ship had been, in many aspec s, a model o he Po uguese Es ado No o, including o he he i age pano ama. 33 O icial communica ion, 7 No embe 1960, om a chi- ec Sanches da Gama, di ec o -gene al o he DSUH (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n .14708, o icial communica ion n .443/60/UH [ ypesc ip ]). 34 O icial communica ion, 3 Janua y 1961, om go e - no -gene al Vassalo e Sil a o he Minis o do Ul ama (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 5 [ ypesc ip ]). 35 O icial communica ion, 3 Feb ua y 1961, om a chi- ec A mando Gi ão, high echnician o he DSUH (AHC- ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 40/61/UH [ ypesc ip ]). 36 O icial communica ion, 3 Janua y 1961, om go e - no -gene al Vassalo e Sil a o he Minis o do Ul ama (AHC-ICL — MU, collec ion ‘Es ado da Índia’, ile n . 14708, o icial communica ion n . 5 [ ypesc ip ]). 37 Abou he cons uc ion o he Ins i u o Pio X de Teo- logia Pas o al, he a chi ec Lucínio C uz said, in a documen w i en by A mando Gi ão, ha Vassalo e Sil a o de ed ha he cons uc ion o he building should co espond o he I alian Renaissance s yle in which exis ing a chi ec u e was buil , by using any p e-exis ing elemen s (pilas e s, co nices, doo s, win- dows) ha , al hough deg aded, could be eco e ed. Lucínio C uz also men ioned ha he planne — he a chi ec Naguesha Pissu lenca , who was pa o he Goan commission led by Ismael G acias J . — consul ed he wo k o Banis e Fle che o lea n abou p ecise indica o s o he I alian Renaissance, o acili a e he c ea ion o new pa s o he building (O icial communica ion, 6 May 1960, by a chi ec A mando Gi ão, senio echnician o he DSUH (ANTT, ‘Luís Bena en e’ onds, box, 79 ‘Índia (Di e sos)’, olde 549, documen 14 ‘O ício n . 169/60/UH’ [ ype- sc ip ]). Cu iously, all he old pa s belonging o he Con en o Sain Caje an we e buil much la e han he Renaissance; he o me a ached building p e- da ing he ins i u e was ac ually om 1858. 38 ANTT, ‘Luís Bena en e’ onds, box 79 ‘Índia (Di e sos)’, olde 549, documen 18. 39 O icial communica ion, 10 No embe 1961, om a chi ec Luís Bena en e (ANTT, box 79 ‘Índia (Di e - sos)’, olde 548, documen 5 ‘Ace ca da Pon e de Lin- ha es em Goa’ [ ypesc ip ]). 40 I can be assumed ha Bal aza Cas o was espon- sible o emo ing he plas e om he acades o he Basilica o Bom Jesus; indeed, in an o icial com- munica ion da ed 29 No embe 1957, Bal aza Cas o is asked o gi e his guidance on he alue o eplacing he plas e in he acades o he Basilica o Bom Jesus (AHU, e e ence numbe PT/AHU/MU/ DGOPC-DSUH/1200/01-02/12, o icial communica- ion om 29 No embe 1961, n . 63153 ‘Índia. Edi í- cios. Basílica Meno do Bom Jesus, Velha Cidade de Goa’ [ ypesc ip ]). San os: ‘Reins alling he Old Ci y o Goa as an E e nal Ligh o Po uguese Spi i uali y’A . 9, page 20 o 21 41 O icial communica ion, 12 No embe 1961, om a chi ec Luís Bena en e (ANTT, ‘Luís Bena en e’ onds, box 79 ‘Índia (Di e sos)’, olde 548, documen 10 ‘Ace ca dos Pa amen os Ex e io es da Basilica do Bom Jesus em Velha Goa’ [ ypesc ip ]). 42 O icial communica ion, 15 No embe 1961, om a chi ec Luís Bena en e (ANTT, ‘Luís Bena en e’ onds, box 79 ‘Índia ( Di e sos)’, olde 548, documen 15 ‘Ace ca da Recons ução da To e da Sé de Goa’ [ ypesc ip ]). 43 App oxima ely 30,000 Indian soldie s, suppo ed by ai and na y o ces, o a o al o 45,000 men, in aded Goa, Daman and Diu; he Po uguese de ence had only 3,500 soldie s, wi h li le ammuni ion, suppo ed by 1,000 ci il policemen, along wi h he old iga e NRP A onso de Albuque que (A ela 2012: 274). 44 I is impo an o men ion ha in Augus 1961 he Fo o Sain John he Bap is o Ouidah, he smalles Po u- guese o e seas e i o y, was in aded by Dahomey (now Benin). The local Po uguese leade p e e ed o bu n i a he han su ende . The colonial wa in Angola began in jus a ew mon hs ea lie , in Feb ua y 1961, ollow- ing he iolen ac ions o se e al Angolan independence mo emen s. The massi e dispa ch o Po uguese oops o Angola, in esponse o he wa like ac i i y o Ango- lans, as well as he des uc ion caused by he e usal o su ende in Benin, would ha e upse Jawaha lal Neh u, making him decide ha only by o ce would i be pos- sible o expel he Po uguese om Hindus an (A ela 2012: 267). See also S ocke (2011). 45 O icial communica ion, 20 Feb ua y 1962, om a chi- ec Luís Bena en e (ANTT, ‘Luís Bena en e’ onds, box 79 ‘Índia (Di e sos)’, olde 548, documen 21 [manu- sc ip ]). Compe ing In e es s The au ho decla es ha hey ha e no compe ing in e es s. Re e ences Unpublished Sou ces AHC-ICL — MU. A qui o His ó ico do Camões — Ins i u o da Coope ação e da Língua, onds o he o me Minis- é io do Ul ama . AHU. A qui o His ó ico Ul ama ino. ANTT. 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