Hyperidentity and Orientalism: The Case of the Sieges of Diu in Portuguese Texts

1" " NOTE This is a p e- inal e sion. The published e sion can be ound in: h ps://www. and online.com/doi/ ull/10.1080/02666030.2018.1440056 MACHADO, E e on V. (2018) – «Hype iden i y and O ien alism: he case o he Sieges o Diu in Po uguese ex s». In Sou h Asian S udies. 34 (1): 6-16. Hype iden i y and O ien alism: The Case o he Sieges o Diu in Po uguese Tex s1 E e on V. Machado Cen o de Es udos Compa a is as, Uni e si y o Lisbon The Po uguese ep esen a ions o he sieges o Diu ha e been p oduced o e he span o i e cen u ies. My main a gumen is ha , in hese ex s, Diu se ed as a p e ex o ea i m he glo ies o Po ugal in Asia du ing he 16 h cen u y, as well as o es ablish an on ological and epis emological dis inc ion be ween he Wes and he Eas . Such ep esen a ions s em om wha Edua do Lou enço calls ‘Po uguese hype iden i y’, a no ion which helps us unde s and how he discou ses abou Diu a icula e knowledge and powe . The ele ance o es ablishing a connec ion be ween Edwa d W. Said’s heo y o O ien alism and Lou enço’s iewpoin lies in he ac ha bo h he ‘Wes e n concep ions o he O ien ’ and he a i ma ion o Po uguese iden i y and belonging pa icipa e o wha Michel Foucaul called ‘ egime o u h’. Keywo ds: Diu; hype iden i y; Islam; knowledge and powe ; O ien alism; Po ugal The Po uguese ep esen a ions o he sieges o Diu ( he i s o which ook place in 1538, and he second in 1546) ha e been p oduced o e he span o i e cen u ies. Th ough he in a ian cha ac e is ics o hose ep esen a ions, we will a emp o unde s and Po ugal’s ‘con ibu ion’ o O ien alism – which Edwa d W. Said himsel sugges ed in O ien alism: Wes e n Concep ions o he O ien 2 –, since, as will be shown, hey clea ly in eg a e wha he au ho calls ‘a dis ibu ion o geopoli ical awa eness in o aes he ic, schola ly, economic, sociological, his o ical, and philological ex s’ capable o c ea ing and main aining ‘a basic geog aphical dis inc ion’ be ween he Occiden and he O ien , as well as a se ies o ‘in e es s’3 (whe he o a poli ical, 2" " cul u al, economic, eligious o mili a y na u e) unde lying ha dis inc ion. A signi ican co pus o Po uguese ex s p eda e he pe iod ha Said conside ed ( om he 18 h cen u y onwa ds) wi hin he scope o Mode n O ien alism and in a geopoli ical con ex om which Po ugal is absen . Howe e , ex s such as Luís Vaz de Camões’ The Lusiads, published in he 16 h cen u y, o A hu Lambe da Fonseca’s O IIº Ce co de Diu [‘The Second Siege o Diu’], om he 20 h cen u y, con i m he no ion o he ‘du abili y’ and ‘s eng h’4 ha he cul u al hegemony o he Occiden bes ows on O ien alism.5 To jus i y my app oach o he p oblem and my conclusions, I make use o he me hodological de ices Said used o s udy he ‘au ho i y’ o he Occiden o e he O ien : […] s a egic loca ion, which is a way o desc ibing he au ho ’s posi ion in a ex wi h ega d o he O ien al ma e ial he w i es abou , and s a egic o ma ion, which is a way o analyzing he ela ionship be ween ex s and he way in which g oups o ex s, ypes o ex s, e en ex ual gen es, acqui e mass, densi y, and e e en ial powe among hemsel es and he ea e in he cul u e a la ge. I use he no ion o s a egy simply o iden i y he p oblem e e y w i e on he O ien has aced: how o ge hold o i , how o app oach i , how no o be de ea ed o o e whelmed by i s sublimi y, i s scope, i s aw ul dimensions. E e yone who w i es abou he O ien mus loca e himsel is-a- is he O ien ; ansla ed in o his ex , his loca ion includes he kind o na a i e oice he adop s, he ype o s uc u e he builds, he kinds o images, hemes, mo i s ha ci cula e in his ex — all o which add up o delibe a e ways o add essing he eade , con aining he O ien , and inally, ep esen ing i o speaking in i s behal .6 The he meneu ic exe cise aimed a he e poin s o he ac ha he Po uguese ep esen a ions o he sieges o Diu s em om wha he con empo a y Po uguese philosophe Edua do Lou enço calls ‘Po uguese hype iden i y’. I can be de ined as a se ies o images p oduced by Po ugal abou i sel , always e ealing an obsession wi h he ‘“Camonian” i les o ou plane a y oca ion om he 16 h cen u y’7. Luís Vaz de Camões (c. 1524 - c. 1580), who li ed o almos i een yea s in he O ien and holds he highes honou in Po uguese cul u e, w o e he amous epic poem The Lusiads (1572). Lou enço de ines i as he ‘p emiè e épopée eu opéenne’, he one ha in en ed he ‘ ega d eu opéen en an que ega d plane ai e’8. The Lusiads na a es Vasco da Gama’s (1469-1524) amous disco e y o he ma i ime ou e o India (1497-98), wi hin 3" " he con ex o he s uggle o con ol comme ce in he Medi e anean and igh agains Islam. Wi h ega d o he ex s ha will be men ioned, my main a gumen is ha Diu se ed mainly as a p e ex o ea i m he glo ies o Po ugal in Asia du ing he 16 h cen u y – e ealing a clea desi e o Po ugal o main ain he ole i had he e in ha pe iod, in o he wo ds, i s powe –, as well as o es ablish ‘an on ological and epis emological dis inc ion made be ween “ he O ien ” and (mos o he ime) “ he Occiden ”’9. In ac , Said does no men ion Po ugal mo e han ou o i e imes, and a he b ie ly a ha . S a ing o , essen ially, wi h he Foucauldian no ion o discou se (which p esupposes an a icula ion be ween knowledge and powe ) and he concep o hegemony o An onio G amsci,10 Said dedica es his s udy o England and F ance, seeking o demons a e how, a e hose na ions eme ged as colonial powe s a he end o he 18 h cen u y, an en i e co pus o knowledge conce ning he O he was cons i u ed (s imula ed by he epis emological u n o he Enligh enmen and consequen disciplina iza ion o knowledge), aimed a he domina ion o ha O he .11 I should be no ed ha I will deal wi h ex s s ill condi ioned by a eligious ision o he wo ld. The e o e, hey p eda e he a o emen ioned u n, which would, in ac , consolida e he di e ences be ween he Occiden and he O ien in e ms o he imagina y and he sciences. Bu i should also be no ed ha Said himsel d aws a en ion o he ac ha he e was a ‘secula izing endency, his is no o say ha he old eligious pa e ns o human his o y and des iny and “ he exis en ial pa adigms” we e simply emo ed. Fa om i : hey we e econs i u ed, edeployed, edis ibu ed in [...] secula amewo ks’.12 These ques ions a e impo an o p oblema ize Po uguese O ien alism, since, o many specialis s, i would be di icul o apply he pa e ns indica ed by Said o he case o Po ugal, gi en he mul i ace ed na u e o he Po uguese Empi e (which did no ha e a de ined p ac ice as a egula o con inuous poli ical p ojec )13, o he ac ha he mos signi ican pa o he Po uguese cul u al p oduc ion conce ning he O ien was c ea ed in he con ex o a Respublica Ch is iana.14 I should u he explain ha he cu en analysis deals wi h he me hod o Said, in he domain o Compa a i e Li e a u e. As Robe J. C. Young w o e abou O ien alism, ‘Said demons a ed he uni o mi y o a i udes, image y, and s e eo ypes ac oss a ious ypes o discou se, and i was his ex ao dina y scope o he book which was so impo an om a compa a i is poin o iew’. Signi ican ly, ‘he did no , he e o e, so much compa e di e en ex s om di e en languages and disciplines pe se as show 4" " he consis ency o he discu si e pe spec i e ha can be disce ned ac oss hem’.15 Rega ding he ex s on Diu s udied he e, he e a e di e ences among all (wi h espec o he locus o enuncia ion, gen e, de elopmen o ac ion, con ex o his o ical p oduc ion, e c.), bu my main ocus is o e i y he hypo hesis p oposed by Said whe eby ‘bo h lea ned and imagina i e w i ing a e ne e ee, bu a e limi ed in hei image y, assump ions, and in en ions’,16 making he O ien appea o us ‘as a phenomenon possessing egula cha ac e is ics’.17 Mo bid ixa ion wi h he con empla ion o di e ence My s a ing poin is ha he a o emen ioned ‘phenomenon’, in he Po uguese case, canno be g ea ly app ecia ed wi hou he image y ha Po ugal came o p oduce abou i sel o e ime, h ough a ious ypes o indi idual discou ses and wi h di e en immedia e objec i es, bu simul aneously con igu ing ‘ he dialec ic be ween indi idual ex o w i e and he complex collec i e o ma ion o which his wo k is a con ibu ion’.18 Such image y ce ainly has an impac on he pe cep ion ha indi iduals ha e o hemsel es as membe s o a collec i i y, and in how hey ela e wi h he membe s o ano he collec i i y. As Said s esses: i i is ue ha no p oduc ion o knowledge in he human sciences can e e igno e o disclaim i s au ho ’s in ol emen as a human subjec in his own ci cums ances, hen i mus also be ue ha o a Eu opean o Ame ican s udying he O ien he e can be no disclaiming he main ci cums ances o his ac uali y: ha he comes up agains he O ien as a Eu opean o Ame ican i s , as an indi idual second. And o be a Eu opean o an Ame ican in such a si ua ion is by no means an ine ac . I mean and means being awa e, howe e dimly, ha one belongs o a powe wi h de ini e in e es s in he O ien , and mo e impo an , ha one belongs o a pa o he ea h wi h a de ini e his o y o in ol emen in he O ien almos since he ime o Home .19 The Po uguese a e no excep ion o he ule: no only did hey ha e e y speci ic in e es s in Asia, bu hey could also only engage wi h he O ien as Po uguese, an iden i y ha is, in ac , s ill s ongly shaped by he e y e ec s o ha engagemen . Edua do Lou enço’s no ion o Po uguese hype iden i y guides us p ecisely h ough hese e ec s. 5" " In Lou enço’s mos amous wo k, O Labi in o da Saudade – Psicanálise Mí ica do Des ino Po uguês [‘The Laby in h o Saudade – My hical Psychoanalysis o he Po uguese Des iny’], o iginally published in 1978, he speaks o he ‘supe nume a y e eb a’ which make he Po uguese ‘always li e beyond ou means’ and ‘wi hou na ional iden i y p oblems pe se’, as well as hei own sel - e lec i e ‘hype bolic image o he o me lo ds o “Conques ”, “Na iga ion”, “E hiopia”, e c.’.20 In his book, Lou enço p oposes an exe cise in imagology, which is ‘a c i ical discou se on he images ha we ou sel es ha e o ged’.21 In a 1983 essay, Lou enço speaks again o a ‘na ion wi hou iden i y p oblems’, and ac ually uses he e m hype iden i y o he i s ime.22 In an ea lie essay om 1975, he had eso ed o he e m ‘hype na ionalism’; in 1987, in a newspape a icle, he uses ‘supe iden i y’ in addi ion o hype iden i y.23 In Nós e a Eu opa ou as duas azões [“We and Eu ope o he Two Reasons”] (1988), he gi es us a summa ized de ini ion o hype iden i y by s a ing ha he p oblem o he Po uguese would no be ‘a p oblem o iden i y, [...] bu o hype iden i y, o an almos mo bid ixa ion wi h he con empla ion and deligh in he di e ence ha cha ac e izes us o ha we imagine in he con ex o o he peoples, na ions and cul u es’.24 This hype iden i y would cha ac e ize Po ugal ‘a leas since he 16 h cen u y’,25 ha ing ounded i s ‘a che ypal g andeu ’ on he sel -pe cei ed ole o colonizing na ion ‘pa excellence and o which glo y The Lusiads a e he doo and whole emple’.26 Po ugal’s posi ion in Eu ope’s in e nal powe game became ibu a y o his sel -pe cep ion, no o men ion ha i has always been a p incipal cons i uen o ha sel -pe cep ion because o he coun y’s pe iphe al posi ion in ela ion o o he Eu opean o ces. In summa y, hype iden i y is no mo e han ‘ou double iden i y as a non-hegemonic Eu opean people and as a people’.27 The ‘excess o iden i y’ ha he hype - and sup a- p e ixes e e ence is explained h ough wo ambigui ies, he i s o which is common o all peoples: ‘ o he di e gence be ween he “ideal being” and “ eal being” o a people is added among us, especially due o The Lusiads, he pa hological misma ch be ween p esen and pas , in which we a e only uly who we a e, bu we know how o be because we ha e al eady been so one day’.28 Wha had mo i a ed Camões in The Lusiads was an ‘amazed conscience o he disp opo ion be ween he “small Lusi anian house” and he open seas’, he p oblem o ha epic being ha ‘ he eali y o he Eu opean cul u al conscience om ha pe iod did no allow i ’; The Lusiads ‘a e no so much he exp ession o a eal epic as he conscience o an epic ha could only de elop wi h such 6" " splendou and he necessa y nai e é due o he g andiose disp opo ion be ween agen and ac ion’.29 Thus, Camões au ho ized he ‘cul u al ixa ion wi h he 16 h cen u y’, p olonging a ‘nos algia all he mo e p o ound as i is ce ain ha he na ional exis ence as a whole could ne e again ind a simila his o ical momen ’.30 The ac is ha he poli ical e en s o he 19 h cen u y – he ligh o he Po uguese oyal amily because o Napoleon’s in asion in 1808, he loss o B azil in 1822, he ein o cemen o he economic dependence on England, he imposi ion o a new colonial model (associa ed wi h economic, scien i ic and echnological de elopmen ) – will unde mine he ‘a che ypal g andeu ’ o Po ugal as a ‘colonizing na ion ‘pa excellence’. This ga e way o a ue ‘image p oblem’,31 subs an ia ed in he p e iously men ioned misma ches, which a ec ed he mona chy as well as, in he 20 h cen u y, he Republic and he Es ado No o (An onio de Oli ei a Salaza ’s dic a o ial egime, 1933-1974). The eme gence o he ‘gene al no m’32 ha B i ish colonialism came o ep esen became Po ugal’s Achilles’ heel: i did no i he equi emen o an e ec i e occupa ion o he conque ed e i o ies and was a ge ed by coun ies in ol ed in he ace o A ica; i insis ed on he possession o a e i o ial s ip be ween Angola and Mozambique, claiming his o ical igh s, bu ended up ceding e i o y o England a e an ul ima um in 1890. As Lou enço w i es: Up un il he 19 h cen u y – when a Eu ope in he mids o economic, poli ical and social e olu ion en e s ou home, mili a ily wi h he Napoleonic in asion and ideologically wi h he libe al model –, only an eli e, gene ally wi h a cosmopoli an expe ience, was sensi i e o he image o Po ugal in he mi o o o he s, o in he gaze o o he s. Wi hou a conc e e s anda d o compa ison, he ela ion o he Po uguese wi h hemsel es was indi e en o he in e io i y complex ha li le by li le pe mea ed he Po uguese social eli e om he 19 h cen u y and culmina ed in he public eassessmen o he Po uguese pas o decisi e componen s o i s p o ile [...]. The conscience o ou pe iphe ali y, spu ed by he oman ic memo y o he 16 h cen u y and ou ole in ha pe iod, eached i s mos pain ul le el. Eu ope is a he same ime he model o imi a e and ou despai , gi en he dis ance ha sepa a es us om i . No e en he ac ha ou small coun y s ill belonged o he numbe o na ions wi h a po en ially ich colonial space ebalanced he medioc e image, he collec i e eeling o ou li le wo h among he new hegemonic na ions o he Occiden . One o hem, he e y one ha had been an old ally, and o whom we had ies o economic in e dependence, hough mos ly o dependence – would gi e us an 7" " ul ima um in 1890 ha would educe ou imagina y dimension o colonizing na ion o i s mos minu e p opo ion. Nei he in Eu ope no ou side o i we e we a people o impo ance o whom i was necessa y o ake in o accoun . An en i e li e a u e echoed his pain ul and pessimis ic expe ience o a p esen wi hou a u u e, o in es ed in he in en ion o compensa o y my hs o ou us a ion o an ancien glo ious people [...].33 Edua do Lou enço’s no ion, which p oblema izes wha he himsel calls ‘ou image as a p oduc and e lec ion o ou exis ence and ou his o ical p ojec h oughou he cen u ies’34 in he amewo k o he Philosophy o His o y and Cul u e S udies, could wo k as a concep o app oach Po uguese O ien alism om he 16 h o he 20 h cen u y, as i e eals a s uc u ed and pe sis en pu sui o di e ence. The Eas e n – no o say he “Res ” om “The Wes and he Res ”35 – will a ise as he coun e -mi o o he who expec s o e ie e his image in he mi o o Eu ope. As Said w i es: The cen al poin in all his is [...], as Vico augh us, ha human his o y is made by human beings. Since he s uggle o con ol o e e i o y is pa o ha his o y, so oo is he s uggle o e his o ical and social meaning. The ask o he c i ical schola is no o sepa a e one s uggle om ano he , bu o connec hem, despi e he con as be ween he o e powe ing ma e iali y o he o me and he appa en o he wo ldly e inemen s o he la e . My way o doing his has been o show ha he de elopmen and main enance o e e y cul u e equi e he exis ence o ano he di e en and compe ing al e ego. The cons uc ion o iden i y – o iden i y, whe he o O ien o Occiden , F ance o B i ain, while ob iously a eposi o y o dis inc collec i e expe iences, is inally a cons uc ion – in ol es es ablishing opposi es and “o he s” whose ac uali y is always subjec o he con inuous in e p e a ion and ein e p e a ion o hei di e ences om “us”. Each age and socie y ec ea es i s “O he s”. Fa om a s a ic hing hen, iden i y o sel o o “o he ” is a much wo ked-o e his o ical, social, in ellec ual, and poli ical p ocess ha akes place as a con es in ol ing indi iduals and ins i u ions in all socie ies.36 In ha sense, by analyzing he knowledge p oduced o dissemina ed abou he o ien al O he , he no ion o hype iden i y allows us o duly loca e he a ious discou ses, h ough he iden i ica ion o hei ideological assump ions, in he p ojec ions and ea i ma ions o he idea o a Po uguese Empi e. This will he e o e p e en he deple ion o he powe dimension inhe en o he discou ses. As Rosa Ma ia Pe ez 8" " eminds us, Said sees O ien alism as a discou se, one which will be O ien alis (in li e a u e, his o iog aphy, an h opology, isual a s) when he desi e o knowledge is ied in wi h he desi e o powe .37 And wha is hype iden i y i no a se ies o discou ses ounded on he idea o a ‘disco e ing and colonizing en e p ise’, as Lou enço w i es, ‘iden i ied as he undamen al ac i i y o he Po uguese Na ion’?38 The ele ance o es ablishing a connec ion be ween Said’s heo y and Lou enço’s no ion lies in he ac ha bo h he ‘Wes e n concep ions o he O ien ’ and he a i ma ion o Po uguese iden i y and belonging pa icipa e o wha Michel Foucaul called ‘ egime o u h’, which ‘induces egula e ec s o powe ’.39 The e y idea o ‘Na ion’, acco ding o Pa ik Hall, implies ‘ he social ela ion o powe and knowledge […] whe e he na ion appea s o be he his o ical subjec ’,40 and he conques o he Eas by he Lusi anians is one o he mos signi ican elemen s o he discou ses abou Po uguese iden i y cons uc ed o e ime. The e may be a di e gence be ween he image o g andeu ha Po ugal has o i sel and wha i is capable o gaining in he geopoli ical eali y when con on ed wi h wo ld powe s ha we e able o do i be e (acco ding o a new s anda d o empi e) – ha which Lou enço calls ‘hype ophy o he na ional conscience’41 –, bu he ac is ha Po ugal was no only he i s one o en e he expansionis ad en u e o mode n Eu ope along wi h Spain, bu i was also he las one o lea e: i le India in 1961, A ica only in he 1970s, and Macau a he end o he 20 h cen u y. S a ing ha he e was no ‘au hen ic coloniza ion, i we unde s and by ha an en e p ise o he en i e Na ion, conce ed and unde aken wi h me hod and con inui y’ does no mean ha he colonial ac ion changed i s meaning: ‘i s essence is ha o he subo dina ion o he his o ical, economic, social and cul u al eali y o he colonized’.42 The issue he e is o e i y whe he he knowledge gene a ed by he Po uguese conce ning he O ien 1) allowed he O ien o help de ine Po ugal ‘as i s con as ing image, idea, pe sonali y, expe ience’,43 2) es ablished an on ological and epis emological dis inc ion be ween one and he ano he , and 3) con ibu ed o legi imize p ac ices o powe , ha is, as in he equa ion be ween O ien and Eu ope/Occiden p oposed by Said. The cu en deba e abou Po uguese O ien alism o en insis s on i s speci ici y wi h ega d o he B i ish and F ench con ex s,44 in a way ha isks being mis aken o he my h o he excep ionali y o Po uguese colonialism. Lou enço w i es o his my h ha ‘i s dis inc i e cha ac e is ic is ha o a i ming an o he -coloniza ion and, in he long un, 9" " o concei ing i as a “ne e -ending po ugaliza ion” o he e i o ies and peoples ha His o y has placed in ou pa h’.45 Diu’s ‘Inexpugnable Wall’ e sus he ‘O ien ’ The sieges o Diu occu ed in he con ex o he igh o Ch is endom agains Islam. The poli ical-expansionis p ojec o King Manuel I (1469-1521), who was behind he disco e y o he sea ou e o India, did no ha e he sole objec i e o inding an al e na i e ou e o he comme ce o silk and spices, which un il hen was made only ia he Medi e anean; he so e eign o Po ugal s ill (o mos ly) expec ed o ake con ol o Je usalem.46 I should also be no ed ha Po ugal is a ‘coun y bo n ou o he Holy Wa ’,47 wi h he Muslims being comple ely expelled om he e i o y in he 13 h cen u y. Twel e yea s a e he a i al o Vasco da Gama o Calicu (1498), A onso de Albuque que conque ed Goa, which would become he sea o he Es ado Po uguês da Índia, o iginally es ablished in Cochin. Sho ly he ea e , he Po uguese began exe ing p essu e on he sul ana e o Guja a o es ablish a ading pos in Diu, h ough a acks and a ma i ime blockade; as a esul o he weak posi ion o he sul ana e in he igh agains he Mughals, he sul an Bahadu Shah sough an alliance wi h he Po uguese, and allowed hei se lemen in he e i o y (1535). Howe e , ‘based on he e en ual eg e o sul an Bahadu , who had allegedly con inced some ule s om he Malaba o expel he Po uguese, in 1537 he go e no Nuno da Cunha encou aged his assassina ion, which igge ed a wa o indigna ion agains he Po uguese’.48 The Muslims hen laid wo sieges, one in 1538 and ano he in 1546 – wo us a ed a emp s a egaining he e i o y which came o be celeb a ed as one o he g ea demons a ions o he o ce and au ho i y o he Po uguese Empi e. As Ma ia Te esa Amado s a es: ‘ he alue o Diu esided in i s excellen s a egic loca ion, which allowed i o con ol na iga ion and comme ce o he Red Sea and Pe sian Gul ’, and, ollowing he wo sieges, ‘a powe ul de ense sys em was buil in Diu ha s ill causes admi a ion oday because o i s scale”49, al hough he o i ica ion o he place had al eady begun when i was i s ceded. A he ime o he i s siege, cap ain An ónio da Sil ei a s ands ou as he conduc o o he Po uguese esis ance. As o he second siege, wo names s and ou : ha o he go e no o Diu, D. João de Masca enhas, and ha o he go e no - 16" " con e sion o Moga ém and he amily o Ca holicism (all ic ional, since Xa ie was in he Moluccas by hen). Ribei o e en es ablishes an in e ex ual connec ion wi h p e ious accoun s o he siege o Diu, especially wi h he biog aphy o D. João de Cas o w i en by Jacin o F ei e de And ade (1597-1657), Vida de D. João de Cas o, qua o iso- ei da India [‘The Li e o D. João de Cas o, ou h Vice oy o India’], published pos humously in 1786. In sum, wha Tomás Ribei o’s O ien al episode does, i ead in he ligh o he libe al con ic ions exp essed by he au ho h oughou he Jo nadas, is seek o esol e ‘ he pa hological misma ch be ween he p esen and he pas ’ o Po uguese hype iden i y by imp in ing on he mode n conscience o i s gene a ion he alues o he ideals ab ica ed by he Po uguese Empi e in he 16 h cen u y: The episode I am going o publish is modes ; i is a ske ch o o ien al cus oms, and i occu ed a a ime when ou missiona ies, e en soldie s o eligion and he homeland, ook hei conques s o lo e o he ha dened bosom o he ancien peoples o he O ien . In each monsoon, he Po uguese galleons ca ied o he po s o India wa io s o wo kinds; i als bu no enemies: — soldie s and p ies s. I was a beau i ul pe iod. [...] You a e igh in many o you doc ines, bu you all, as ic ims o deplo able isions, in o igh ul exagge a ions. A new school will come o suppo he conques s o eason wi h he ele a ion o sen imen , because na u e always iumphs in he end, and when he e is no mo e dange o alling in o he excesses o idola ies, no o losing ou sel es in he in ini e was elands o abs ac cogi a ions, he ime o he g ea conques s o humani y will come.68 The O ien idealized by a 19 h cen u y au ho o a 16 h cen u y episode can be ead as a ‘compensa o y my h’, in Lou enço’s e ms. We canno igno e he geopoli ical eali y o Ribei o’s ime: he B i ish Empi e had al eady es ablished i sel de ini i ely. Ribei o a elled ( ia he Medi e anean) o Po uguese India o assume he posi ion o gene al sec e a y o he ice-go e no a he ime, Visconde de S. Januá io; his jou ney ook place unde he sign o Camões, e en hough he poe and his companions (including he ice-go e no himsel ) did no ha e ‘be o e hem he pe spec i e o he oism’.69 Po ugal was al eady a ec ed, as we ha e seen in Lou enço’s wo ds, in i s ‘double iden i y as a non-hegemonic Eu opean people and as a people’. Ribei o is ai ly 17" " conscious o ha : ‘England is aken as he model o libe al na ions: le i be, hough; bu i is only ai ha we a e no assigned an in e io posi ion. While i p oclaims libe y, we execu e i s p ecep s, p ac icing wi h con ic ion he dogmas o a e ni y, which is i s emana ion as a sen imen , and i s co olla y as a doc ine’.70 In e ec , we see ha Ribei o’s wo k con i ms he colonialis my h o Po ugal as desc ibed by Lou enço, ha is, o an o he -coloniza ion.71 Al hough he gene a ion ha ollowed Tomás Ribei o’s would ques ion a discou se ‘anima ed by a alse ideal o old- ashioned glo y’72 – which is wha he poe An e o de Quen al w o e abou Jacin o F ei e de And ade’s biog aphy o D. João de Cas o –, he Empi e will always be pi o al in he ela ionship o in ellec uals wi h hei coun y. E en i , o ha gene a ion,73 i was p ecisely he alliance o Fai h and Swo d ha caused he decadence o Po ugal, s ill ‘ he pe cei ed b each be ween he eal Po ugal and he d eamed and demanded Po ugal becomes a men al o m and is ele a ed o a kind o on ological digni y’.74 Howe e , despi e he e o s o ha gene a ion, he Ch is ocen ic cha ac e o Po uguese expansion would con inue o domina e much o he discou se, eaching i s pa oxysm in he 20 h cen u y, wi h he Es ado No o. An in e es ing case in ol ing he heme o he sieges o Diu is ha o O IIº Ce co de Dio [‘The Second Siege o Diu’] (1963), w i en by A hu Lambe da Fonseca (1922-2013). I was published a a a he delica e ime o he dic a o Salaza , since he Po uguese had al eady had o lea e India a e Goa, Daman, and Diu had been annexed by he Indian Union (1961), and Po ugal was unde g owing in e na ional p essu e o g an independence o i s o he colonies ( he emaining Eu opean coun ies wi h colonies in A ica, Asia, and Oceania had al eady ini ia ed he p ocess). Jus like Tomás Ribei o be o e him, in o de o w i e his na a i e, Fonseca elied on ex s om he 16 h and 17 h cen u ies, w i en by he a o emen ioned Jacin o F ei e de And ade, as well as by Diogo do Cou o, Fa ia e Sousa, Leona do Nunes, and Gaspa Co eia. An ónio José de B i o’s in oduc ion o he wo k, p in ed on he book laps, exposes he wo kings o bo h a ‘pa hological misma ch be ween pas and p esen ’ and a ‘compensa o y my h’ (see Lou enço abo e) in Fonseca’s ew i ing o he second siege o Diu: ‘Faced wi h he pain ul successes – o a he , ailu es – o he p esen , [Fonseca] u ned o he glo ious pages o ou his o y, no wi h he in en o aking e uge in he pas (o he wise, he would ha e p oduced a wo k o slow and long e udi ion), bu o 18" " highligh he pe enniali y o ce ain alues ha dese e obse a ion on wha e e occasion, and, he e o e, i is u gen o p ojec on o he u u e’.75 Since he end o he 19 h cen u y, poli ical and in ellec ual o ces deba ed he bes way o deal wi h islamicised popula ions wi hin he Empi e, especially in A ica,76 and, unde he ci ilian dic a o ship and due o in e na ional con ingencies o he ime, Po ugal po ayed i sel ‘o icially [as] a mul i-con inen al coun y sp ead o e h ee con inen s (Eu ope, A ica and Asia), and a mul i- acial one in which all aces ha cons i u ed he Po uguese na ion li ed in ha mony’.77 In con as , Fonseca desc ibed he second siege h ough he al eady amilia hype boliza ion o he Po uguese ea s o a ms, bu also o he enemy a acks – concu ing o p oduce a ep esen a ion ‘limi ed in hei image y, assump ions, and in en ions’, which is he O ien alis ep esen a ion (see Said’s quo e abo e). In he ollowing passage, no ice he con as be ween he iden i ica ion o each Po uguese he o by name and a homogeneous, nameless mass, o o he wise iden i ied wi h ‘Mohamed’: They we e slende pennan s wi h en i e e ses om he Ko an se be ween mul icolo ed emb oide y. They we e black lags wi h whi e c escen s and s a s, hea y banne s wi h black a abesque on sil e , and sil e on ed, aming shining golden suns wi h he P ophe ’s commandmen s w i en in blue le e s. The eils inc easingly o n and, in he wiligh o dawn, he ho i ic aspec o all ha ocean o u bans, helme s, coa s, black cloaks, bu nouses, mo ing slowly o he sound o hei lugub ious bands and he mou n ul cho uses o hei p aye s implo ing he aid o Mahome , was chilling. I was ho i ic, uncanny, ba ba ic and epulsi e. [...] [...] Luís de Sousa, wi h his noblemen, among whom s ood ou D. Fe nando de Cas o and Diogo de Reimoso, ceaselessly deli e ed dea h le and igh . D. João de Almeida and his b o he s D. F ancisco and D. Ped o seemed aken by a e ible madness, decima ing like enge ul a changels, callous o he blows hey ecei ed. Juza cão ose up agains he owe and An ónio Paçanha did no e en ha e ime o ake a b ea h, co e ed in cu s and blood. The moo s, in u h, came in gus s, bu hei onslaugh ell apa , like weak wa es, be o e ou spi i o s eel and will o i on. F om he high Skies, e en S . Michael, he Cons able o celes ial egimen s, was ce ainly in awe, wa ching such people in ba le.78 Conclusion 19" " I p opose ha Edua do Lou enço’s no ion o hype iden i y can be used as a concep o s udy Po uguese O ien alism. In any case, om he poin o iew o he ‘discu si e pe spec i e’ (see Young on Said’s wo k, abo e) ha I ha e shown in his a icle, i con i ms he adequacy o he concep ual and me hodological amewo k o O ien alism o analyze he Po uguese ep esen a ions o he O ien . ‘Po uguese hype iden i y’ allows us o unde s and how he O he is inse ed in o an imagined communi y,79 he possibili ies o ha communi y being assessed in e ms o hei ela ion wi h he empi e. As igh ly no ed by Manuel Cândido Pimen el, ‘i he my h o Po ugal is he ounda ion o homeland and na ion, i is because, by gi ing cohesion o he undamen al a che ypes o ou cul u e, i is also he d i ing o ce o he Po uguese in hei e es ial jou ney: i p oposes he knowledge o cul u al iden i y and he oo ing o mo i es, p omo ing he sense ha ul ils us and inspi es o should inspi e bo h ideal and p axis’80. In he in e s i ial space be ween ideal and p axis, i is possible o eco e , in S ua Hall’s wo ds, he ‘di e en discou ses, o ways in which he Wes came o speak o and ep esen o he cul u es’, assuming ha ‘ he discou se o he Wes abou he Res was deeply implica ed in p ac ice’.81 We should also no o ge ha ‘ he Age o Explo a ion and Conques ’ – which helped ‘ o o ge ha new sense o iden i y ha we call “ he Wes ”’ – ‘began wi h Po ugal, a e he Moo s […] had inally been expelled om he Ibe ian peninsula’.82 The Po uguese ep esen a ions o he sieges o Diu do no only e ince ha , in addi ion o being his o ical episodes, hese e en s cons i u e a synecdoche o Po ugal’s own my h; hey also demons a e how a people seen as an ‘enemy’ could become a synecdoche o he O ien . 1 T ansla ed om Po uguese by Rui Vi o ino Aze edo and e ised by Hugo Ca doso. This a icle was w i en in he con ex o he Explo a o y Resea ch P ojec ‘The Po uguese Rep esen a ions o India: Powe and Knowledge in a Pe iphe al O ien alism (19 h and 20 h cen u ies)’, unded by Po ugal’s Fundação pa a a Ciência e a Tecnologia (IF/01452/2013). 2 Edwa d W. Said, O ien alism: Wes e n Concep ions o he O ien (London: Penguin, 1978), p. 17. 3 Said, O ien alism, p. 12. 4 Said, O ien alism, p. 7. 5 Said, O ien alism, p. 7. 6 Said, O ien alism, p. 20. 7 Edua do Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado (Lisbon: G adi a, 2014), p. 277. 8 Edua do Lou enço, Nós e a Eu opa ou as Duas Razões (Lisbon: INCM, 1988), p. 88. 9 Said, O ien alism, p. 2. 10 See Said, O ien alism, p. 3 and pp. 6-7, espec i ely. 11 The Uni ed S a es, which eme ge as a hegemonic o ce a e Wo ld Wa II, a e also add essed, bu as agen s o a subsidia y Eu opean O ien alism. 12 Said, O ien alism, p. 121. 20" " 13 See, o example, Comissão Nacional pa a as Comemo ações dos Descob imen os Po ugueses, O O ien alismo em Po ugal: séculos XVI-XX (Lisbon: CNCDP, 1999). 14 Ângela Ba e o Xa ie and Ines G. Zupano ha e al eady con adic ed his idea. Acco ding o he au ho s, an en i e co pus o knowledge p oduced by he Po uguese a he beginning o he Mode n E a (in ac , s ill moulded by a medie al ision o he wo ld), con i ms ‘ he in e dependence o knowledge and poli ical demands’; Ângela Ba e o Xa ie and Ines G. Zupano , Ca holic O ien alism – Po uguese Empi e, Indian Knowledge (16 h-18 h cen u ies) (New Delhi: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2015), p. XXV. 15 Robe J. C. Young, ‘The Legacies o Edwa d W. Said in Compa a i e Li e a u e Compa a i e’, Compa a i e C i ical S udies 7.2-3 (2010), 360. 16 Said, O ien alism, p. 202. 17 Said, O ien alism, p. 42. 18 Said, O ien alism, p. 24. 19 Said, O ien alism, p. 11. 20 Edua do Lou enço, O Labi in o da Saudade – Psicanálise Mí ica do Des ino Po uguês (Lisbon: G adi a, 2013), pp. 17-18 and p. 46, espec i ely. 21 Lou enço, O Labi in o da Saudade, p. 18. 22 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 276-277. 23 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 124 and p. 301, espec i ely. 24 Lou enço, Nós e a Eu opa ou as Duas Razões, p. 10. 25 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 305. 26 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, pp. 132-133. 27 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 307. 28 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 132. 29 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 129 and p. 130, espec i ely. 30 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 132. 31 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 301. 32 To use an exp ession coined by Boa en u a de Sousa San os, ‘En e P óspe o e Caliban: colonialismo, pós-colonialismo e in e -iden idade’, in En e se e es a – Raízes, pe cu sos e discu sos da iden idade, ed. by Ma ia I ene Ramalho and An ónio Sousa Ribei o (Po o: A on amen o, 2001), p. 26. 33 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, pp. 302-303. 34 Lou enço, O Labi in o da Saudade, p. 18. 35 S ua Hall, ‘The Wes and he Res : Discou se and Powe ’, in Fo ma ions o Mode ni y, ed. by S ua Hall and B am Gieben (Camb idge: The Open Uni e si y, 1992), pp. 275-320. 36 Said, O ien alism, pp. 331-332. 37 Rosa Ma ia Pe ez, ‘In odução’, in Os Po ugueses e o O ien e – his ó ia, i ine á ios, ep esen ações, ed. by Rosa Ma ia Pe ez (Lisbon: Dom Quixo e, 2006), p. 21. 38 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 131. 39 “T u h is a hing o his wo ld: i is p oduced only by i ue o mul iple o ms o cons ain . And i induces egula e ec s o powe . Each socie y has i s egime o u h, i s “gene al poli ics” o u h – ha is, he ypes o discou se i accep s and makes unc ion as ue; he mechanisms and ins ances ha enable one o dis inguish ue and alse s a emen s; he means by which each is sanc ioned; he echniques and p ocedu es acco ded alue in he acquisi ion o u h; he s a us o hose who a e cha ged wi h saying wha coun s as ue”. Michel Foucaul , ‘T u h and powe ’, in Michel Foucaul , Powe /Knowledge: Selec ed In e iews and O he W i ings 1972-1977, ed. by C. Go don (New Yo k: Pan heon Books, 1980), p. 131. 40 Pa ik Hall, ‘Na ionalism and his o ici y’, Na ions and Na ionalisms 3.1 (1997), 3. 41 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 125. 42 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 142 and p. 153, espec i ely. 43 Said, O ien alism, p. 2. 44 Since he his o ical and ma e ial eali ies o he B i ish and F ench empi es we e di e en om ha o he Po uguese empi e, c i ics easily dismiss he ques ion o he exe cise o powe . See, o example, Ali o Siquei a, ‘Goa: do ociden alismo ao pós-colonialismo’, in Os Po ugueses e o O ien e – his ó ia, i ine á ios, ep esen ações, ed. by Rosa Ma ia Pe ez (Lisbon: Dom Quixo e, 2006), p. 151-166; Kenne h Da id Jackson, ‘Goa e a o ien alidade’, in Goa Po uguesa e Pós-colonial. Li e a u a, Cul u a e Sociedade, ed. by E e on V. Machado and Dua e D. B aga (Vila No a de Famalicão: Húmus, 2014), p. 13-37; E a-Ma ia on Kemni z, ‘Em Po ugal – O O ien alismo em agmen os’, Re is a de es udios in e nacionales medi e áneos 21 (2016), 13-25. 45 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, pp. 139-140. 46 See Luís Filipe F. R. Thomaz, De Ceu a a Timo (Lisbon: Di el, 1994), pp. 189-206. 21" " 47 João Paulo Oli ei a e Cos a e al., His ó ia da Expansão e do Impé io Po uguês (Lisbon: Es e a dos Li os, 2014), p. 17. 48 Wal e Rossa, Pa imónio de O igem Po uguesa no Mundo: A qui e u a e U banismo (Ásia e Oceânia) (Lisbon: Fundação Calous e Gulbenkian, 2010), p. 66. 49 Ma ia Te esa Amado, ‘Diu’, in Dicioná io de His ó ia dos Descob imen os Po ugueses, ol. 1, ed. by Luís de Albuque que (Lisbon: Caminho, 1994), pp. 357-358. 50 No o men ion ha he ea s o a ms a e a cons an in he gene al ep esen a ions o he Po uguese Empi e. 51 Jo ge A. Osó io, ‘Em o no dos dois “De Bello Cambaico” de Damião de Góis’, Má hesis 12 (2003), p. 174. 52 Nuno G ancho, Diu, a social a chi ec u al and u ban his o y, doc o al disse a ion on He i age o Po uguese In luence, A chi ec u e and U banism (Coimb a: Uni e si y o Coimb a, 2016), p. 89. 53 Roge Lee de Jesus, O Segundo Ce co de Diu (1546) – Es udo de His ó ia Polí ica e Mili a , mas e s disse a ion on His o y o he Ea ly Mode n Pe iod (Coimb a: Uni e si y o Coimb a, 2012), p. 141. 54 Lou enço, Do Colonialismo como Nosso Impensado, p. 132. 55 Manuel Cândido Pimen el, ‘O mi o de Po ugal nas suas aízes cul u ais’, in Po ugal: Pe cu sos de in e cul u alidade, ed. by A u Teodo o de Ma os and Má io Fe ei a Lages, ol. 3 (Lisbon: ACIDI, 2008), p. 11. 56 Ma ga ida Cala a e Ribei o, Uma His ó ia de Reg essos: Impé io, Gue a Colonial e Pós- Colonialismo (Po o: Edições A on amen o, 2004), p. 21. 57 Luís de Camões, The Lusiads, ansla ed om Po uguese in o English by Richa d F ancis Bu on (London: Be na d Qua i ch, 1880), ol. 1., p. 61. 58 Camões, The Lusiads, ol. 2, p. 386. 59 See Ziauddin Sa da , Ex año O ien e: His o ia de un p ejuicio, ansla ed om English in o Spanish by Tomás Fe nández Aúz and Bea iz Eguiba (Ba celona: Gedisa, 2004), p. 57. 60 Said, O ien alism, p. 66. 61 Fe nando Machado Sil a, ‘P esen ación de un mons uo enascen is a: Viejo Mou o’, S udia Au ea 2 (2008) <h p://s udiaau ea.com/a icle/ iew/ 2-machado/15> [accessed 1 Janua y 201]. 62 Hélio J. S. Al es, ‘Je ónimo Co e-Real’, in Dicioná io de Luís de Camões, coo d. by Ví o Aguia e Sil a (Lisbon: Caminho, 2011), p. 300-301. 63 Xa ie and Zupano , Ca holic O ien alism, pp. 11-12. 64 Lou enço, O Labi in o da Saudade, pp. 82-83. 65 Lou enço, O Labi in o da Saudade, p. 121. 66 Ví o Manuel Pa ei a Ne o, ‘O Libe alismo ca ólico de Alexand e He culano’, in Alexand e He culano – Libe alismo e oman ismo (San a ém: Escola Supe io de Educação de San a ém, 1999), p. 59. 67 Tomás Ribei o, Jo nadas (Coimb a: Li a ia Cen al de José Diogo Pi es, 1874), ol. 2, p. 270. 68 Ribei o, Jo nadas, ol. 2, pp. 253-255. 69 Ribei o, Jo nadas, ol. 1, p. 26. 70 Ribei o, Jo nadas, ol. 2, pp. 243-244. 71 I is in e es ing ha he au ho o Jo nadas collabo a ed wi h he Jo nal das Colónias [‘Jou nal o he Colonies’] unde he pseudonym Tomé de Diu [‘Thomas o Diu’].Acco ding o Sand a Ma ia Gonçal es Cas elão, ‘Ribei o (Fe ei a), Tomás (An ónio)’, in Dicioná io do Roman ismo Li e á io Po uguês, coo d. by Helena Ca alhão Buescu (Lisbon: Caminho, 1997), p. 479. 72 Quo ed in Joel Se ão, Joel, Libe alismo, Socialismo, Republicanismo: An ologia de pensamen o polí ico po uguês (Lisbon: Li os Ho izon e, 1979), p. 166. 73 W i e s such as Quen al, Eça de Quei ós, Teó ilo B aga, and Oli ei a Ma ins. 74 Lou enço, O Labi in o da Saudade, p. 93. 75 An ónio José de B i o, ‘O IIº Ce co de Diu po A hu Lambe da Fonseca’, on he lap o : A hu Lambe da Fonseca, O IIº Ce co de Diu (Vila do Conde: Gládio, 1963). 76 See AbdoolKa im Vakil, ‘Ques ões Inacabadas: Colonialismo, Islão e Po ugalidade’, in Fan asmas e Fan asias Impe iais no Imaginá io Po uguês Con empo âneo, ed. by Ma ga ida Cala a e Ribei o and Ana Paula Fe ei a (Po o: Campo das Le as, 2003), pp. 255-294. 77 Fe nando Ta a es Pimen a, Po ugal e o Século XX – Es ado-Impé io e Descolonização (1890-1975) (Po o: Edições A on amen o, 2010), p. 96. 78 Fonseca, O IIº Ce co de Diu, pp. 80-81. 79 See Benedic Ande son, Imagined communi ies: Re lec ions on he o igin and sp ead o na ionalism (New Yo k: Ve so, 1983). 80"Manuel Cândido Pimen el, ‘O mi o de Po ugal nas suas aízes cul u ais’,"p."34." 81 Hall, ‘The Wes and he Res ’, p. 279 and p. 291, espec i ely. 22" " 82 Hall, ‘The Wes and he Res ’, p. 197 and p. 191, espec i ely.