The use of indicators in the evaluation of retail planning: evidences from England

Copy igh © 2017 Vilnius Gediminas Technical Uni e si y (VGTU) P ess h p://www. and online.com/ pa 1 THE USE OF INDICATORS IN THE EVALUATION OF RETAIL PLANNING: EVIDENCES FROM ENGLAND Ped o Po í io Cou inho GUIMARÃES Cen e o Geog aphical S udies, Ins i u e o Geog aphy and Spa ial Planning, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, Rua B anca Edmée Ma ques, 1600–216 Lisboa, Po ugal E-mail: ped oguima [email protected] Recei ed 17 Augus 2015; accep ed 26 No embe 2015 Abs ac . Re ail planning gained impo ance wi h he in oduc ion o inno a ion in ha sec o , which challenged he i ali y and iabili y o own cen es. Wi h his e olu ion and he a ise o Town Cen e Fi s in England, he e ail planning key documen s s a ed o inco po a e indica o s o help and s anda dize he moni o ing o he heal h o own cen es. This a icle aims o analyse he p ocess o e alua ion and e i y he e olu ion o indica o s sugges ed in he se e al public documen s ha cons i u e e ail planning in England since 1993. I was based on he e iew o he main documen s es ablished in England since 1993. The esea ch de eloped in his pape helps o upda e some in o ma ion and is aluable o u ban planne s, p ac i ione s and academics. In his pape we conclude ha indica o s a e been used bu wi hou been amed in an e alua ion amewo k and he a iabili y o sugges- ed indica o s may ha e limi ed he analysis o he empo al e olu ion o own cen es. In e ms o esea ch implica ions his pape helps o, in pa , pa h he way o u u e esea ch in his ield. Keywo ds: e alua ion, e ail planning, England, indica o s, Planning Policy Guidance, Planning Policy S a emen . In oduc ion Re ail is a p i a e ac i i y h ough which goods and se ices a e sold and, al hough no es ic ed o u ban a eas, i ’s in hese a eas ha i eaches i s maximum exp ession. The public egula ion o e ail has gained impo ance o e he las decades in se e al Wes e n Eu opean coun ies (as example see: Ne he lands (Spie ings 2006; E e s 2002); F ance (Colla 2003); Ge many (Ba h, Ha mann 2003); Sweden (Kä holm 2012)). The changes in his sec o caused a dec ease in he i ali y and iabili y o own cen es (see Ra ensc o 2000; Schille 1994; URBED 1994). Usually e e ed as e ail planning, one may conside ed i as he egula- ion ca ied ou on e ail sec o which e lec , di ec ly o indi ec ly, he na ional de elopmen s a egy o he sec o (Guima ães 2016). In he English con ex , among many o he s, au ho s such as Guy (2007, 2002), Findlay and Spa ks (2014) ha e wo ked on his subjec . The egula ion in his coun y has been cha ac e ized by he de elopmen o Planning Policy Guidance’s and S a emen s. Associa ed wi h hese documen s is he p o ision o indica o s o analyse he heal h o own cen es (Communi ies and Local Go e nmen 2009, 2012; Depa men o he En i onmen 1996). The ole o p i a e associa ions has also been ele an in his p ocess, o which one may enhance he Associa ion o Town & Ci y Managemen ( o me Associa ion o Town Cen e Managemen ) wi h he elease o epo s and Town Cen e Heal h Check (Associa ion o own cen e managemen 2015). Recen ly, a s udy commissioned by his associa ion and by Coca-S e aniak (Coca-S e aniak 2013) in oduced a new se o indica o s o measu e own cen e pe o mance. Ma e ial and me hods This a icle aims o analyse he p ocess o e alua ion and e i y he e olu ion o indica o s sugges ed in he se e al documen s ha cons i u e e ail planning in England since 1993. This s udy was based on he analysis o he key documen s ha se he amewo k o e ail planning o ha coun y. In he ollowing sec ion we will discuss he p ocess o e alua ion. Subsequen ly, we will ocus on English e ail planning and indica o s sugges ed on public documen s. Finally, jou nal o a CHITECTu E anD u BanISM ISSn 2029-7955 / eISSn 2029-7947 2017 Volume 41(1): 1–8 doi: 10.3846/20297955.2016.1182877 P. P. C. Guima ães. The use o indica o s in he e alua ion o e ail planning: e idences om England 2 some concluding ema ks will be made. Al hough he e is some esea ch on his opic (Hogg e al. 2001, 2004; Pal, Sande s 1997; Cen e o Ad anced Spa ial Analysis 2000, Ra ensc o 2000) he e is a need o upda e i . E en hough he e is some backg ound o p i a e commissioned epo s (see o example Coca- S e aniak 2013; BIS 2010, 2011) a some poin s his analysis has a desc ip i e na u e because he e is s ill a lack o ecen scien i ic discussion on he use o in- dica o s in e ail planning, gap ha his a icle ies o o e come and cons i u es, a same ime, pa o he no el y o his a icle and he eason why his esea ch may be o in e es o esea che s, u ban planne s and p ac i ione s. The p ocess o e alua ion E alua ion is a e y inclusi e p ocess used in a wide a ay o con ex s and a di e en s ages: ex-an e, on- going o ex-pos . The ex-an e e alua ion means ha i will be analysed he p ojec ed impac s o he subjec o e alua ion be o e i is implemen ed. The ongoing is done du ing he implemen a ion o he p og amme and usually i ’s used o s ill make some amendmen s. Finally, acco ding o Alexande (2006:7), he ex-pos e alua ion “in ol es measu ing o assessing he im- pac s and e ec s o he subjec unde aking– policy, plan, p og am o p ojec .” Among many o he con ex s, i can be applied in an en ep eneu ial en i onmen , aiming he e alua ion o cus ome sa is ac ion o o he e alua ion o ou is ’s sa is ac ion ega ding a pa icula ou is ic des ina ion. I also can be used in he con ex o de elopmen p o- g ams, egene a ion p ojec s o public policies. In his case, he impo ance o e alua ion a ises om he need o in o m s akeholde s such as agencies o unding in- s i u ions, local au ho i ies, planning o ice s, e aile s and axpaye s i he p og am o which con ibu ed, managed o achie e he desi ed impac (G eene 2009: 216). Mo e han in o ma ion abou he amoun spen is c ucial o know he achie ed impac s. As a complemen , he e alua ion p ocess can be use ul o suppo policy decisions o imp o e he pe o mance o ongoing and u u e p og ams (Wholey 2010:652). While ocusing on public sec o p oduc i i y, Ha y (1978: 28) used a spo s analogy ha also sui s his esea ch: “Unless you a e keeping sco e, i is di icul o know whe he you a e winning o losing”. The e alua ion exe cise should be an impo an sou ce o lea ning and social inno a ion, especially o hose esponsible o he ins umen un- de assessmen , o ins i u ions and ac o s wi h whom hey come in o in e ac ion in his con ex , and o he gene al public (Fe ão, Mou a o 2010: 21). Focusing on u ban planning, Oli ei a and Pinho (2009: 36) con- side ha e alua ion imp o es i s p ac ice, legi ima e hese p ocesses o ci izens, help policy planne s and de- cision-making and allows he cons uc ion o a p ac ical planning based on con inuous lea ning p ocess. Despi e he acknowledged impo ance, i ’s usual he exis ence o gaps in hese p ocesses. Dhaliwal and Tulloch (2011: 18) ocusing on social policies explains hem clea ly: “Billions o dolla s a e spen e e y yea on de elopmen policies and p og ams, bu he e is ela i ely li le igo ous e idence on he ue impac hese p og ams ha e on he li es o he poo . […] This sca ci y o igo ous e idence on p og am impac , and he echnical language in which he li le e idence ha does exis is p esen ed, makes i inaccessible o policymake s, many o whom hen ely on in ui ion and anecdo al e idence in deciding which p og ams o und and implemen ”. E alua ion: amewo ks and me hods The e alua ion o policies and/o p og ammes is usually amed in a concep ual amewo k and subsequen ly is ealized h ough di e en me hods. In he Eu opean con ex , he wo k o he Eu opean Commission s ands ou . In o de o e alua e he applica ion o he S uc u al Funds wo s udies o highe impo ance we e de eloped: MEANS (Means o e alua ing ac- ions o a s uc u al na u e) and he guide EVALSED (The esou ce o he e alua ion o Socio-Economic De elopmen ). The i s consis s o six olumes and was p epa ed by he Eu opean Commission in 1999, aiming o p esen a cohe en se o me hods o espond o he p oblems encoun e ed du ing he e alua ion o in e - en ions suppo ed by he S uc u al Funds (Eu opean Commission 1999: 5). Following imp o emen s in he ield o e alua ion, new expe iences in Eu opean policies, he inc easing numbe o EU membe s and he need o a mo e s a egic app oach in he e alu- a ion o S uc u al Funds, i became necessa y o up- da e his publica ion. In his con ex , in 2008, he s udy EVALSED was eleased, comp ising a suppo guide and h ee books: E alua ion app oaches o pa icula hemes and policy a eas; E alua ion me hods and ech- niques; Resou ce ma e ial on e alua ion capaci y build- ing. This is a gene al s udy and assumed he di icul y o b inging oge he he ideal condi ions o ca y ou an e alua ion, ei he o he lack o da a, he limi a ion o ime, he a ailabili y o ools o he abili y o pe o m i (Eu opean Commission 2008: 5). The amewo k de eloped in his guide is desc ibed in he Figu e 1. I conside ed necessa y o analyse he objec i es, inpu s, ou pu s and esul s in o de o ob ain he speci ic impac s o a ce ain p og amme. Depending on he dep h o analysis, his guide also Jou nal o A chi ec u e and U banism, 2017, 41(1): 1–8 3 iden i ies ou e alua ion ca ego ies ha ela es o he ele ance o he p og am, wi h i s e iciency, e ec i e- ness and u ili y (Eu opean Commission 2008: 41). This guide (Eu opean Commission 2008: 42) explains wha is mean by each o he ca ego ies. So, ele ance “ e e s o he app op ia eness o he explici objec i es o he p og amme in ela ion o he socio-economic p ob- lems i is supposed o add ess”; e ec i eness “conce ns whe he he objec i es o mula ed in he p og amme a e being achie ed, wha he successes and di icul ies ha e been, and how app op ia e he solu ions chosen ha e been and wha is he in luence o ex e nal ac o s”; “e iciency is assessed by compa ing he esul s ob ained o , p e e ably, he impac s p oduced, and he esou ces mobilized” and u ili y “judges he impac s ob ained by he p og amme in ela ion o b oade socie al and eco- nomic needs”. This s udy also e e s o sus ainabili y, e alua ion p ocess ha examine he du a ion o impac s. In his espec i mus be examined wha ealis ic expec - a ions one may conside . O he amewo ks ha e been de eloped, like he one p esen ed by Moo e and Spi es (2000: 219, based on he wo k o PACEC 1999), which p esen ed a con- cep ual amewo k ocused on he ex-pos e alua ion o u ban egene a ion p og ammes. Al hough he e a e some simila i ies wi h he E alsed guide ame- wo k, especially ega ding he ou lined concep s, hese a e displayed in a mo e in eg a ed way, which makes i easie o unde s and. In his amewo k i ’s enhanced he s a egic objec i es o he p og ammes, inpu s, ac i i y measu es, syne gy, ou pu s and ou - comes measu es, g oss impac s and he Ne impac s on u ban a eas. Coca-S e aniak (2013) pe o mance amewo k is ano he example and is ancho ed on ou hemes: people and oo all; di e si y and i ali y o place; consume and business pe cep ions; economic cha ac e is ics. Al hough speci ically de eloped o own cen es his is a amewo k based on an ongoing e alua ion p ocess and, he e o e, wi h limi a ions as o he dep h o he pe o med analysis. Unde lying he di e en e alua ion amewo ks is he use o di e se kind o me hods, like Impo ance- pe o mance analysis (see Ri iezzo e al. 2009; Musa e al. 2010), Analy ical Hie a chy P ocess (Pineda- Henson e al. 2002; Saa y, Va gas 2013), Cos –bene- i analysis (Nybo g 2014), Mul i-c i e ia analysis (Macha is, Be na dini 2015), among many o he s. The use o indica o s in English e ail planning Re ail planning in England was, un il he mid-1990s, cha ac e ized by he educed es ic ion o he appea - ance o new comme cial o ma s and hei deploymen ou side he es ablished adi ional cen es o com- me ce. A e ha pe iod he e was an in e sion wi h he ise o Town Cen e Fi s policy, whose i s ap- p oach was in 1993, h ough Planning Policy Guidance 6 (PPG6). In his pe iod, we also wa ch he use o e ail as a c ucial elemen o se e al u ban egene a ion p o- jec s, mainly h ough he deploymen o shopping cen- e s in cen al a eas (see Lowe 2005, 2007; Jayne 2006) and he eme gence and dissemina ion o own cen e managemen schemes. Agains his backg ound, he English go e nmen s a ed o inco po a e a se o in- dica o s in he main key documen s o e ail planning. These indica o s, en i led Key Pe o mance Indica o s (KPI) (Hogg e al. 2004) ha e been sugges ed in se e al ig.1. Selec ing p io i y e alua ion ques ions Sou ce: Eu opean Commission (2008). P. P. C. Guima ães. The use o indica o s in he e alua ion o e ail planning: e idences om England 4 pieces o legisla ion o ha coun y (Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) and Planning Policy S a emen (PPS)). The main objec i e is o measu e he heal h o own cen es. I is accep ed as ele an he use o indica o s o his pu pose because i allows he pe iodic moni - o ing o he own cen e and o co ec some aspec in which he cen e is no wo king p ope ly. The use o he e m “heal h” in his con ex has been widely sp ead in he li e a u e ha uses English case s udies and he se o indica o s used o measu e i is called Town Cen e Heal h Check. Alongside, i also allows he jus i ica ion o he in es men made by de elope s in wo s ages. In he i s , in o ms in es o s abou he ele ance o he pe o med in e en ion. In he second s age, se es o a ac new de elope s, by demons a - ing he e u n o he in es men made by he al eady es ablished in es o s. In England, al hough he collec ion o indica o s is no manda o y bu only ecommended, i should be done sys ema ically, allowing o ace he egula e olu ion o he a ea. The indica o s p esen ed in Table1 began o be sugges ed in he e ision o he documen ha guided he de elopmen o e ail, he e ised Planning Policy Guidance 6 (PPG6) o 1993. In his documen only se en indica o s we e sugges ed. In he ollowing yea , wi h URBED epo “Vi al and Viable Towns Cen es: Mee ing he Challenge” (URBED 1994), his numbe emained unchanged al hough e aile ep esen a ion was eplaced by he S a e o own cen e en i onmen al quali y. This epo also poin ed ou he impo ance o i ali y and iabili y in he analysis o he heal h o own cen e. O he indica o s we e indica ed, bu ha e been ega ded as o ma ginal impo ance. A e 1994 h ee o he documen s we e p oduced, all o hem inco po a ing indica o s conside ed ele - an o measu e he i ali y and iabili y o own cen es. Wi h he sugges ion o indica o s, h ough documen s wi h na ional co e age, i is in ended ha hei collec- ion become s anda dized, allowing he compa ison be ween di e en a eas. The 1996 e ision o PPG6 ex ended he numbe o indica o s o ele en. The in oduc ion o new docu- Table1. Indica o s used in he documen s ela ing o e ail planning in England Indica o s PPG6 (1993) u BED epo (1994) PPG6 (1996) PPS6 (2005) PPS4 (2009) nPP (2012) Di e si y o uses X X X X X e aile ep esen a ion X X X X e aile demand (plans o change) X X X X X Shopping en s X X X P opo ion o acan s ee le el p ope y X X X X X Comme cial yields on non-domes ic p ope y X X X X X Pedes ian lows X X X X X accessibili y X X X Cus ome iews and beha iou X X X Pe cep ion o sa e y & occu ence o c ime X X X S a e o own cen e en i onmen al quali y X X X X Physical s uc u e o he cen e X X The amoun o e ail, leisu e and o ice loo space in edge-o -cen e and ou -o -cen e loca ions; X X Po en ial capaci y o g ow h o change o cen es in he ne wo k X X land alues and he leng h o ime key si es ha e emained unde eloped X o he indica o s Demand om e ail mul iples; anking o mul iples p esence; space in use; p o ile o e aile s; acancy a es; quali y o he cen e. Sou ce: Cen e o ad anced Spa ial analysis (2000); u BED (1994); Depa men o he en i onmen (1996); o ice o he Depu y P ime Minis e (2005); Communi ies and local go e nmen (2009, 2012). Jou nal o A chi ec u e and U banism, 2017, 41(1): 1–8 5 men s in 2005 and 2009 u he b oadened his numbe o hi een and ou een, espec i ely. The las e ail planning documen – Na ional Planning Policy F amewo k (Depa men o Communi ies and Local Go e nmen 2012) – edi ed in 2012 is he i s , since PPG6 o 1993, o no inco - po a e any indica o s. Only i e indica o s emained du ing he 16 yea s and i e key documen s: di e si y o uses, e aile demand, p opo ion o acan s ee le el p ope y, comme cial yields on non-domes ic p ope y and pedes ian lows. The emaining indica o s we e only sugges ed in ewe cases, b eaking he con inui y ha should cha ac e ize e alua ion. As new egula ions we e eleased, new indica o s we e inco po a ed, such as accessibili y, cus ome iews and beha iou , pe cep ions o sa e y and occu - ence o c ime, among o he s. Assuming he di icul y o collec hem, i was p obably expec ed ha inc eas- ing he numbe o sugges ed indica o s would posi - i ely in luence he numbe o hose which was going o be e ec i ely collec ed. The use o hese and/o o he indica o s is op ional. In u ban a eas, he ga he ing o indica o s has gene - ally been done h ough Town Cen e Heal h Check, an analogy made o he measu emen o he heal h o own cen es. I is a ailable online a wide ange o such s udies. Fo example, in he coun y o Fi e, Sco land, se e al Town Cen e Heal h Check we e unde aken, ocusing on di e en aspec s: (1) analysis o consume pe cep ions o ou cen es– Glen o hes, Ki kcaldy; S And ews and Dun e mline. These s udies we e con- side ed c ucial o iden i y he necessa y in e en ions o main aining he iabili y and i ali y o hose a eas (Fi e Council 2009, 2011); (2) in 2012 ano he s udy was p epa ed on he pe cep ion o he quali y o exis ing co e a eas, o which isi o s and po en ial in es o s we e in e iewed, wi h he pu pose o p oceeding o he c ea ion o a ma ke ing s a egy o ien ed o an ex- e nal audience (Thinkingplace 2012); (3) cha ac e iz- a ion o he e ail sec o in his a ea, se ing as suppo o he a ious municipal de elopmen plans (Rode ick MacLean Associa es L d 2012). In o he case, in he heal h check d awn o he cen e o Su on (London Bu ough o Su on 2010), i was decided o collec he indica o s sugges ed in PPS4. The use o indica o s, whe he by o mal heal h check lis s o o he mo e in o mal ways can be done by bo h public and p i a e sec o . In he i s case, he ci y council acqui es a p ominen posi ion. In he second case, he own cen e managemen schemes and, mo e ecen ly, business imp o emen dis ic s a e inc eas- ingly assuming a leading ole. Some cons ain s in he e alua ion p ocess Some p oblems a ise om he e alua ion app oach used in English e ail planning. Wi h a ocus in u ban own cen es, one should ake in conside a- ion ha hese a eas a e e y likely o change, making i di icul o co ec alloca e he esponsibili y o a ce ain measu e o policy. Ano he e e yday aspec s in oduces di icul ies o he e alua ion and da a col- lec ion mechanisms: (i) some imes hose esponsible o he implemen a ion o p og ammes, policies o p ojec s a e mo e conce ned wi h managing he daily wo k; (ii) some necessa y da a o e alua ion may no be easy o ge . Fo example, da a ela ing o he i- abili y o he a ea, such as e enue and he numbe o unoccupied s o es and da a ela ing o i ali y, as he pedes ian low a e no a ailable and a e e y ex- pensi e o ob ain. The alloca ion o human esou ces o he collec ion o da a is, mos o he imes, ha d o achie e, ega dless whe he i will be collec ed by public local au ho i ies o p i a e schemes o asso- cia ions. In addi ion o hese di icul ies, in o de o unde s and he e olu ion o he a eas, i is necessa y ha bo h he i ali y- ela ed da a and hose ela ing o he iabili y would be collec ed pe iodically, which usually discou age hei ga he ing and makes i an un easible p ocess. Some imes, as Hogg e al. (2004: 313) a es ed e en i a ce ain indica o is conside ed ele an by a p ojec manage , i s ill may no be used, which will in oduce limi a ions o he compa abili y o di e en a eas. These p oblems a e no es ic ed o he English, B i ish o e en he Eu opean con ex . Mullin and Ko al (2003: 11) iden i ied hese di i- cul ies in he No h Ame ican con ex . Acco ding o hese au ho s, al hough mos cen al a eas e i aliza- ion p ojec s in end o inc ease he i ali y, iabili y and sus ainabili y o a ge ed a eas, ac ually end up no es ablishing any c i e ia o he e alua ion o p o- jec s. The e alua ion o p ojec s e en ually alls back on he in ui ion o local public au ho i ies. I has also been a p oblem in e ms o scale and compa abili y o da a. In he English na ional con- ex , he ange o in e ened a eas by egene a ion p ojec s has been e y wide. E alua ions, especially hose based exclusi ely on he collec ion o indica o s, can ha dly inco po a e local speci ici ies o dis u bed a eas. Apa om hese ea u es, he p esence o some p oac i e s akeholde s can be a decisi e ac o in he success o he p ojec . As iden i ied in he li e a u e, he p esence o hese local leade s (Fo sbe g e al. 1999; Pu due e al. 2000; Hamble on 2003; Hamble on e al. 2001) can decisi ely in luence he success o ail- u e o a p ojec . P. P. C. Guima ães. The use o indica o s in he e alua ion o e ail planning: e idences om England 6 Conclusions While i is isible an e o o ca y ou e alua ion p o- cesses in English e ail planning, h ough he sugges- ion o indica o s o allow he analysis o he heal h o own cen es, he e is no in eg a ed in o ma ion enabling an assessmen o impac s, a leas one ha would be app oxima ed o a amewo k like he ones de eloped by he Eu opean Commission and PACEC. Wha we ound in he key documen s is a se o indic- a o s, whose a iabili y be ween documen s doesn’ a- cili a e he compa ison o he analysis o he empo al e olu ion. Al hough he e a e some p i a e epo s (Coca-S e aniak 2013; BIS 2011, 2010) hey e lec he unding associa ion poin o iew, which may be di - e en han he one he na ional go e nmen may ha e. One may conclude ha indica o s used in English e ail planning documen s a e un amed and should be in a amewo k ha would jus i y i s use by he di e en s akeholde s, which he e o e, could ecog- nize i s impo ance. We conclude ha a smalle se o well-es ablished indica o s ha may pe sis o e ime would be he be e solu ion. The e o e, i would allow he empo al compa ison o he same a ea and he e - i o ial compa ison be ween di e en own cen es o in e ened a eas. Thus, we ecommend o look back o p e ious and cu en public documen s (Table1) and gi e p io i y o he indica o s ha we e sugges ed in all o he majo i y o he documen s. Hence, ega dless o he limi a ions, ha se o indica o s would s ill gi e an o e iew o he e olu ion o a ce ain own cen e, in- s ead o he pho og aphic iew ha indica o s collec ed only once ( empo al dimension) gi e. E en hough i was no he aim pu sued in his a icle, wi h his e- sea ch we ha e somehow pa h he way and demons a e he necessi y o a esea ch ha would es ablish such a se o indica o s. In p ac ical e ms, he cons ain s ound in he English con ex a e impo an o u ban planne s, p ac i ione s and academics because i may p o ide some assis ance in he de ini ion o u u e e al- ua ion indica o s and concep ual amewo ks, no only in England bu also in o he coun ies. Acknowledgemen s This wo k was suppo ed by he Po uguese na ional unding agency o science, esea ch and echnology. We wish o hank he Cen e o Geog aphical S udies om Lisbon Uni e si y, he edi o s o his jou nal and he wo anonymous e iewe s o hei commen s on he p e ious e sion o he pape . Re e ences Alexande , E. 2006. E olu ion and s a us: whe e is plan- ning-e alua ion oday and how did i ge he e? In E. Alexande (Ed.). E alua ion in planning– e olu ion and p ospec s. Hampshi e: Rou ledge, 3–15. Associa ion o own cen e managemen 2015. Town Cen e Heal h Check [online], [ci ed Oc obe 2015]. A ailable om In e ne h p://www. owncen eheal hcheck.o g.uk/ Ba h,K.; Ha mann, M. 2003. Ge many, in S. Howe (Ed.). 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