The representation potential of raptors for globally important nature conservation areas

Ecological Indica o s 124 (2021) 107434 A ailable online 29 Janua y 2021 1470-160X/© 2021 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/). Sho No e The ep esen a ion po en ial o ap o s o globally impo an na u e conse a ion a eas A. San angeli a , b , c , d , * , M. Gi a dello e a Resea ch Cen e o Ecological Change, O ganismal and E olu iona y Biology Resea ch P og amme, Uni e si y o Helsinki, PO Box 65 (Viikinkaa i 1), 00014 Helsinki, Finland b Helsinki Ins i u e o Li e Science, Uni e si y o Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland c The Helsinki Lab o O ni hology, Finnish Museum o Na u al His o y, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Finland d Fi zPa ick Ins i u e o A ican O ni hology, DST-NRF Cen e o Excellence, Uni e si y o Cape Town, Cape Town, Sou h A ica e cE3c - Cen e o Ecology, E olu ion and En i onmen al Changes/Azo ean Biodi e si y G oup and Uni e sidade dos Aço es – Dep o de Ciˆ encias e Engenha ia do Ambien e, PT-9700-042, Ang a do He oísmo, Aço es, Po ugal ARTICLE INFO Keywo ds: Su ogacy Umb ella species Bi ds o p ey Flagship species Global p io i iza ion Indica o species ABSTRACT S emming om a pe asi e lack o knowledge on biodi e si y, impo an a eas o conse a ion a e ypically iden i ied using a subse o well known species, commonly e med su oga e o indica o g oups. Bi ds ha e been commonly used as biodi e si y su oga es due o he good le el o knowledge on hei axonomy, ecology and dis ibu ion. Rap o s in pa icula ha e been o en p oposed as an e ec i e su oga e o o he biodi e si y based on hei die a y di e si y, being a he op o he ood chain, hei p e e ence o highly p oduc i e a eas, hei gene ally h ea ened s a us and high public appeal. Howe e , so a he su ogacy e ec i eness o ap o s has been la gely s udied locally o using a na ow selec ion o su oga e and su oga ed axa. He e we use a spa ial conse a ion planning ool o quan i y he su ogacy pe o mance o ap o s, o e all and by di e en ap o g oups (hawks and eagles, alcons, ul u es, owls) o ep esen impo an biodi e si y a eas (such as IUCN p o ec ed a eas and key biodi e si y a eas), wilde ness a eas and he wo lds eco egions. We compa ed he abo e su ogacy pe o mance wi h ha o all o he non- ap o a ian species. We show ha ap o s pe o m ma ginally wo se han all o he a ian species in ep esen ing impo an biodi e si y a eas and eco egions. Howe e , ap o s ep esen a ion o wilde ness a eas was simila o sligh ly be e compa ed o ha o using all non- ap o bi ds. We also epo a la ge a ia ion in he ep esen a ion pe o mance by he ou ap o g oups. Falcons had a pa icula ly high po en ial in ep esen ing p o ec ed a eas and wilde ness a eas, equaling o la gely su passing he ep esen a ion po en ial p o ided by all ap o s and all o he non- ap o bi ds. O e all, he esul s sugges ha ap o s, and pa icula ly alcons, can pe o m ela i ely well in ep esen ing some impo an a eas o conse a ion, such as p o ec ed a eas and wilde ness a eas, bu a e ela i ely poo su oga es o key biodi e si y a eas and eco egions. These a he con as ing esul s call o cau ion on he use o ap o s as global su oga es o wide biodi e si y. 1. In oduc ion Knowledge abou biodi e si y and i s dis ibu ion, commonly e e ed o as he Linnean and Wallacean sho alls, is e y limi ed (Whi ake e al., 2005). Consequen ly, he iden i ica ion o p io i y a eas o biodi e si y conse a ion o en elies on a na ow selec ion o species ac ing as su oga es o wide biodi e si y ( he su ogacy concep ; Ca o, 2010). Howe e , ypically his na ow selec ion o su - oga e species (i.e. ypically well moni o ed species used o ep esen o he species, he su oga ed species, in a aining a conse a ion objec i e; Ca o, 2010) is assumed, implici ly o explici ly, o be an e ec i e su oga e o biodi e si y (La sen e al., 2012). This assump ion o en emains un es ed, lea ing us in an unce ain and po en ially misleading si ua ion o alse belie ha p io i izing conse a ion * Co esponding au ho a : Resea ch Cen e o Ecological Change, O ganismal and E olu iona y Biology Resea ch P og amme, Uni e si y o Helsinki, PO Box 65 (Viikinkaa i 1), 00014 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (A. San angeli). Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec Ecological Indica o s jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/ecolind h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.107434 Recei ed 20 Oc obe 2020; Recei ed in e ised o m 10 Decembe 2020; Accep ed 17 Janua y 2021 Ecological Indica o s 124 (2021) 107434 2 owa ds a eas impo an o speci ic su oga e axa does ha e an impac on a much wide ange o species. Bi ds a e commonly used as su oga es o biodi e si y owing o he la ge and ypically high quali y ele an in o ma ion on hei axonomy and dis ibu ion, hei b oad appeal o he public and o en conspicuous na u e (La sen e al., 2012). Among bi ds, ap o s ha e been pa icula ly highligh ed as a po en ially e ec i e su oga e g oup o wide biodi- e si y (Se gio e al., 2006, 2008). Rap o s, as mos la ge p eda o s, a e gene ally globally h ea ened by inc easing human ac i i ies, wi h popula ions o se e al species, like many ul u es, apidly declining (McClu e e al., 2018). Being a he op o ecological ood chains, ap o s may ac as sen inels o en i onmen al change, gi ing ea ly wa nings o po en ial an h opogenic impac s on biodi e si y (Bu ield, 2008; Don´ aza e al., 2016). Rap o s p e e ence o a di e si y o p ey ac oss he ood chain, and o highly p oduc i e a eas, may acili a e hei ole as umb ella o o he biodi e si y (Se gio e al., 2008; Bu gas e al., 2014). Mo eo e , due o hei appeal and cha isma, ap o s a e widely app ecia ed by he public and well s udied by scien is s (Buechley e al., 2019), and can ac as lagship species, le e aging unds o help p ese e biodi e si y as a whole (Don´ aza e al., 2016; McGowan e al., 2020). While local s udies ha e a emp ed o quan i y he su ogacy e ec- i eness o ap o s a he local scale and/o wi h a na ow selec ion o su oga e and su oga ed species, a global analysis o he su ogacy e ec i eness o ap o s is s ill lacking. Mos impo an ly, he s udies conduc ed so a ha e exclusi ely ocused on ap o ep esen a ion o o he species (Se gio e al., 2006, 2008; Bu gas e al., 2014), whe eas none ha e add essed ap o ep esen a ion po en ial o impo an con- se a ion a eas, ha is, hose a eas ha ha bo species and ecosys ems o conse a ion conce n. As he occu ence o ap o s is ypically associa ed wi h a eas o high species ichness and in ac ecosys ems (Se gio e al., 2008), he e we aim o quan i y how well ap o s can ep esen globally impo an e es ial a eas o biodi e si y conse a ion as well as wild a eas. Using a global conse a ion p io i iza ion app oach, we i s compa e he e ec i eness o ap o s wi h ha o all o he non- ap o bi d species in ep esen ing impo an a eas o biodi e si y conse a ion, such as p o ec ed a eas, key biodi e si y a eas, wilde ness a eas, e es ial eco egions. Nex , wi hin he ap o guild, we also aim o compa e he ep esen a ion o hose a eas by ou dis inc sub-g oups o ap o species di e ing in hei ecology, li e-his o y and ex inc ion isk, namely hawks and eagles, al- cons, owls and ul u es. This g ouping ollows he a ionale and app oach o Buechley e al. (2019). 2. Ma e ial and me hods 2.1. S udy egion and su oga e g oups The a ge egion o his s udy includes all e es ial a eas o he wo ld. As su oga e axa we conside ed wo main g oups o bi ds, all ap- o s, o de s Accipi i o mes, Ca ha i o mes, Falconi o mes, S igi- o mes (n =557 species) and all o he non- ap o bi ds (n =10353). Wi hin ap o s, we also conside ed ou con as ing g oups wi h dis inc i e ecology, li e-his o y, and conse a ion s a us: Hawks and eagles, alcons, owls, ul u es (n =234, 64, 236, 23). The selec ion o ap o s and hei sub-g oups s ic ly ollows ha used by wo ecen s udies (McClu e e al., 2018; Buechley e al., 2019). Mo eo e , he se- lec ion o all species as de ailed abo e was condi ional on he a ail- abili y o hei digi ized ange maps as p o ided by Bi dLi e In e na ional and Na u eSe e (2015) and was es ic ed o species whose ange o e laps, a leas pa ly, e es ial a eas. Fo all su oga e axa, we only used he b eeding and esiden ange o each species. This seasonal es ic ion aims o a oid noise s emming om he species being only pa ly p esen in an a ea, and also because mos o he conse a ion planning s udies ocus on he b eeding and esiden ange o he species (e.g. Mon esino Pouzols e al., 2014; San angeli e al., 2019a, 2019b, 2020). The ange o each species was as e ized o a esolu ion o 50 km ×50 km. This esolu ion was deemed coa se enough o minimize he impac o bo h commission and omission e o s associa ed o he species anges. Changes in he esolu ion we e howe e ound o ha e only a ma ginal impac on he esul s o such ypes o analyses (Mon esino Pouzols e al., 2014). 2.2. Su oga ed g oups As su oga ed g oups, we ocused on a eas widely ecognized as p io i y o global biodi e si y conse a ion, wilde ness a eas and he di e si y o he wo ld’s eco egions. The p o ec ed a eas (he ea e PA) o he global e es ial ealm a e es ablished unde he In e na ional Union o Conse a ion o Na u e (IUCN) wi h he aim o e ec i ely conse e he composi ion, s uc u e, unc ion and e olu iona y po en ial o biodi e si y (Dudley, 2008). These a eas a e widely ecognized as s ongholds o biodi e si y conse a ion (Wa son e al., 2014). Fo he pu pose o his s udy, we conside ed all PAs (i.e. all IUCN PA ca ego ies oge he ), as well as he s ic ly PAs (IUCN ca ego ies I o IV) only as a sepa a e laye . While s ic ly PAs a e included wi hin all PAs, he a ionale o conside ing also he s ic ly p o ec ed a eas is because in hese si es de elopmen is no allowed and access o en es ic ed, he eby hey may ep esen e en mo e impo an s ongholds o biodi e si y conse a ion unde s ong human p essu es (Rehbein e al., 2020). Simila ly, wi hin bu also ou side o he cu en PA ne wo k, Key Biodi e si y A eas (KBA) a e iden i ied as essen ial si es o a e species ex inc ions, being o en e ugia o a e and endange ed biodi e si y (Newbold e al., 2015). Wilde ness a eas a e iden i ied as he las emaining in ac ecosys ems globally, which unc ion na u ally and suppo a disp opo iona e ange o ecosys em se ices and biodi e si y (Wa son and Ven e , 2017). Mo eo e , ep esen a i e examples o he wo lds ecosys ems ha e been mapped h ough he iden i ica ion o he global eco egions which ha bo excep ional biodi e si y (Olson e al., 2001). In his s udy, we hus collec ed spa ial da a on he wo ld’s PAs ( om www.p o ec edplane .ne ), KBAs (Bi dLi e In e na ional, 2019), wilde ness a eas (Las o he Wild Da a Ve sion 2 2005) and he wo lds e es ial eco egions (Olson e al., 2001). As o he su oga e g oups, also hese su oga ed laye s we e as e ized o he same esolu ion o 50 km ×50 km. While some o hese su oga ed laye s ine i ably would o e lap in space, such as KBAs and PAs, hey a e spa ially sepa a ed enough, and a e selec ed based on di e en c i e ia wi h di e en in- e p e a ions ha hey would allow meaning ul compa isons. 2.3. Su ogacy analyses In o de o assess he e ec i eness o ap o s as su oga es o p io i y a eas o biodi e si y and ecosys em conse a ion, we used he spa ial conse a ion planning so wa e Zona ion .4 (Moilanen e al., 2014). Zona ion p oduces balanced anking o conse a ion p io i ies o e a s udy landscape by i e a i ely emo ing he landscape uni o leas conse a ion alue while accoun ing o he emaining dis ibu ions o ea u es (Moilanen e al., 2005). The emo al ule o landscape uni s chosen he e was he addi i e bene i unc ion, as his has been ecom- mended as he mos obus unc ion when unning su ogacy analyses (Di Minin and Moilanen, 2014; Moilanen e al., 2014). Essen ially, by assigning a weigh >0 o he su oga e ea u es, and a weigh o ze o o he su oga ed ea u es, he algo i hm iden i ies he key p io i y a eas o he su oga e ea u es and simul aneously calcula es he dis ibu ion co e age emaining o each su oga ed ea u e a each s ep o he i e a ion. In ou case, ac oss all he zona ion uns (see de ails below), we assigned an equal weigh o one o all su oga e ea u es, and a weigh o ze o o all su oga ed ea u es. We se up six di e en zona ion uns, in each he su oga e g oup consis ed in u n in ap o s only, all o he non- ap o bi d species, as well as ou ap o sub-g oups: Hawks and eagles, alcons, owls, ul u es. The se o su oga ed ea u es was ins ead he A. San angeli and M. Gi a dello Ecological Indica o s 124 (2021) 107434 3 same ac oss he six uns and consis ed on one laye o he KBAs, one o he wilde ness a eas, one o all PAs (including all six ca ego ies o PAs as de ined by IUCN) and one o he s ic ly PAs (IUCN ca ego ies I o IV), and one laye o each o he 816 e es ial eco egions. The zona- ion ou come consis s o maps o he p io i y anking as well as pe o - mance cu es ha de ine he co e age o each o he su oga ed ea u es o each p opo ion o he landscape i ually p o ec ed acco ding o he p io i y anking ob ained om he su oga e ea u es. Tha is, how much each su oga ed ea u e is co e ed when p io i y a eas o he su oga e ea u es a e p o ec ed a a de ined le el, e.g. om p o ec ing only he op 5% iden i ied p io i ies o su oga es o much mo e. Thus, in o de o expose he di e ences in he su ogacy po en ial o he six di e en su oga e g oups, we show he pe o mance cu es o hese in ela ion o each o he su oga ed ea u es. We also closely highligh di e ences in su ogacy po en ial when he op anked 5, 17 and 30% o he landscape is p o ec ed based on p io i ies sough by conside ing in u n each o he six su oga e g oups. 3. Resul s The ep esen a ion o PAs (o e all as well as only he s ic PAs) and KBAs was gene ally simila , o sligh ly lowe (co e age loss by abou 1 o 3%) when p io i ies a e iden i ied using ap o s as compa ed o all o he non- ap o bi ds (Figs. 1 and 2). Con e sely, ap o s in gene al pe o med simila ly o sligh ly be e (by 1% inc ease in co e age) han all o he non- ap o bi ds in ep esen ing wilde ness a eas, bu la gely wo se (co e age loss by up o 9%) in ep esen ing eco egions (Figs. 1 and 2). Measu able di e ences in su ogacy pe o mance be ween he ou g oups o ap o s a e e iden , wi h alcons ou pe o ming all o he ap o and also non- ap o g oups in ep esen ing PAs and especially wilde ness a eas. 4. Discussion We show ha he co e age o impo an biodi e si y (i.e. PAs and KBAs) a eas is ma ginally lowe (loss in co e age o abou 1 o 3%) when p io i ies a e iden i ied using all ap o s as compa ed o using all o he a ian non- ap o species. O e all, his loss in ep esen a ion a ied ac- co ding o he su oga ed g oup, being highes , when conside ing s ic ly PAs and especially eco egions (up o 9% ep esen a ion loss when using ap o s). Con e sely, ap o p io i ies allow a simila o sligh ly highe co e age o wilde ness a eas compa ed o p io i ies iden i ied using all o he non- ap o bi d species. In e es ingly, he su ogacy po en ial e ec i eness a ied g ea ly among he di e en ap o g oups. Falcons had a pa icula ly high po en ial in ep esen ing PAs and wilde ness a eas, equaling o la gely su passing he ep esen- a ion po en ial p o ided by all ap o s and all o he bi ds. The inding ha conse a ion p io i y a eas iden i ied based on all ap o s aid he co e age o impo an biodi e si y a eas a almos he same e iciency as when using all o he non- ap o bi d species can ha e p ac ical implica ions. This sugges s ha i may be possible o use he limi ed numbe (n =557) o ap o species, which a e well known and o en wi h dedica ed moni o ing and esea ch p og ams (Bu ield, 2008), o iden i y impo an biodi e si y a eas globally ins ead o using all o he o e 10 000 a ian species. In a local s udy, Se gio e al., (2006) ound ha a ne wo k o p o ec ed a eas was mos e icien in achie ing biodi e si y co e age when based on ap o s as compa ed o species a lowe ophic le els. Tha s udy was based on six su oga e species, o Fig. 1. Zona ion pe o mance cu es ep esen ing he inc ease in co e age o each biodi e si y a ea (Y-axis in each o he 5 panels) as he hypo he ical p opo ion o landscape p o ec ed inc eases (X-axis). Each panel shows he pe o mance in co e ing each o he i e biodi e si y a eas (IUCN PAs, IUCN s ic ly p o ec ed a eas ca ego ies I o IV, key biodi e si y a eas, wilde ness a eas and he wo lds eco egions) by each o he six su oga e g oups conside ed: Non- ap o bi d species, all ap o s combined, hawks and eagles, ul u es, alcons and owls. A. San angeli and M. Gi a dello Ecological Indica o s 124 (2021) 107434 4 which one is a hawk (Accipi e gen ilis) and he o he s a e owls. Ano he simila s udy ound he same hawk species o pe o m well in indica ing a eas o high biodi e si y, also ou pe o ming an owl species (S ix U alensis; Bu gas e al., 2014). Ou esul s, while bea ing in mind he di e ences in he app oach, seem o pa ly align o hose om ea lie s udies, pa icula ly wi h ega ds o he su ogacy pe o mance o hawks and eagles, and alcons. We show ha alcons in pa icula ou pe o m all o he ap o s and non ap o bi ds in ep esen ing PAs o e all, and also he s ic ly PAs when he op 5% p io i ies a e conside ed. Global alcon ichness and conse a ion p io i y a eas a e s ongly biased o- wa ds highly p oduc i e egions in he opics (Buechley e al., 2019). These a eas, being o en unde se e e p essu es om an h opogenic ac i i ies, also include a la ge numbe o PAs, which may explain hei inc eased co e age when p io i ies a e se based on alcons as compa ed o o he g oups. Falcons in pa icula , bu also o he g oups o diu nal ap o s, including hawks and eagles, and ul u es, we e ound o ou pe o m all o he non- ap o bi ds and owls in ep esen ing wilde ness a eas. This esul may likely s em om he long-his o y o pe secu ion, pa icula ly on diu nal ap o s (Thiollay, 2006; Ama e al., 2012; Pohja-Myk a e al., 2012), ha may ha e shaped hei p e e ence owa ds he mos p is ine, emo e and wild places le on Ea h. A he same ime, in ac ecosys ems may also o e wide nes ing and o aging esou ces, wi h an o e all la ge ca ying capaci y o hese en i onmen s compa ed o mo e deg aded ones (Wa son e al., 2018), he eby suppo ing la ge pop- ula ions o diu nal ap o s compa ed o o he g oups. Rap o s in gene al pe o med wo se han all o he non- ap o species in ep esen ing he wo ld’s eco egions. This inding may s em om he ac ha eco egions a e homogeneously sca e ed ac oss he globe, he e o e a la ge se o su oga e species wi h di e en li e-his o ies, ecology and biogeog aphy, such as he non- ap o ca ego y in his s udy, makes i mo e likely o ep esen wide egions globally as compa ed o a na ow selec ion o su oga e species (La sen e al., 2012), such as ap o s. This asse ion is also suppo ed by ou inding showing ha owls pe o m bes among all ap o g oups in ep esen ing eco egions. Owls ichness is among he mos widely dis ibu ed globally o all he ou ap o g oups (Buechley e al., 2019), which may allow his g oup o co e mos o he eco egions. This is he i s a emp o quan i y he su ogacy po en ial o ap o s a a global scale. Simila analyses ha e been conduc ed a he global le el using he wo ld’s ca ni o es (Di Minin e al., 2016). The esul s om such global analyses should hus be in e p e ed wi h cau ion, as hey can highligh b oad pa e ns ha need o be con i med locally o egionally using highe - esolu ion da a. Fo example, he e we used a a he coa se esolu ion o 50 km ×50 km. While his esolu ion may educe omission e o s (when he species is mis akenly hough o be absen ) in he dis ibu ion da a, i may s ill su e om commission e - o s (when he species is mis akenly hough o be p esen ). Beyond he local s udies which a e al eady a ailable (Se gio e al., 2006, 2008; Bu gas e al., 2014; Di Minin and Moilanen, 2014), i will be hus impo an o pe o m su ogacy analyses o he ype p esen ed he e a he na ional o egional le el and by conside ing a b oade axonomic di e si y, including non-a ian species. This can be possible by ha - nessing he unp eceden ed in o ma ion on species ecology, li e-his o y and biogeog aphy ha is now made a ailable hanks o ci izen science p og ams and open da a pla o ms such as e-bi d and Global Biodi e si y In o ma ion Facili y (Fink e al., 2020; GBIF.o g, 2020). Fig. 2. Rep esen a ion o he i e biodi e si y a eas (IUCN PAs, IUCN s ic ly p o ec ed a ea ca ego ies I o IV, key biodi e si y a eas, wilde ness a eas and he wo lds eco egions) by each o he six su oga e g oups conside ed (non- ap o bi d species, all ap o s combined, hawks and eagles, ul u es, alcons and owls) when 5, 17 and 30% o a hypo he ical landscape would be p o ec ed. Please no e he change in scale o he y-axis be ween he panels. A. San angeli and M. Gi a dello Ecological Indica o s 124 (2021) 107434 5 5. Conclusions Unde a pe asi e sho age o knowledge on species ecology and dis ibu ion, and a lack o esou ces o moni o ing and conse a ion, good su oga es o biodi e si y can help o p io i ise a eas o conse - a ion and p e en ing species ex inc ion. Rap o s, and pa icula ly al- cons, pe o m ela i ely well in ep esen ing PAs and especially wilde ness a eas, bu a e ela i ely poo su oga es o KBAs and eco - egions. As such, we cau ion on he use o ap o s as global su oga es o wide biodi e si y, as hei ep esen a ion pe o mance clea ly a ies based on he g oup o ap o s and he ype o conse a ion a ea conside ed. CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen A. San angeli: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, Visualiza ion, W i ing - o iginal d a , W i ing - e iew & edi ing. M. Gi a dello: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, W i ing - e iew & edi ing. Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence he wo k epo ed in his pape . Acknowledgemen s AS was suppo ed by he Academy o Finland (g an n. 307909), he Jane ja Aa os E kon S¨ a¨ a i¨ o, Finnish Minis y o he En i onmen . We also hank M. Romano and an anonymous e iewe o hei aluable commen s ha helped imp o e his wo k. Re e ences Ama , A., Cou , I.R., Da ison, M., Downing, S., G imshaw, T., Pick o d, T., Raw, D., 2012. Linking nes his o ies, emo ely sensed land use da a and wildli e c ime eco ds o explo e he impac o g ouse moo managemen on pe eg ine alcon popula ions. Biol. Conse . 145, 86–94. Bi dLi e In e na ional, 2019. Digi al bounda ies o Key Biodi e si y A eas om he Wo ld Da abase o Key Biodi e si y A eas. Sep embe 2019 Ve sion, A ailable a : h p:// www.keybiodi e si ya eas.o g/si e/ eques gis. Bi dLi e In e na ional and Na u eSe e, 2015. Bi d species dis ibu ion maps o he wo ld. Ve sion 4.0. Bi dLi e In e na ional, Camb idge, UK and Na u eSe e, A ling on, USA. Buechley, E.R., San angeli, A., Gi a dello, M., Nea e-Clegg, M.H.C., Oleya , D., McClu e, C.J.W., S ¸eke cio˘ glu, Ç.H., 2019. Global ap o esea ch and conse a ion p io i ies: opical ap o s all p ey o knowledge gaps. Di e s. Dis ib. 25, 856–869. Bu ield, I.J., 2008. The conse a ion s a us and ends o ap o s and owls in Eu ope. Ambio 37, 401–407. Bu gas, D., Byholm, P., Pa kkima, T., 2014. Rap o s as su oga es o biodi e si y along a landscape g adien . 51, 786-794. Ca o, T., 2010. Conse a ion by p oxy: indica o , umb ella, keys one, lagship, and o he su oga e species. Island P ess, USA. Di Minin, E., Moilanen, A., 2014. Imp o ing he su ogacy e ec i eness o cha isma ic mega auna wi h well-su eyed axonomic g oups and habi a ypes. J. Appl. Ecol. 51, 281–288. Di Minin, E., Slo ow, R., Hun e , L.T.B., Mon esino Pouzols, F., Toi onen, T., Ve bu g, P. H., Leade -Williams, N., Pe acca, L., Moilanen, A., 2016. Global p io i ies o na ional ca ni o e conse a ion unde land use change. Sci. Rep. 6, 23814. Don´ aza , J.A., Co ´ es-A izanda, A., e al., 2016. Roles o ap o s in a changing wo ld: om lagships o p o ide s o key ecosys em se ices. A deola 63, 181–234. Dudley, N., 2008. Guidelines o applying p o ec ed a ea managemen ca ego ies. IUCN, Gland, Swi ze land. Fink, D., Aue , T., e al., 2020. eBi d S a us and T ends, Da a Ve sion: 2018. Co nell Lab o O ni hology, I haca, New Yo k. GBIF.o g, 2020. GBIF Home Page. A ailable om: h ps://www.gbi .o g. La sen, F.W., Blad , J., Balm o d, A., Rahbek, C., 2012. Bi ds as biodi e si y su oga es: will supplemen ing bi ds wi h o he axa imp o e e ec i eness? J. Appl. Ecol. 49, 349–356. Las o he Wild Da a Ve sion 2, 2005. Global Human Foo p in Da ase (Geog aphic). Wildli e Conse a ion (WCS) and Cen e o In e na ional Ea h Science In o ma ion Ne wo k (CIESIN). McClu e, C.J.W., Wes ip, J.R.S., e al., 2018. S a e o he wo ld’s ap o s: dis ibu ions, h ea s, and conse a ion ecommenda ions. Biol. Conse . 227, 390–402. McGowan, J., Beaumon , L.J., e al., 2020. Conse a ion p io i iza ion can esol e he lagship species conund um. Na . Commun. 11, 994. Moilanen, A., F anco, A.M.A., Ea ly, R.I., Fox, R., Win le, B., Thomas, C.D., 2005. P io i izing mul iple-use landscapes o conse a ion: me hods o la ge mul i- species planning p oblems. P oc. Royal Soc. B Biol. Sci. 272, 1885–1891. Moilanen, A., Mon esino Pouzols, F., Melle , L., Veach, V., A ponen, A., Lepp¨ anen, J., Kujala H., 2014. Zona ion e sion 4 Use manual. C-BIG Conse a ion Biology In o ma ics G oup, Depa men o Biosciences, Uni e si y o Helsinki, Helsinki. Mon esino Pouzols, F., Toi onen, T., e al., 2014. Global p o ec ed a ea expansion is comp omised by p ojec ed land-use and pa ochialism. Na u e 516, 383–386. Newbold, T., Hudson, L.N., e al., 2015. Global e ec s o land use on local e es ial biodi e si y. Na u e 520, 45–50. Olson, D.M., Dine s ein, E., e al., 2001. Te es ial eco egions o he wo lds: a new map o li e on Ea h. Bioscience 51, 933–938. Pohja-Myk a, M., Vuo isalo, T., Myk a, S., 2012. O ganized pe secu ion o bi ds o p ey in Finland: his o ical and popula ion biological pe spec i es. O nis Fennica 89, 1–19. Rehbein, J.A., Wa son, J.E.M., Lane, J.L., Son e , L.J., Ven e , O., A kinson, S.C., Allan, J. R., 2020. Renewable ene gy de elopmen h ea ens many globally impo an biodi e si y a eas. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 3040–3051. San angeli, A., Gi a dello, M., Buechley, E., Bo ha, A., Di Minin, E., Moilanen, A., 2019a. P io i y a eas o conse a ion o Old Wo ld ul u es. Conse . Biol. 33, 1056–1065. San angeli, A., Gi a dello, M., Buechley, E., Eklund, J., Phipps, W.L., 2019b. Na iga ing spaces o implemen ing ap o esea ch and conse a ion unde a ying le els o iolence and go e nance in he Global Sou h. Biol. Conse . 239, 108212. San angeli, A., Gi a dello, M., Buechley, E., Bo ha, A., Di Minin, E., Moilanen A., 2020. Impo ance o complemen a y app oaches o e icien ul u e conse a ion: eply o E a e al. Conse a ion Biology 34, 1308-1310. Se gio, F., Ca o, T., B own, D., Clucas, B., Hun e , J., Ke chum, J., McHugh, K., Hi aldo, F., 2008. Top p eda o s as conse a ion ools: ecological a ionale, assump ions, and e icacy. Annu. Re . Ecol. E ol. Sys . 39, 1–19. Se gio, F., New on, I., Ma chesi, L., Ped ini, P., 2006. Ecologically jus i ied cha isma: p ese a ion o op p eda o s deli e s biodi e si y conse a ion. J. Appl. Ecol. 43, 1049–1055. Thiollay, J.M., 2006. The decline o ap o s in Wes A ica: long- e m assessmen and he ole o p o ec ed a eas. Ibis 148, 240–254. Wa son, J.E.M., Dudley, N., Segan, D.B., Hockings, M., 2014. The pe o mance and po en ial o p o ec ed a eas. Na u e 515, 67–73. Wa son, J. E. M., E ans, T., O. e al., 2018. The excep ional alue o in ac o es ecosys ems. Na . Ecol. E ol. 2, 599-610. Wa son, J.E.M., Ven e , O., 2017. A global plan o na u e conse a ion. Na u e 550, 48–49. Whi ake , R.J., A aújo, M.B., Jepson, P., Ladle, R.J., Wa son, J.E.M., Willis, K.J., 2005. Conse a ion biogeog aphy: assessmen and p ospec . Di e s. Dis ib. 11, 3–23. A. San angeli and M. Gi a dello