The memorialization of empire in postcolonial Portugal: identity politics and the commodification of history

156 ELSA PERALTA The Memo ializa ion o Empi e in Pos colonial Po ugal: Iden i y Poli ics and he Commodi ica ion o His o y ABSTRACT: The en i e expe ience o mode n impe ialism has p o oundly shaped Eu ope- an na ional iden i ies in ways ha con inue o ma e in pos impe ial imes. This is also ue o Po ugal; as he i s and he mos endu ing o he Eu opean colonial empi es, i s end did no e ase he sel -image o he coun y as an impe ial na ion. Al hough e- ashioned in a ma e o s yle and con en , majo public ep esen a ions o he na ion’s collec i e iden i y emain ancho ed in he memo y o empi e. This o icial memo y com- bines a s ong emphasis on he pe iod o he “Ma i ime Disco e ies” wi h he ep esen- a ion o Po ugal as he pionee o cul u al dialogue on a global scale and o he Po u- guese as “in en o s” o he mode n wo ld. In his a icle, I will add ess some examples o he way in which Po ugal’s impe ial his o y has been memo ialized o con ey he coun- y’s “b and image,” o he pu poses o bo h iden i y poli ics and he ou ism indus y. KEYWORDS: public memo y, Po uguese empi e, na ionalism, cosmopoli anism, com- modi ica ion RESUMO: Toda a expe iência do impe ialismo mode no moldou p o undamen e as iden- idades nacionais eu opeias de manei as que con inuam a se impo an es nos empos pós-impe iais. Es e ambém é o caso de Po ugal: sendo o p imei o e o mais du adou o impé io colonial eu opeu, o seu im não apagou a au o-imagem do país como nação impe ial. Embo a emodelada em e mos de es ilo e con eúdo, as p incipais ep esen a- ções públicas da iden idade cole i a da nação pe manecem anco adas na memó ia do impé io. Es a memó ia o icial combina uma o e ên ase no pe íodo das “Descobe as Ma í imas” com a ep esen ação de Po ugal como pionei o do diálogo cul u al à escala global e dos po ugueses como “in en o es” do mundo mode no. Nes e a igo, abo da- ei alguns casos a a és dos quais a his ó ia impe ial de Po ugal oi memo ializada pa a ansmi i uma “imagem de ma ca” de Po ugal, an o pa a as polí icas da iden idade quan o pa a a indús ia do u ismo. 157 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a PALAVRAS-CHAVE: memó ia pública, Impé io Po uguês, nacionalismo, cosmopoli ismo, comodi icação In oduc ion A he opening ce emony o he Ele en h Web Summi in Lisbon, in ea ly No embe 2019, he mayo o Lisbon, Fe nando Medina, o e ed an as olabe o Paddy Cosg a e, he ounde o he echnology and en ep eneu ship con e ence. Asan ins umen used by he na iga o s du ing he so-called Po uguese “Disco e ies,” he as olabe possessed a symbolism ha Medina emphasized a he ime: Lisbon was he capi al o he wo ld i e cen u ies ago, his was he s a ing poin o ou es o disco e new wo lds, new people, new ideas. F om Lisbon depa ed a g ea ad en u e ha connec ed he human ace. . . . Today i is you, he enginee s, he en ep eneu s, he c ea o s, he inno a o s, he s a -ups, all he companies. (Lusa 2017c)1 In addi ion o es ablishing a line o con inui y be ween he Lisbon o i e hun- d ed yea s ago and he Lisbon o oday, calling i “a ci y o en ep eneu s and scien is s,” Medina also s essed he welcoming cha ac e o Lisbon and he Po uguese socie y as a whole, concluding ha “ he inno a ion ha Lisbon wen h ough 500 yea s ago was due o he ac ha he ci y and Po ugal ha e an open socie y” and ha “ eedom, ole ance, di e si y, he abili y o unde s and and alk o each o he a e he alues o Lisbon and he alues ha we wan o keep o he u u e” (Lusa 2017c). This na a i e se es as one example (among many o he s) o how, in pos co- lonial imes, he memo y o he Po uguese colonial empi e has been eshaped by poli ical agen s and public cul u al ins i u ions. In his e o mula ion, an almos exclusi e emphasis on he his o ical memo y associa ed wi h wha is con en ionally called he Po uguese “Ma i ime Disco e ies”—co esponding o he oyages o ma i ime explo a ion ha began in he i een h cen u y and o he “golden age” o na ional his o y—is combined wi h he image o a mod- e n and cosmopoli an coun y. Acco dingly, Po ugal is po ayed as a pionee o cul u al dialogue on a global scale and he Po uguese as “disco e e s” o he mode n wo ld, while o ge ing he sys em o asymme ical powe ela ions ha also cha ac e ized Po uguese colonialism. PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 158 This na a i e s a ed o be egene a ed in he mid-1980s, on he basis o old impe ial my hs wo en since nine een h-cen u y libe alism and he Fi s Republic (1910–1926) and in ensi ied du ing he Es ado No o (1933–1974), bu mo e ecen ly has become adap ed o he new pos colonial languages and he symbolic demands o Eu opean in eg a ion (Pe al a 2017). A e he all o he Es ado No o egime in 1974 and he swi decoloniza ion ha ollowed, in he public poli ical dis- cou ses— hen cha ac e ized by a e olu iona y one— he o me empi e was a no-name land. Bu as he young Po uguese democ acy was being success ully implemen ed and he coun y was on i s way owa d e en ually acceding o he Eu opean Economic Ma ke in 1986, Po uguese na ional iden i y s a ed o be ewo ked o i in o he new poli ical and cul u al con ex o libe al democ acies. In his way, Po ugal’s impe ial his o y began o se e once again as a chie he- o ical ool o loca ing Po ugal in a new space o Eu opean iden i y, a space now domina ed by no ions o mul icul u alism and cosmopoli anism. This ehabili a ion began in 1983 wi h he inclusion o he Je ónimos Monas e y and he Belém Towe in UNESCO’s Wo ld He i age Lis . UNESCO jus- i ies his classi ica ion wi h he obse a ion ha he wo monumen s “ e lec he powe , knowledge and cou age o he Po uguese people a a ime when hey consolida ed hei p esence and domain o in e con inen al ade ou es” and ecall “ he pionee ole he Po uguese had in he 15 h and 16 h cen u ies in c e- a ing con ac s, dialogue and in e change among di e en cul u es” (UNESCO, n.d.). Since UNESCO is an ins i u ion ha ep esen s a cul u e o peace, democ- acy, and coope a ion in he wo ld, his pe manen classi ica ion bes owed las - ing p aise and p es ige, legi ima ing Po ugal’s impe ial pas , ega dless o he poli ical con igu a ions ha modeled he ac ion (Ha ison and Hi chcock 2005). On12 June 1985, he T ea y o Accession o Po ugal o he Eu opean Economic Communi y (EEC) was signed a he Je ónimos Monas e y.2 In 1986, he Na ional Commission o he Commemo a ion o Po uguese Disco e ies was c ea ed and i s ac i i y con inued un il 2002, ep esen ing a huge s a e e o o e ise he his- o ical eco d and es o e his o iog aphical legi imacy o he pe iod o Po uguese ma i ime expansion.3 This endea o would culmina e in he commemo a ion o i e hund ed yea s o he “Disco e ies” and he s aging o he 1998 Lisbon Wo ld Exposi ion (Expo’98) wi h he heme “Oceans.” F om hen on, wo pe spec i es would be key in he composi ion o Po ugal’s memo ial landscape wi h espec o he coun y’s impe ial pas . Fi s , a pedagogical pe spec i e on he his o y o he na ion, con eyed by he mos di e se sec o s o Po uguese socie y wi h an 159 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a in e es in signaling he ull democ a ic inclusion o he coun y in he Eu opean con ex . Second, a pe spec i e o commodi ica ion, in which he pas gains an exchange alue in he cul u al and ou is consump ion ma ke . In his a icle, I will ocus on se e al examples ha show how hese ideas we e capi alized in pos colonial imes o c ea e a b and image o Po ugal, a - ge ing ex e nal audiences bu also unc ioning obus ly as a mechanism o ep oducing he o me impe ial my hs o domes ic audiences. Iwill look a Expo’98 (“Oceans”), an e en ha comple ely e u bished he geog aphy o he ci y, and also a se e al ac s o public cul u e ha ha e con e ged in concep ual- izing Lisbon as a “Global Ci y.” D awing on hese examples, I a gue ha mem- o y na a i es a e malleable and adap able cons uc ions ha can be ewo ked o sui new iden i y demands and changing ci cums ances. Fo his, I use he concep o “cosmopoli an my hscapes,” o which I will now u n. Cosmopoli an My hscapes: Eu opean Memo y,Na ionalIden i y,andEmpi e Empi e was in insic o he cons uc ion o Eu opean na ion-s a es; impe ial p ojec s a e pa o he his o y and memo y o Eu ope, and he na ional and impe ial ca ego ies emain deeply in e wined (MacKenzie 1986; Hall and Rose 2006). E en i i is pa icula ly e iden in coun ies ha we e o me impe ial cen e s, his condi ion has encompassed he whole o he con inen because all Eu opean na ions we e complici and in ol ed in he impe ial en e p ise in se e al ways (Bue ne 2018). Indeed, he making o mode n Eu ope mean ha coun ies ha we e no impe ial powe s we e none heless shaped by con inen al his o ies o empi e. Eu ope i sel was o med h ough unequal geopoli ical powe ela ions wo en by empi e, wi h a ious ins ances o “in e nal coloniza ion” (Pe al a and Jensen 2017). Se e al coun ies wi hou empi es ab oad emba ked on campaigns o o cibly assimila e peoples and e hnic mino i ies wi hin hei bo de s, as happened wi h he indigenous Sámi o no he n Sweden, No way, and Finland (Lo sdó i and Jensen 2012). In e nal colonialism has also applied o unequal powe ela ions be ween impe ial Eu opean na ion-s a es, as in he case o Po ugal, which was a subo dina e pa icipan in he impe ial sys em, pa icula ly h ough i s dependen posi ion in ela ion o he B i ish Empi e. Eu opean colonialism hus es ablished a se ies o in e connec ed p ocesses ha ha e impac ed o me impe ial cen e s, he whole o Eu ope, and he wo ld a la ge, wi h he es ablishmen o an unswe ing acialized dicho omy o ela ions PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 160 and he ins i u ionaliza ion o he mode n na ion-s a e, which a o s a di ision o labo c i ical o he expansion o capi alis economies. These powe ela ions we e no se e ed by decoloniza ion. Empi es, as s uc- u es o powe and in luence ha span as geog aphical spaces, may o mally come o an end, bu hey con inue beyond colonial ule h ough p ac ices, sub- jec i i ies, and discou ses (Wol e 1997). Assuch, pas impe ial expe ience is a key componen o he my hscape o he old Eu opean powe cen e s and, in ac , he whole o Eu ope. The concep o “my hscape” ha I use he e is d awn om he o mula- ion sugges ed by Duncan S. A. Bell in a pape en i led “My hscapes: Memo y, My hology, and Na ional Iden i y” (2003). Acknowledging he impo ance and cen ali y o na ional my hs and memo ies in he cons uc ion o na ional iden- i ies and na a i es (Smi h 1999), Bell se s ou o challenge he mains eam and some imes abusi e usage o he e m “memo y,” conside ing ha wha schola s so o en e e o as “memo ies” should be mo e accu a ely e med “go e ning my hs” o he na ion. Bell hus p oposes he concep o my hscape, de ining i as he empo ally and spa ially ex ended discu si e ealm whe ein he s ug- gle o con ol o peoples’ memo ies and he o ma ion o na ionalis my hs is deba ed, con es ed and sub e ed incessan ly. The my hscape is he page upon which he mul iple and o en con lic ing na ionalis na a i es a e ( e) w i en; i is he pe pe ually mu a ing eposi o y o he p esen a ion o he pas o he pu poses o he p esen . (Bell 2003, 66) Acco ding o his eading, na ional iden i ies a e cons uc ed, deba ed, nego i- a ed, and con es ed in speci ic ins ances by eso ing o a se ies o p ees ablished my hs. The o iginal ounda ional my h o sys em o my hs is ew i en o e ime and con inually upda ed as cu en ci cums ances change, e en hough i may main ain i s i ali y. This makes i possible o a ela i ely unchanging s uc u e o na ional my hs o e ain i s cons i u i e cohe ence as i is cons an ly ewo ked and adap ed acco ding o he iden i y needs and e e -changing meanings gi en o he pas by each p esen ci cums ance (Kosha 2000). In o me Eu opean impe ial coun ies, my hscapes a e ine i ably associa ed wi h hei impe ial expe ience, which has le indelible ma ks on Eu opean cul- u al and symbolic landscapes. Bu he pas is ewo ked o mee he demands o he new pos colonial se ing es ablished a e he demise o Eu opean colonial empi es ollowing Wo ld Wa II. Decoloniza ion en ailed he ans o ma ion o 161 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a o me Eu opean impe ial powe s in o pos impe ial na ion-s a es. Mo eo e , pu ing an end o empi es and building he ins i u ional a chi ec u e o he Eu opean Communi y we e equally pa o Wes e n Eu opean poli ics a e 1945. No only did bo de s, p e ious economic ela ions, and ci izenship igh s ha e o be edesigned; he disappea ance o he colonial empi es also caused a la ge mo emen o people ( o me colonize s as well as o me ly colonized people) o eloca e o Eu ope, while he Eu opean in eg a ion p ojec encou aged he mo emen o ci izens wi hin he Communi y (Laschi, Deplano, and Pes 2020). Fu he mo e, decoloniza ion i sel was he esul o he a i ma ion o wide egional and ansna ional alliances a e he 1960s—such as he A o-Asian coali ion unde he amewo k o he Uni ed Na ions (Oli ei a 2017)—wi h hei blun condemna ion o colonialism, along wi h hei claims o indigenous peo- ples’ igh o sel -de e mina ion. I was he opening o a new e a, a ime o ak- ing in o conside a ion he demands o he new iden i y poli ics o he “na i e,” “abo iginal,” and “ ibal” peoples and hei g owing p esence on he wo ld s age. This p esence became e en mo e appa en in he 1990s and was e lec ed, among o he hings, in he p o es s agains he Columbian Quincen ena y and agains he ce emonies celeb a ing he “ inding” o B azil. Finally, he a e ma h o he Second Wo ld Wa was cha ac e ized by an unp eceden ed globaliza ion ha con inuously eshaped he wo ld h ough global lows o people, echnolog- ical inno a ions, capi al, in o ma ion, and ideas (Appadu ai 1990). In his changing con ex , o me Eu opean impe ial cen e s had o be imag- ined anew and he whole Eu opean colonial his o y enego ia ed. Mos o en, his nego ia ion was conduc ed on he basis o a memo ial display, s ill pu ing empi e a he cen e o na ional iden i y de ini ions (Bue ne 2016), which also se ed as an ins umen o he c ea ion o new poli ical cons i uencies om o - me impe ial go e nance sys ems, such as he B i ish Commonweal h, F ench F ancophonie, and Po uguese Luso onia. He e, he nega i e conno a ions asso- cia ed wi h he exploi a i e na u e o empi es a e e o mula ed o appea bene- icial o bo h colonize s and colonized, and a e usually a icula ed a ound ideas o cosmopoli anism, mul icul u alism, and in e cul u al dialogue. These i in idily wi h bo h he cul u al asse ions o globalized indigenous mo emen s and he libe al agendas o cul u al ecogni ion ha ha e cha ac e ized con empo a y o ms o mul icul u al go e nance (Cli o d 2007). I is agains his gene al back- g ound ha ges u es such as F ench P esiden Emmanuel Mac on’s 2018 Repo on he Res i u ion o A ican A mus be iewed and conside ed. PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 162 The e o e, e u ning o Bell’s con ibu ion, I a gue ha Eu ope’s o iginal go - e ning my h—which amed i s en i e impe ial expansionis expe ience—is o Eu ope as he bea e o a p og essi e ci iliza ion, s uc u ed by no ions o dis- co e y and o wa d mo ion. AsJacques De ida no ed, In i s physical geog aphy, and in wha has o en been called . . . i s spi i ual geog aphy, Eu ope has always ecognized i sel as a cape o headland . . . he poin o depa u e o disco e y, in en ion, and coloniza ion . . . ha o an ad anced poin . . . and hus, once again, wi h a heading o wo ld ci iliza ion o human cul u e in gene al. (1992, 24) The idea ha Eu ope is an ad anced space, adically supe io o he es o he wo ld in all i s o ms o social and poli ical o ganiza ion, appea ed in he six een h cen- u y when he Eu opean Wes imposed i s in e p e a ion o space and ime on he wo ld (Goody 2006). The ecu en axioms o Eu ocen ic di usionism o Eu ope as inna ely supe io , p og essi e, and inno a ing hus jus i ied on mo al g ounds he ci ilizing mission o Eu ope’s impe ial en e p ise by pushing o wa d he back- wa d peoples and e i o ies o he “ es ” o he wo ld o ca ch up wi h Eu ope’s mode ni y (Blau 1993). This Eu opean model o p og essi e ci iliza ion accom- moda es ideas o cosmopoli anism om ancien G eek philosophy and Immanuel Kan ’s ein en ion o cosmopoli anism in he la e 1700s as a u opian ea ise o uni e sal ci izenship, as de i ing om i ue and eason (Wood 1998, 69).4 I a gue ha oday’s speci ic Eu opean my hscape con inues o be composed o a pa icula ep esen a ion o Eu ope as cosmopoli an, mode n, and ci i- lized. Howe e , because o he changing con ex imposed by he new wo ld o de pos –Wo ld Wa II, his my hscape, while s ill main aining i s i ali y, had o be ewo ked as a esul o he new iden i y poli ics d awn in a con ex ma ked by complex in e dependencies and e e yday encoun e s wi h di e ence. Cosmopoli anism hus became e amed as a welcoming o di e ence, o , in Ul Hanne z’s wo ds, “a willingness o engage wi h he o he . . . an in ellec ual and aes he ic openness owa ds di e gen cul u al expe iences” (1990, 239). This cons uc poin s owa d bo h pos colonialism and neocolonialism. On he one hand, i allows o he ansi ion o o me Eu opean impe ial cen e s o pos co- lonial na ions, bu wi hou pu ing an end o hei espec i e go e ning my hs ha s em om impe ial his o y. On he o he , i is shaped by pa e nalis ic unde - ones as i e eals he ways in which colonial expansionis en e p ises con inue o in o m con empo a y deba es on cul u al and social di e si y (Cli o d 2007). 163 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a Wi h his concep ual amewo k in mind, I now u n o he case o Po ugal o explo e con inui ies in he ways na ional iden i y and empi e ha e been na a ed in colonial and pos colonial imes, and o analyze how hese na a i es a e s uc- u ed by a go e ning Eu opean my hology o disco e y and o wa d mo ion. Expo’98 and Pos impe ial Discou se Po ugal’s image as he “coun y o he Disco e ies” and pionee o cul u al con ac on a global scale has been widely used by successi e democ a ic go e nmen s and a ious public bodies o b and Po ugal o bo h in e nal and ex e nal audiences. Th ough hese ac ions, he dep h o his o ical expe ience is combined wi h aspi- a ions o mode ni y, hus claiming o Po ugal a symbolic and geos a egic posi- ion ha cen e s a ound, on he one hand, i s ull in eg a ion in o he Eu opean con ex and, on he o he , i s dema ca ed pionee ing oca ion. The mos de ini i e and pa adigma ic ac ion in e ms o ehabili a ing Po uguese impe ial his o y in pos colonial imes was he 1998 Lisbon Wo ld Exposi ion (“Oceans”), an e en ha would econ igu e he en i e geog aphy o he ci y. Expo’98 ook place in Lisbon om 22 May o 30 Sep embe 1998, and i lay wi hin he legal amewo k go e ning in e na ional exhibi ions es ablished by he Bu eau In e na ional des Exposi ions (BIE). Ad e ised as “ he las exhi- bi ion o he wen ie h cen u y,” Expo’98 ocused on a speci ic heme: “The Oceans: AHe i age o he Fu u e.” Ass a ed in he Final Repo o he Exhibi ion, The idea o hold an in e na ional exhibi ion in Lisbon a ose wi hin he con- ex o he wo k o he Na ional Commi ee o he Commemo a ion o he Po uguese Disco e ies, he objec i e o which was o o ganize a se ies o di - e en e en s o commemo a e he his o ical signi icance o he Po uguese Disco e ies in he closing decades o he i een h cen u y, which culmina ed in he i s sea oyage o India, made by Vasco da Gama in 1498, and he com- memo a ion o he a i al o Ped o Ál a es Cab al in B azil, in 1500. The his- o ical ele ance o Expo’98 he e o e coincided wi h Vasco da Gama’s sea oyage o India, whe e he a i ed on 22 May 1498, hus opening up new pe - spec i es o economic and comme cial ela ions a ha ime, and p omo - ing a p ocess o in e cul u al exchange, which had majo consequences o humankind. (Exposição Mundial de Lisboa 1999, 18) This s a emen makes clea ha he pu pose o Expo’98 was o edeem he no ion ha Po ugal’s na ional his o y is linked o ma i ime expansion. Bu in o de o PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 164 legi imize his ewo king, he exhibi ion upda ed ea lie impe ial discou se and d essed i in mode n clo hes by using oceans as hema ic ma e ial and ela ing i o issues o sus ainable managemen and en i onmen al p o ec ion, which a e he con empo a y conce ns o so-called mode n, de eloped coun ies. Th ough his diploma ic endea o a ound he global managemen o oceanog aphic esou ces, he designe s o he exhibi ion we e a ge ing he in e na ional p o- mo ion o he coun y and i s image (Fe ei a 2005). AsAn ónio Mega Fe ei a, o me di ec o o Expo’98, w o e in he O icial Guide o he Exhibi ion, I was essen ial, when de ining he concep , o unde s and ha he Lisbon exhibi ion should dis inguish i sel om o he ecen e en s o he same ype by he a en ion gi en o i s main heme. The e o e, an ambi ious hema ic p o- g am was p oposed, he aim o which was o place he oceans, hei di e si y and essen ial ole in he equilib ium o he plane , a he cen e o he a en ion o he in e na ional communi y. . . . As ic ly his o ical app oach was he e o e eschewed in a o o an o ien a ion ha app oached he heme in e ms o i s u u e pe spec i es, by ela ing i o science, poli ics, echnology, and a . The aim was o p opose a new e hics ega ding he ela ionship o humankind o he en i onmen , a heme ha seemed o us cen al o he poli ical agenda o he wen y- i s cen u y. (Exposição Mundial de Lisboa 1999, 18) Po ugal was he eby ep esen ed, ye again, as leading he way o Eu opean and Wes e n u u es opened up by a ea i ma ion o he ai h in science, comme ce, ci iliza ion, and mode ni y. By hese means, Po uguese impe ial discou ses we e ewo ked so he enhancemen o he his o ical legacy o “Po uguese Disco e ies” could be seen as a “gi o mode ni y,” hus eclaiming a key posi- ion in he wide Eu opean iden i y cons uc in which Po ugal was now placed. The whole exhibi ion was concei ed o enhance and upda e his supposed gi , coun e ac ing he seconda y and pe iphe al ole o Po ugal wi hin mode n Eu ope. The hema ic pa ilions on he si e included he Knowledge o he Seas Pa ilion, he Oceans Pa ilion, he U opia Pa ilion, he Pa ilion o he Fu u e, he Vi ual Reali y Pa ilion (whe e isi o s we e gi en he i ual oppo uni y o a el o he dep hs o he ocean), and he Pa ilion o Po ugal. Inaddi ion, he e we e h ee “ hema ic a eas”: he Nau ical Exhibi ion, he Ga cia de O a Ga dens (named a e he bo anis who played a key ole in gene a ing knowl- edge h ough impe ial expansion), and he Wa e Ga dens. The exhibi ion also accommoda ed he pa ilions o he a ious na ional and co po a e pa icipan s, 171 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a he wo ld,” owe much o his expe ience gained by he people in ma i ime ac i i ies and he knowledge acqui ed in hei con ac s wi h o he peoples. (Museu Nacional da A e An iga 2009, 5) The second exhibi ion, i led The Global Ci y: Lisbon in he Renaissance was on display a he MNAA be ween 24 Feb ua y and 9 Ap il 2017. I  ea u ed 249 pieces belonging o 77 Po uguese and o eign lende s, and was ancho ed by wo pain - ings o unp o en o igin depic ing Rua No a dos Me cado es, “Lisbon’s main ading a e y in he i een h cen u y, ull o me chan s, mumme s, musicians, hawke s, knigh s, jewel y, silks, spices, exo ic animals, and o he wonde s impo ed om A ica, B azil, Asia” (Museu Nacional de A e An iga 2017). The pu pose o he exhibi ion was, as s a ed on he MNAA websi e (2017), o “ ebuild he hea o he mos global ci y in Renaissance Eu ope,” based on he a gu- men ha , in he ansi ion om he i een h o he six een h cen u y, Lisbon became a global ci y because objec s and people om di e en o igins and con- inen s con e ged he e. Acco ding o he exhibi ion’s cu a o s, Annema ie Jo dan Gschwend and Ka e Lowe (2015), he e a e i e easons o concei ing i een h-cen u y Lisbon as a global ci y: he ac ha i was a he cen e o he mo emen o comme cial p oduc s; i s popula ion being a mix u e o indige- nous people ( ha is, Lisbon-bo n o Po uguese), o he Eu opeans, and people om all o e he globe; i s “global consciousness”; i s ecogni ion by o he ci ies as ha ing his capabili y; and las ly, i s posi ion a he o e on o new o ms o knowledge, echnology, and communica ion. Aside om hese concep ualiza ions, he exhibi ion lacked a ulle con ex- ualiza ion o he cu a o s’ a gumen s and gene a ed conside able c i icism. Fu he mo e, he au hen ici y o he pain ings o Rua No a dos Me cado es was se iously called in o ques ion. The cu a o s a ibu ed hei au ho ship o an unknown Flemish a is , who would ha e pain ed hem some ime be ween 1570 and 1619, and con ended ha hey belonged o he collec ion o he nine- een h-English pain e Dan e Gab iel Rosse i. Howe e , se e al his o ians ha e ques ioned he pain ings’ p o enance and au hen ici y: João Al es Dias, a e ha ing s udied se e al elemen s o he pain ings in de ail, is ce ain ha i is “a pain ing o ged in he wen ie h cen u y o imi a e he pas ”; o his pa , Diogo Ramada Cu o conside s i impossible o he pain ings o ha e belonged o Dan e Gab iel Rosse i’s collec ion and belie es ha hei au hen ici y emains o be p o en (Cade e, Ca i a, and F anco 2017). E en g ea e c i icism was di ec ed PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 172 a he p omo ed in e p e a ion o Lisbon as a global ci y in he i een h cen- u y. A e all, who was depic ed in he pain ings? Ba e oo Black people—mos ce ainly sla es—occupied in menial asks a e he mos no iceable ace o he many hie a chies o powe ha s and ou in hese wo ks. Only e y euphemis i- cally could one conside hem as p oo ha i een h-cen u y Lisbon was a place o he mee ing o cul u es on a global scale. Ramada Cu o again spea headed his c i icism in an a icle in he Po uguese weekly newspape Exp esso, which con es ed hese in e p e a ions, gi ing exp ession o a pos colonial c i ique ha was beginning o ake shape in Po uguese socie y a a ime when he coun y was inc easingly haun ed by ampan na ional deb (Cu o 2017). Con es ing My hscapes and he Rew i ing o His o y Ins ead o being ex inguished due o up u es in he poli ical and social o de , na ional na a i es a e o en upda ed and econ igu ed o mee he demands and aspi a ions o each new p esen . In he case o Po ugal, he impe ial na a- i e ha had s uc u ed na ional iden i y o e se e al gene a ions and successi e egimes was eno a ed in he pos colonial pe iod, ei he o easons o in e nal iden i ica ion o o espond o yea nings o poli ical and economic a i ma ion on he in e na ional s age. Asbe o e, his na a i e con inues o e ol e s ongly a ound he ea ly oyages o “disco e y” and expansion, ega ded as he “golden age” o na ional his o y. This ocus on he idea and image o he empi e closely app oxima es he phenomenon obse ed by Paul Gil oy in Pos colonial Melancholia (2005); as in he B i ish case, so in Po ugal he e seems o be—no wi hs and- ing he ob ious di e ences be ween he wo con ex s—a e usal o accep he symbolic loss o he empi e ha had p e iously p o ided a sense o cohe ence o na ional cul u e. This image no only emains i id in he na ional social ab ic bu is also deeply in e nalized by Po uguese o all social o igins and gene a- ional s a a (Cabecinhas and Cunha 2003). I e en pe ades he imagina ion o people isi ing he coun y, who, subjec ed o Po ugal’s unequi ocal ep esen- a ion as con eyed by he ou is in o ma ion media, a e seduced by a pa icula idea o his o y ha is highly my hicized. Howe e , e u ning o he concep o “my hscape” sugges ed by Bell (2003), i should be no ed ha he go e ning my hs o na ions, wha e e hei s abili y, a e incessan ly subjec ed o deba e, con es a ion, and sub e sion, in pa icula when a p e iously excluded na ional popula ion o ces i s own w i ing upon his- o y. The poli ical media ion o he legacies o impe ial powe is condi ioned by 173 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a he mig an low om he o me colonies o Po ugal and becomes p ominen in he ensions and ambi alences ha cha ac e ize he ela ionship be ween he whi e Po uguese popula ion and he popula ions ha came om Po ugal’s o - me colonies and hei descendan s. These a e o en pe cei ed wi hin he ame- wo k o he assimila ionis model inhe i ed om he colonial pas , which con eys he idea o a cul u al hyb idism cha ac e ized by peace ul coexis ence wi h acial and cul u al di e ence. Howe e , hese assimila ionis my hs a e usually in s a k con as o he p essing social ma ginali y ha o en a lic s he descendan s o mig an s om o me colonies and he neighbo hoods in which hey li e, on he ou ski s o Lisbon. Asin o he Eu opean capi al ci ies ha we e o me ly impe ial powe cen e s, ongoing ma e ial s uc u es o inequali y in Lisbon a e signi ican ly calling Po ugal’s go e ning my hs in o ques ion. Emba led immi- g an subu bs, oge he wi h he Eu o de ici and he consequences o he inan- cial c isis, a e al e ing he image o Eu ope as a model o p og essi e ci iliza ion (Beh and S i ach is 2015). In his o e all con ex , al hough he e has been an inc easing endency owa d he commodi ica ion o he na ional pas (which con ibu es o a de la- ion o i s ideological con en ), a eas o con es a ion and a icula ion o coun e - memo ies wi h ega d o he legacy o he coun y’s impe ial pas ha e also eme ged, especially in ecen yea s. Calls o a mo e p oblema izing ep esen- a ion o Po ugal’s colonial pas eached unp eceden ed p opo ions in 2017. In ha yea , he Tes imonials o Sla e y: A ican Memo y se ies o exhibi ions was o ganized as pa o he Lisbon 2017 Ibe o-Ame ican Capi al o Cul u e agenda (Lusa 2017b). This agenda also included he exhibi ion Racism and Ci izenship, held in he Monumen o he Disco e ies (Pad ão dos Descob imen os 2017). A  he same ime, se e al associa ions o A odescendan s ac i e in he ield o mem- o y we e c ea ed, such as he Djass Associa ion, which in 2017 submi ed a p o- posal o he Lisbon Ci y Council’s Pa icipa o y Budge o c ea e a Memo ial o he Vic ims o Sla e y in Lisbon (Djass 2017). Se e al con o e sies a ose wi h he eme gence o di e gen eadings on he legacies o Po ugal’s impe ial pas . One o hese dispu es was igge ed du ing he s a e isi o he P esiden o he Po uguese Republic, Ma celo Rebelo de Sousa, o Senegal in Ap il 2017. Speci ically, a he end o his isi o a o me sla e- ading pos on he island o Go ée, whe e Pope John Paul II had apologized o sla e y, Ma celo Rebelo de Sousa s a ed ha Po ugal ecognized he injus ice o sla e y when i abolished he ins i u ion in pa o i s e i o y “by he hand o he Ma quis o Pombal in PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 174 1761” (Lusa 2017a). In esponse o hese s a emen s, an open le e was pub- lished in he newspape Diá io de No ícias on 19 Ap il 2017, en i led “ARe u n o he Pas in Go ée: No in Ou Name” and signed by nume ous academics and in ellec uals, who hus epudia ed he “poli ics o memo y ad oca ed by he poli ical powe s in Po ugal” in ela ion o he coun y’s legacy o colonialism (Diá iodeNo ícias 2017). Ano he con o e sy ha a ose ha yea was associa ed wi h he inaugu a- ion o a s a ue in La go T indade Coelho, in Lisbon, o hono Fa he An ónio Viei a—a dis inguished Jesui cle gyman who was bo n in he Po uguese cap- i al in 1608 and died in Bahia, B azil, in 1697. A  he inaugu a ion ce emony, Fe nando Medina, he mayo o Lisbon, conside ed i an essen ial ibu e o “one o he g ea es pe sonali ies o Po uguese hough ,” so a wi hou “ he p ope exp ession o ecogni ion” in he ci y (Ba os 2017). The inaugu a ion o he s a ue again p o oked a p o es , i s ly because An ónio Viei a accep ed sla - e y, albei selec i ely, and, secondly, because o he sculp u al design chosen o he s a ue, which depic s he cle gyman in a clea posi ion o dominance o e indigenous igu es who a e ep esen ed as child en. The g oup Descolonizando (Decolonizing) called a demons a ion o p o es he s a ue.6 Howe e , he o ga- niza ion was unable o ca y ou he p oposed ac ion, scheduled o 5 Oc obe 2017, because o he p esence o a - igh g oups on he si e. S ill in 2017, a hea ed eac ion me a p oposal, included in Medina’s elec o al pla o m, o he Ci y Council o Lisbon o c ea e a Museum o he Disco e ies (Sil a 2020). Mo e han one hund ed academics, his o ians, and social scien is s om na ional and o eign ins i u ions signed and published an open le e in he Exp esso newspape , en i led “Why a Museum Dedica ed o he Po uguese ‘Expansion’ and he P ocesses I Has Unleashed Canno and Should No Be Called ‘Disco e ies Museum.’” Acco ding o he le e , he e m “disco e ies” “c ys allizes a his o ical inaccu acy,” since he wo d “only e e s o he pe cep- ion o eali y om he poin o iew o he Eu opean peoples,” whe eas “ o he non-Eu opeans, he idea ha hey we e ‘disco e ed’ is p oblema ic.” In con- clusion, he le e ’s au ho s s a ed ha , “a a ime when deba es on Po uguese colonial his o y in ensi y, . . . i is impo an ha a new museum should also be a e lec ion o his p oblema izing ichness” (Ma ga o 2018). All hese ini ia i es we e unp eceden ed in calling o a mo e p oblema ic and c i ical memo y o he long Po uguese impe ial his o y ha does no e e exclusi ely o he “golden age” o he “Disco e ies.” Thus, while he impe ial 175 HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a pas is s ill a memo ial e e ence o na ional iden i y, hese ins ances o coun e - memo y ha e con ibu ed o b eak he “dialogical o ge ing” in ela ion o he impe ial pas in Po uguese socie y (Assmann 2010, 9–11). A  he same ime, coun e memo ies add o he g owing deba e on iden i y poli ics ha in ecen yea s has become appa en in Po ugal. I is di icul o p edic how he go e n- ing my hs o he Po uguese na ion will adap o his newly con es ed landscape. In oday’s o e all scena io o global c isis, o me impe ial my hs and men al- i ies seem o ha e gained a second li e, o en es i ying o a g ip on a nos algic and biased e sion o he colonial pas . Howe e , his phenomenon some imes helps o ini ia e a mo e complex deba e on he legacies o colonialism, which s ill exe an in luence on cul u es and social ela ions, no only in o me empi es like Po ugal, bu also in Eu ope as a whole, which, as Benoi DeL’Es oile (2008) has claimed, was shaped bo h objec i ely and subjec i ely by he impe ial expe i- ence. Asschola s, i is ou ask o con inue o obse e and analyze he un olding o e en s ha poin o he enewed ways in which indi iduals and communi ies make sense o imes pas and p esen . no es 1. All ansla ions om Po uguese a e mine. 2. The Je ónimos Monas e y was also he enue o he signing o he T ea y o Lisbon on 13 Decembe 2007. 3. Fo de ails o he ac i i ies o he Commission, see Oli ei a 2003. 4. Cosmopoli anism is an ancien e m wi h oo s in he hi d cen u y BC (e.g., he philosophy o he S oics). 5. A good example o hese ini ia i es was he na ional campaign launched in 2007, when he T ea y o Lisbon was signed a he Je ónimos Monas e y. The campaign, called Po ugal: Eu ope’s Wes Coas , was sponso ed by he Minis y o Economy and Inno a ion, Tu - ismo de Po ugal, and he Po uguese Agency o In es men and Fo eign T ade (AICEP), wi h he aim o p omo ing Po ugal’s image ab oad. 6. Descolonizando is a Facebook g oup composed o “ esea che s, eache s, a is s, and ac i is s om di e en na ionali ies” whose aim is “ e lec ing, discussing, and ac - ing o p omo e he cons uc ion o a c i ical na a i e and he elimina ion o acism and inequali y” (h ps://www. acebook.com/Descolonizando-1948301182079309). PORTUGUESE LITERARY & CULTURAL STUDIES 176 wo ks ci ed Appadu ai, A jun. 1990. “Disjunc u e and Di e ence in he Global Cul u al Economy.” Theo y, Cul u e & Socie y 7 (2–3): 295–310. Assmann, Aleida. 2010. “F om Collec i e Violence o a Common Fu u e: Fou Models o Dealing wi h a T auma ic Pas .” In Con lic , Memo y T ans e s and he Reshaping o Eu ope, edi ed by Helena Gonçal es da Sil a, Ad iana Al es de Paula Ma ins, Filomena Viana Gua da, and José Miguel Sa dica, 8–23. Newcas le upon Tyne: Camb idge Schola s Publishing. Ba os, Filomena. 2017. “Pad e An ónio Viei a: Fei a jus iça a ‘um símbolo’ que deixou ‘um legado imenso.’” Rádio Renascença, June 22, 2017. h ps:// .sapo.p /2017/06/23/ eligiao/pad e-an onio- iei a- ei a-jus ica-a-um-simbolo-que-deixou-um-legado- imenso/no icia/86965/. Bell, Duncan S. A. 2003. “My hscapes: Memo y, My hology, and Na ional Iden i y.” B i ish Jou nal o Sociology 54 (1): 63–81. Beh , Ha mu , and Yannis A. S i ach is, eds. 2015. Re isi ing he Eu opean Union as Empi e. London: Rou ledge. Be hencou , F ancisco. 1999. “Amemó ia da expansão.” In Úl imo impé io e ecen amen o (1930–1998), edi ed by F ancisco Be hencou and Ki i Chaudhu i, 442–80. Vol. 5 o His ó ia da Expansão Po uguesa. Lisboa: Cí culo de Lei o es. Blau , James M. 1993. The Colonize ’s Model o he Wo ld. New Yo k: The Guil o d P ess. Bue ne , Elizabe h. 2016. Eu ope a e Empi e: Decoloniza ion, Socie y, and Cul u e. Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. ———. 2018. “Eu opean En anglemen s.” In Keywo ds/ECHOES: Eu opean Colonial He i age Modali ies in En angled Ci ies.h ps://keywo dsechoes.com/eu opean-en anglemen s. Cabecinhas, Rosa, and Luís Cunha. 2003. “Colonialismo, iden idade nacional e ep esen ações do ‘neg o.’” Es udos do Século XX, no.3, 157–84. Cade e, Miguel, Alexand a Ca i a, and Hugo F anco. 2017. “Museu de A e An iga ab e as po as a ob as suspei as.” Exp esso, Feb ua y 21, 2017. h ps://exp esso.p / cul u a/2017-02-21-Museu-de-A e-An iga-ab e-as-po as-a-ob as-suspei as. 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Wol e, Pa ick. 1997. “His o y and Impe ialism: ACen u y o Theo y, om Ma x o Pos colonialism.” Ame ican His o ical Re iew, no.102, 406–9. elsa pe al a holds a PhD in An h opology om he Uni e si y o Lisbon (UL) and is cu en ly a senio esea ch ellow a UL’s Cen e o Compa a i e S udies (CEC) and an associa e esea che wi h he Ins i u e o Social Sciences (ICS-UL). He in e disci- plina y wo k ocuses on he in e sec ion be ween p i a e and public modes o ecall o pas e en s, pa icula ly he colonial pas . InCEC, she coo dina es he line o esea ch on “Legacies o Empi e and Colonialism in Compa a i e Pe spec i e” and is he p in- cipal in es iga o o he p ojec unded by he Po uguese Founda ion o Science and Technology (FCT),“Cons ella ions o Memo y: AMul idi ec ional S udy o Pos colonial Mig a ion and Remembe ing” (PTDC/SOC-ANT/4292/2021). She has published se - e al a icles, chap e s, and books, and was he cu a o o he exhibi ion Re u n—T aces o Memo y, p oduced by Lisbon’s Ci y Council in 2015. HERITAGES OF PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE Elsa Pe al a