Redrawing a map of Alexander the Great’s empire. Correcting old historical geographical errors

Red awing amap o Alexande he G ea ’sempi e. Co ec ing old his o ical geog aphical e o s Claude Rapin ABSTRACT The gene al maps o Alexande he G ea ’sempi e published oday o en con ain nume ous a ian s and con adic ions. The aim o his s udy is o p esen anew e sion o he gene al map, based on he hypo heses o commen a o s on A ian and Cu ius, as well as on ase ies o ield explo a ions, ea icula ing and ca - og aphically ep esen ing he au ho s’ ongoing esea ch on his opic. This gene al map also includes anew ep esen a ion o Cen al Asia, in ended o co ec he con adic o y schemes ha ha e been published un il ecen ly. This map he e o e includes upda ed oponymy and de ails o he ou es ollowed by Alexande , his gene als and ambassado s, Da ius, and, o he Eas , he Bac ian -Sogdian sa aps and egional go e no s. The econs uc ion o his map has signi ican implica ions o ou unde s anding o Alexande ’ss o y. KEYWORDS Alexande he G ea ; Alexande he G ea ’sempi e; Achaemenid empi e; Da ius III; Hellenis ic oponymy; Hellenis ic geog aphy; mapping o ancien geog aphy. The his o y o Alexande he G ea is based on awide a ie y o li e a y sou ces, all o which a e seconda y (and e en ‘ e ia y’), since no con empo a y biog aphy o he conque o ’sli e has su i ed. E en oday, econs uc ing e en s in hei exac o de and loca ion emains apuzzle and is o en hypo he ical. The uins o he monumen s c ea ed by Alexande du ing he ounding o his ci ies a e di icul o iden i y. Di ec ma e ial e idence o his exis ence can be summed up as des uc ion, no limi ed o he amous bu ning o Pe sepolis, bu also in ol ing nume ous ci ies ha he obli e a ed du ing his expedi ion, which ma ked he end o he Achaemenid e a. Recons uc ing ma e ial con ex s is u he complica ed by he lack o p ecise in o ma ion ega ding he i ine a y ollowed by Alexande and his gene als, as well as he sequence o ce - ain e en s. These da a a e c ucial o unde s anding he local poli ical and economic con ex , and o s udying he mili a y s a egies o Alexande and he o he Macedonian o Eas e n igu es in ol ed, hei psychological de elopmen s, and so on. As such, his o ical geog aphy is an essen ial basis o any esea ch o his kind. Ca og aphic ep esen a ion o his his o ical geog aphy is an impo an ool o a icula ing and dissemina ing he esul s o esea ch on his opic, bu many pas and cu en maps emain p oblema ic o di e se easons. This a icle is he e o e conce ned wi h p esen ing and explaining anew map o hese campaigns which illus a es he indings o some mo e ecen esea ch on his opic, and pa icula ly hose o my ongoing esea ch dealing wi h he ou e o Alexande and iden i ica ion o oponyms in Cen al Asia du ing his campaigns. STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2, 122–153 123CLAUDE RAPIN HISTORICAL CARTOGRAPHY AND LITERARY SOURCES Medie al ca og aphy, such as he mappae mundi, was one o he hei s o ancien geog aphy, om which i inhe i ed many names. I did no o e look he exis ence o Cen al Asia and i s key oponyms, such as Bac ia o he Oxus, adjacen o aCaspian -Hy canian Sea open o he pe iphe al ocean and enclosed by he ‘Caucasus’ ange, wi h he Caspian Ga es locked, some imes wi h Gog and Magog imp isoned behind he legenda y wall ha Alexande is said o ha e buil o keep hem a bay (see Go shenina– Rapin 2021, 176). Howe e , ca og aphic ep esen a ions o Alexande ’sempi e o m pa o along adi ion ha began only in he la e 16 h cen u y, pa icula ly ollowing he publica ion o Cu ius’ and A ian’sLi es o Alexande . This adi ion was i s es ablished by he hei s o Ge ha d Me ca- o (1512–1594), including Ab aham O elius (1527–1598), Jodocus Hondius (1563–1612), and Jan Janssonius (1588–1664), and con inued by hei successo s, who we e o en in e connec ed. I was hese ca og aphe s, no ably O elius and Johannes Bap is a V ien s (1552–1612), who p oduced in 1595 acomp ehensi e map o Alexande ’sempi e i led Alexand i Magni Macedonis Expedi io. 1 This was he i s map based on oponyms de i ed om accoun s o he Macedonian conques , bu independen o hose o Claudius P olemy’sGeog aphy. While he wo ld map was apidly e ol ing in he 17 h cen u y,2 Cen al Asia e ained P olemy’sschema, wi h Asia domina ed by an o al -shaped Caspian Sea. The mode n map o No h Asia eme ged wi h he ‘disco e y’ o he A al Sea on he e e o he 18 h cen u y, ma king he culmina ion o along p ocess (Go shenina 2021) ha g adually esol ed issues ela ed o he posi ioning o i e s, moun ains, and ci ies. The de elopmen o maps o Alexande ’sem- pi e pa alleled ad ances in his o iog aphy, ma ked by wo ks such as Cla ke’ssyn hesis (1665) and D oysen’s amous Geschich e Alexande s des G ossen, published in 1833. The mos comple e ep esen a ions o he empi e began in he 18 h cen u y wi h he ca og aphe Guillaume Delisle (1675–1726), al hough he oponymy emained highly hypo he ical, and he loca ions app oxima e. I was no un il he second hal o he 19 h cen u y ha he ‘Uppe Asia’ o he G eek wo ld uly began o open up o he Wes du ing he conques s led by Eu opean powe s, allowing o he p oduc ion o inc easingly ealis ic ca og aphy. Despi e nume ous syn heses published in he 19 h and 20 h cen u ies, he his o ical ge - og aphy o Cen al Asia ini ially emained limi ed o lib a y esea ch, only ad ancing as a chaeologis -philologis s gained g ea e access o he egion, pa icula ly hose in e es ed in he ancien , and mo e speci ically, Hellenis ic pe iod. The i s ield s udies we e conduc ed du ing he Russian conques o he egion and con in- ued in o he So ie e a by nume ous a chaeologis s and his o ians, such as Bo is A. Li inskij and Igo V. P’janko (P’janko 2013). Wes e n specialis s who had access o he ield included a chaeologis s like Paul Be na d, di ec o o he DAFA a he ime o he Aï Khanoum exca a- ions (1965–1978) (see below o one o his s udies on his o ical geog aphy published in 1982). Despi e his esea ch, he oponymy o he eas e n pa o he empi e emained imp ecise o along ime, especially when compa ed wi h he his o ical geog aphy o he Medi e a- 1 This map was epublished in he i s qua e o he 17 h cen u y and main ained i s popula i y o mo e han acen u y and ahal , as shown by i s epublica ion by Janssonius in 1662 and i s euse in an A ian’sedi ion da ing om 1757. 2 Wi h, o cou se, upda es o egions like Sou he n Asia, A ica, and he Wes . An example o such upda es can be seen in he Asia An iqua cum ini imis Asiæ e Eu opæ published in 1680 by Nikolaas Blankaa (1625–1703). 124 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 nean wo ld. The absence o de ailed egional maps added o he handicaps, pa icula ly in egions ha we e p e iously wi hin he So ie Union’s e i o y. Since D oysen’s ime, he eas e n pa o he gene al maps o Alexande ’sempi e has been he subjec o nume ous a ia ions, punc ua ed equally a iably by solu ions ha now seem e oneous o co ec bu we e o go en om one publica ion o he nex . This inconsis ency is e iden in a ious maps published in he mid-19 h cen u y, some o which in my iew display mo e accu a e oponymy o Alexande ’s ou e han cu en maps. This di e si y o maps also a ises om he di e en scien i ic schools– pa icula ly F ench, Ge man and English– which ha e ‘domina ed’ s udies o Alexande ’shis o y since he second hal o he 19 h cen u y. The F ench school seems o me o ha e had mo e in luence on La in- -language maps. Ge man maps, suppo ed by a obus school o his o ians and philologis s, had ag ea e in e na ional impac , la gely due o he publica ion o complex ‘school’ a lases o e along pe iod, such as Sp une and Menke’sA las An iquus (1850–1865), Hein ich Kiep- e ’sA las An iquus (1896), and Pu zge ’sSchul ‑A las (which la e became Pu zge His o ische Wel a las) om 1877 o he p esen day. Many English -language maps, such as hose by he Ame ican William R. Shephe d (1871–1934), also e lec his Ge man ca og aphic adi ion and i s oponymic choices. F om he 2000s onwa ds, se e al highly de ailed a lases o An iqui y ha e been published, he mos comp ehensi e being he Ba ing on A las o he G eek and Roman Wo ld (2000). This in en o y o place names, spanning a housand yea s and inco po a ing mode n names o a chaeological si es, e lec s he s a e o esea ch in he 20 h cen u y. Howe e , unlike he maps co e ing he Roman Empi e, hose o he Hellenis ic Fa Eas do no include a oad ne wo k (pa 6: maps 86–99). In Cen al Asia, he a las s ops a he Hissa ange, conside ing i he bo de be ween (‘No he n’) Bac ia and Sogdiana. The a ea beyond, including Sama kand, is limi ed o a ew place names and does no accoun o he Sogdian si es, as is he case wi h hose on he igh bank o he Oxus. This omission aligns wi h a endency among Bac ia - ocused a chaeologis s o o e look ha Sama kand was pa o he same empi e, despi e signi ican Hellenis ic pe iod exca a ions conduc ed he e by he F anco -Uzbek A chaeological Mission (MAFOuz) o Sogdiana. The e o e, his a las is no pa icula ly cen al o a adi ional econ- s uc ion o Alexande ’s ou e in I an and beyond.3 To isualise his ou e, i is p e e able o e e o school o academic a lases whe e he place names a e limi ed o hose ound in he ancien sou ces o Alexande ’sexpedi ion. Recen maps published in single o double page o ma a e ep esen ed in se e al his o ical a lases, including: – The la es edi ions o he Pu zge His o ische Wel a las, which unde wen signi ican up- da es by new his o ians a ound 2002 (103 d ed.), hough wi h no no able changes he ea e (see he 105 h ed. since 2021). – The His o ische A las de An iken Wel published in 2007, which complemen s De Neue Pauly, he mode n his o iog aphical successo o he RE (Paulys Realencyclopädie de clas‑ sischen Al e umswissenscha ) and De kleine Pauly. – The English -speaking wo ld has a e y ough His o ical A las, published in Sydney and ansla ed in o F ench unde he i le A las His o ique (2010). 3 Ialso do no include in his s udy he B egel’sHis o ical A las o Cen al Asia (2003), which co e s all he pe iods om he ime o Alexande o he 20 h cen u y. Fo Cen al Asia i o e s amo e comp ehensi e in en o y o a chaeological si es han he Ba ing on A las. 125CLAUDE RAPIN – In F ance, o example, Alexande ’sempi e is included in he A las His o ique du P oche‑ ‑O ien ancien (2020), which is no , howe e , based on L. Ma inez -Sè e’sA las du monde hellénis ique, one o he bes a lases co e ing he Hellenis ic pe iod, and which has been published se e al imes since 2011, o e ing de ailed egional maps. Gene ally, he e is no disce nible connec ion be ween hese a ious a lases, aside om occa- sional a ia ions ha align wi h 19 h cen u y ca og aphic adi ions. This highligh s he sig- ni ican unce ain ies ha pe sis in mapping Alexande ’sempi e, pa icula ly in i s eas e n egions– namely, he I anian, Cen al Asian, and Indian wo ld– whe e he p ecise loca ion o ci ies and he e en s o Alexande ’scampaigns ( om 330 o 325 BC) emain elusi e. The da a om P olemy’sGeog aphy only pa ially o e laps wi h ha p o ided by he his o- ians o Alexande , necessi a ing amo e ho ough examina ion o egions whe e ancien o- ponymy has no been p ese ed. Howe e , analysing his geog aphy emains c ucial, especially when c oss - e e enced wi h o he de ailed syn heses, such as S abo’sGeog aphy, Pliny’sNa ‑ u al His o y, he Peu inge Table, and he Ra enna Cosmog aphy (whose o iginal sou ce da es o he ea ly 1s cen u y AD).4 Compa a i e s udies o hese wo ks con inue o yield new insigh s, as in he case o he Hellenis ic si e o Aï Khanoum. Iha e p oposed he name *Oskoba a5 o his si e (o i s neighbou , he ‘Ville onde’ o Kuhna Qal’a: see below) du ing he Achaemenid pe iod and Euc a ideia o he e a o he las G aeco -Bac ian ule , Euc a ides I( .171–144 BC) (Rapin 2005, 146–147, 172; Rapin 2007, 41). Re lec ions on he i e s in his egion (below) ha e also led me, alongside F. G ene , o ejec he o en epea ed iden i ica ion o Aï Khanoum wi h he my hical Alexand ia o he Oxus (G ene – Rapin 2001, 82). None heless, ala ge communi y o esea che s con inues o e e o he ci y by his name, ollowing he ine ia o ecei ed ideas (see o example he Ba ing on A las 2000, he His o ische A las de an iken Wel 2007, and he ecen Pu zge a lases).6 Amajo obs acle o esea ch lies in he di ide be ween he ancien his o iog aphical ends conce ning Alexande , pa icula ly he accoun s o A ian (2nd cen u y AD) and hose o he so -called ‘Vulga e’ adi ion, which ollows Cli a chus (including Diodo us Siculus, Quin us Cu ius Ru us, Gnaeus Pompeius T ogus, Me z Epi ome, e c.) (Fig. 1). Albe B ian Boswo h (1942–2014) ex ensi ely s udied his di ide, s i ing o es o e he Vulga e’shis o ical alue and balance he wo adi ions (Boswo h 1976 and subsequen publica ions). 4 Rapin 2005; 2017. Fo an ex ac om he eas e n pa o he Peu inge Map, see e.g. Rapin 2017, 57. 5 Rapin 2005, 146–147, 172; Rapin 2013, 52, n. 40. This oponym appea s in many o ms in he geog a- phy o An iqui y, hen in La e An iqui y, whe e i is ans o med in o ‘mons Oscoba es’ by O osius, be o e being men ioned in his o m by Boccaccio in De Mon ibus du ing he Renaissance. I s loca ion has ne e been iden i ied be o e: in 2000, he Ba ing on A las, Map ‑by ‑map di ec o y 1, 88 places Oscoba esM. as amoun ain in China wi hou pa alleling i wi h he Scoba u o Peu inge Map. A he same ime, he Ba ing on A las lis ed sepa a ely o he a ian s, such as Os oba a (P ol. i, 11.9) and Sko dai (P ol. i, 11.6) among he ‘Unloca ed Toponyms’, p.97, like se e al Cen al Asian place names which ha e become easie o loca e in ecen yea s. 6 Fo he iden i ica ion o his Alexand ia, P.Be na d did no each ade ini i e conclusion be ween Aï Khanoum and Te mez as po en ial loca ions o his ci y (Be na d 1982, 236). E. R eladze has p oposed Kampy - epe as acandida e o Alexand ia Oxiana, a iew de ailed in R eladze 2002 and R eladze 2019. On mode n poli ico -economic conside a ions ha oday e oneously jus i y assimila ing Kampy - epe o Alexand ia Oxiana, see Go shenina– Rapin 2024, 400, 403, 405. My own p oposal places his Alexand ia o he no h o he She abad Da ya plain, as de ailed in Rapin 2017, 96, 104, n. 10. 126 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 Fig. 1: Genealogical ee o ancien au ho s based on he con en o hei chap e s on Cen al Asia (d awing by C. Rapin). One o he g ea weaknesses adi ionally a ibu ed o Cli a chus’ successo s, especially Cu ius, conce ns hei seemingly nonsensical geog aphical concep s when compa ed o A ian’sau ho i y. Howe e , hese weaknesses a e no uni e sal; hey speci ically conce n da a om he pe iod 330 o 327 BC, which Cli a chus in oduced due o he lack o an illus a- i e map o desc ip ion in his sou ces o cla i y he geog aphical dis ibu ion o e en s. The in en o y and ansc ip ion on pape o he geog aphical ‘anomalies’ led me o econs uc a‘cohe en ’ map, whe e amy hical Caucasus is in e ed and supe imposed o e he ac ual Caucasus be ween he Black Sea and adouble Caspian Sea (Fig. 2).7 This specula i e map, likely o g aphic o igin a he han pu ely ‘men al’, in e wined eal e en s wi h as ange mix o ic ional da a. I included he Amazons as being con iguous wi h Hy cania, bu linked o hei i e s o he Black Sea (The modon and Phasis), he A imasps, an A achosia con iguous wi h he Black Sea (in his passage only), he Rock o P ome heus, Media, and i s 7 My ende ings o his imagina y map based on Cli a chus’swo k ha e unde gone se e al e ine- men s since my ini ial e sion in 2005: see Rapin 2005, 166, map 2; Rapin 2014, 149, ig. 2; Rapin 2018a, 260, ig. 2; Rapin 2018c, 160, ig. 3; Rapin 2021, 362, ig. 4; and Rapin 2023, 448, ig. 2. 127CLAUDE RAPIN i e A axes, he ci y o he B anchidae, aBac ia swep by he winds o he Black Sea, Asian Scy hians ‘supe Bospho um,’ and ‘Eu opean’ Scy hians beyond he Tanais/Don, ollowed by o he Eu opean peoples. I we exclude hese anomalies– which, like Boswo h, Iha e delibe a ely e ained om ‘co ec ing’ o make hem ‘accep able’– he Vulga e’so de o e en s appea s mo e eliable han A ian’s. Howe e , by using hese anomalies as ma ke s, Ipu sued agenealogy o he sou ces a ailable o Cen al Asia. This led o he hypo hesis ha Cli a chus may ha e com- posed his wo k in he 3 d cen u y a he han in he 4 h cen u y, as commonly belie ed (Fig.1). 8 The Vulga e’sabsu d geog aphical da a could ha dly ha e been compiled while any o he expedi ion’spa icipan s we e s ill ali e. I is plausible ha his map was ‘in en ed’ in he wake o he Seleucid p opaganda o he i s hal o he 3 d cen u y BC.I is in his pseudo- -geog aphical con ex ha Cli a chus also d ew his accoun o he B anchidae massac e (Rapin 2018a, 257, 263, 278, 280–281). Cu ius’ desc ip ion o he ci y o he B anchidae coincides wi h A ian’sdesc ip ion o he place in Nau aca whe e Bessus was a es ed. Thus, I ind i unnec- 8 Iha e discussed he da ing o Cli a chus in Rapin 2017, 37–38, 51–52, 106, n. 27; Rapin 2018a, 260–263, 278–282. My g aphic ep esen a ion o he genealogy o sou ces has e ol ed and been e ined since 2018 (Rapin 2018a, 259) un il my la es a ian in 2023 (Rapin 2023, 447). Fig. 2: Recons uc ion o Cli a chus’ ‘map o he Caucasus’ based on he geog aphical desc ip ions adop ed by he ‘Vulga e’ his o ians o he yea s 330–327 BC (d awing by C. Rapin). 128 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 essa y o loca e hei ci y on an ac ual map, as is common in many ancien a lases and ecen publica ions, such as he His o ische A las de an iken Wel 2007 and ecen Pu zge a lases. Simila anomalies a e p esen in A ian, who also seems o ha e elied on indi ec syn he- ses compiled be ween he 4 h and 3 d cen u ies, as well as on dispa a e sou ces. A ian ended o eposi ion and hema ically g oup da a, o amalgama e episodes o simila appea ance, leading o ch onological dis o ions o his well -known con adic ions wi h he Vulga e, pa icula ly in he Eas . The e o e, his wo k canno be aken a ace alue, no ma e how elegan i s s yle; each asse ion mus be ca e ully analysed in compa ison wi h o he sou ces. Al hough Cu ius has been ehabili a ed by mode n his o ians, many issues emain p ob- lema ic. Fo asyn hesis o de ailed s udies on Alexande , howe e , one o he bes app oaches emains he commen a ies on A ian by A.B. Boswo h and F. Sis i– A. Zamb ini,9 and he commen a ies on Cu ius by John A kinson.10 Paul Goukowsky published aF ench ansla ion o A ian’sBooks iii– in 2023. In his ‘No ices’ o Books iii and i (pp. 28–59 and 117–155), and in his oo no es, Goukowsky o e s acommen a y ha la gely e e s o he s a e o esea ch o he 1980s, while emaining ai h ul o he ea ly hypo heses o F. on Schwa z (1893). As Goukowsky dismisses he new hypo heses Iha e p oposed in my own esea ch on he basis o one o my publica ions (Rapin 2017), and wha a e, in my iew, impo an ad ancemen s made in he ields o Cen al Asian his o ical geog aphy and Alexande ’scampaigns, Icanno engage wi h i in ex ensi e de ail in he p esen ex , al hough his edi ion o A ian will likely become a e e ence wo k in F ench bibliog aphy. While Cu ius and A ian domina e he his o iog aphy o Alexande , any analysis o his i ine a y mus also conside he Me z Epi ome, a ex s ill oo o en o e looked bu o a g ea e signi icance han i migh appea , pa icula ly ega ding e en s ollowing he dea h o Da- ius (Baynham 1995). Howe e , jus as in my econs uc ion o he ‘Caucasus’ map, ac ucial me hodological s ep mus be aken. The mos comp ehensi e edi ion o he Me z Epi ome was published by P.H. Thomas (1966), which includes all he a ian s o he codices. Howe e , his ex should be app oached wi h ce ain p econdi ions in mind. Con a y o popula belie , his epi ome is no a adi ional summa y bu an ex ac om amo e ex ensi e summa y, om which some sec ions ha e been excised. The emaining segmen s ha e no been ewo ked o logical con inui y, and he ex s ha ollow he cu s o en begin ab up ly wi h he wo ds ‘deinde’ and ‘ibi’. In mode n an- sc ip ions, hese e ms should he e o e be p eceded by ellipses […] o indica e he p esence o disce nible gaps. Fu he mo e, Thomas’sedi ion con ains anumbe o ques ionable ex ual co ec ions (see below). Fo example, he a ian s o codex D indica ed a he bo om o he page should some imes be p e e ed o es ablishing he ex , pa icula ly in pa ag aphs 3 and 4. Howe e , ield obse a ions ha e p omp ed me o econside he issues posed by sou ces on Alexande ’smili a y ope a ions in he I on Ga es egion nea De ben in Uzbekis an (Rap- in– Khasano – Rakhmano 2022). My esea ch has a emp ed o in eg a e he geog aphical con ex o he a ious egions h ough which Alexande possibly passed wi h he his o ical ex s. These ex s a e so con adic o y ha one mus conside he possibili y ha ancien au- 9 Boswo h 1980 ( ol. 1: books i–iii) and Boswo h 1995 ( ol. 2: books i – ). His publica ion has been supplemen ed and upda ed by he mo e ecen anno a ed ansla ion p oposed in I alian by F. Sis i and A. Zamb ini: Sis i 2001, ol. 1 o books i–iii, and Sis i– Zamb ini 2004, ol. 2 o books i – ii. The commen a ies on books i and ii included in he la e olume compensa e o he absence o he hi d olume planned by Boswo h o he commen a ies on Alexande ’sjou ney down he Indus a e his e ea om he Hyphasis. 10 See in pa icula his commen a y accompanying he I alian ansla ion o Cu ius: A kinson– An elami ( ol. 1) 1998; A kinson– Ga giulo ( ol. 2) 2000. 129CLAUDE RAPIN ho s o en wo ked wi h al eady agmen ed sou ces, which ea lie w i e s had amalgama ed as bes hey could in o cohesi e monog aphs. E en mino inconsis encies be ween seemingly iden ical episodes can indica e ha he sou ces we e no ac ually desc ibing he same e en . As analysis o he ex s on Cen al Asia e eals, episodes may ha e been agmen ed and e- assembled wi h o he , supe icially simila episodes, leading o he con usion we encoun e oday. Beyond he undeniably common da a, he accoun s om hese wo his o iog aphical adi ions should be iewed as complemen a y. F om he I on Ga es, my esea ch has g adually expanded o include he en i e egion o Cen al Asia, om no he n I an o he en ance o India, wi h apa icula ocus on Sogdiana. This egion is he mos con using in G aeco -Roman li e a u e, ypically ecei ing only cu so y ea men in syn heses on Alexande , despi e he complex mili a y mo emen s ha occu ed he e. 11 Howe e , his pape will no be limi ed o he esul s o hese s udies; i will also explo e he his o y o he de elopmen o he new ca og aphy o Alexande ’s ou e. The p oblem o he genesis o e o s in maps since he 16 h cen u y, howe e , will be add essed in ala e publica ion. FOR ANEW GENERAL MAP OF ALEXANDER’SEMPIRE My esea ch on Cen al Asia has always been accompanied by egional maps, which Iha e egula ly upda ed as new de elopmen s eme ged in he ex s. O e ime, Iha e p oposed o loca e almos all he place names men ioned by Alexande ’shis o ians. A e compiling hese maps in ecen o e iews de o ed o Cen al Asia (Rapin 2021; 2023), I ecognised he need o in eg a e hese esul s in o agene al map o Alexande ’sempi e. Un o una ely, he maps cu en ly in ci cula ion a ely keep pace wi h ad ances in ex ual esea ch and o en eplica e oponymic schemes om olde s udies. The gene al map Ip esen he e (Pl. 2/1) is based on an in -dep h analysis o his o ical sou ces, d awing pa icula ly on he indings o my pas esea ch on he opic. The i s a las Iconsul ed o compa ison, he G osse his o ische Wel a las (GHW) o 1953, con ains amap o Alexande ’sempi e ha has been ep in ed wi h li le change o mo e han hal acen- u y, wi h he las e sion appea ing in 2009. Since 2000, he e has been ag owing numbe o ca og aphic a ian s due o ad ances in compu ing and he sea ch o new s yles (see my sho in en o y abo e). Howe e , his appa en enaissance has no led o signi ican changes in oponymic choices. Pa icula ly in he eas e n hal o Alexande ’sempi e, his ca og aphy emains oo ed in 19 h -cen u y his o iog aphical adi ions, no ably he Ge - man adi ion, wi h D oysen’swo k as i s co ne s one. Addi ionally, mode n his o iog aphy does no de elop in o ma ion homogeneously in alinea ashion bu is ins ead subdi ided in o di e ging schools and opinions (B ian 2010, 153–185). Consequen ly, hese maps ha e no inco po a ed much o mo e ecen esea ch on he opic, as e idenced by he absence o he solu ions p oposed by schola s like Boswo h (e.g., Boswo h 1976). ‘Mains eam’ maps a e s ill hea ily in luenced by ou da ed backg ounds ound online and by he con en ional wisdom o adi ional knowledge.12 11 One o he mos ci ed syn heses is ha o Hol (2005 and ea lie wo ks). Howe e , some o his con- clusions need o be e ised in ligh o ecen s udies on his o ical geog aphy. Addi ionally, anew gene a ion o his o ians is making p og ess on o he opics; see, o example, hei con ibu ions in Mai s (2021). 12 A he momen , his scheme has been ep oduced by se e al esea che s, no ably in B ian 2010, 18–19 ( om a a ian o my map da ed 2010) and in amap by Pe e Palm in Fe a io 2023, 714, map. 130 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 In my iew, he only maps ha e lec he p og ess o esea ch– despi e di e gences om my ecen hypo heses– a e he egional maps published in syn heses such as hose by D.W. Engels (1978) and s udies by Boswo h. Fo example, L. Ma inez -Sè e’sA las du monde hellénis ique (2017) is one o he ew publica ions ha in eg a es he main da a om Boswo h. Gene al maps co e ing he a ea om G eece o India, published be ween he 16 h cen u y and oday, a y widely in p ojec ion sys ems, making hem di icul o o e lay o c ea e anew map. Technically, Iha e chosen an online base map om ‘maps - o - ee.com’ compa ible wi h ‘google.com/maps’ o my wo k. My map is limi ed o he oponymy o Alexande ’s ime, wi h a ew a e addi ions such as Euc a ideia (Aï Khanoum) and o he ci ies Alexande did no pass h ough o ha we e buil a e him, like An iochia Ma giana, Du a -Eu opos, Ipsus, Asaak, e c. (some a lases ex end ch onologically o include all pa ne s in ol ed in he conques , adding hei ci ies like Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea: see he ecen Pu zge a lases). The p ima y changes Ip opose o he adi ional ca og aphy occu in he eas e n pa o Alexande ’sempi e. These include a ed awing o he bo de s be ween he Cen al Asian sa apies no h o he Hindu Kush (Bac ia, Sogdiana, ‘Scy hia in a ines’), eposi ioning o i e names, and he e ised p oposals o he loca ion o se e al ci ies ( o Bac ia -Sogdiana, see he de ailed map in Fig. 3). In addi ion o he main ou e ollowed by Alexande no h o he Elbu z and Kope -Dagh moun ains, my map includes he Royal Road om Heca ompylos o He a , measu ed by he bema is s (Pl. 2/1C:R) (see below). I also acks mo emen s by o he key igu es such as Da ius (D), Bessus (B), he sa ap o Sogdiana Spi amenes (S) on he I anian -Cen al Asian side, and Pa menion (P), he ambassado De das (D), C a e us (C) and Nea chus (N) on he Macedonian side.13 In he ollowing ex , I oughly ollow Alexande ’s ou e o cla i y choices Iha e made in his ca og aphic ep esen a ion acco ding o hema ic opic, beginning wi h he issue o iden i ying Alexand ias and An iochs, hen ou lining some e ised oponymic iden i ica ions in some o he ou es om Egyp o Hy cania, among he di icul ies ha delayed he conques o India, mo emen in sou he n A ghanis an, and he ca og aphic ep esen a ion o e en s be ween he Hindu Kush and he S eppe, ci ies and ba les on he ou e o conques he e in Cen al Asia, and Alexande ’smo emen s in India. ALEXANDRIAS AND ANTIOCHS F om Egyp o India, he mos amous oponyms o Hellenis ic An iqui y a e he Alexand ias ounded by Alexande . 14 Con a y o he con using lis – likely con aining duplica es– by S ephanus o Byzan ium (s. . Ἀλεξάνδρειαι),15 i seems ha each sa apy o egion had only one Alexand ia, as e idenced by he hi een iden i ied o he cu en map eas o Mesopo amia: 8.2 (based on a a ian o my map da ed 2016–2017); howe e , he gene al Map 8.1 (p.686 o he same s udy) is s ill adi ional. 13 Fo he ep esen a ion o he mili a y mo emen s o o he key igu es in he conques , see Ma inez -Sè e 2017, 12–21. 14 Fo ade ailed analysis o he sou ces, see F ase 1996 (al hough his hypo heses on he iden i i- ca ion o he Alexand ias in Cen al Asia a e no included he e due o ad ances in esea ch since ha publica ion). 15 Fo S ephanus o Byzan ium, he Meineke edi ion o 1849 has been eplaced now by Bille beck’sedi - ion and ansla ion o 2006–2017. Fo Cen al Asia, he commen a y in his la es edi ion does no p opose any co espondence wi h cu en oponymy, bu elies mainly on F ase 1996 (see no e abo e). 137CLAUDE RAPIN Philo as a ai , Alexande mo e p obably a eled h ough he Helmand basin and i s capi al (aconclusion de i ed om Isido us o Cha ax’si ine a y: see abo e). The Me z Epi ome (3) ecalls he same episode conce ning Ba saen es in he passage ‘de eni ad ag os, ubi e a a iobazanes’, e e ing o Alexande ’sa i al in his egion. This passage was e y likely p ese ed a e an excised sec ion om he o iginal sou ce, which mus ha e included he episodes ela ed o A ia and Ph a (see no e 19 abo e). To es o e he o iginal ex , one would need o e e o he e m ‘ag os’ om he D codex, a he han ‘A ios’ om Thomas’sedi ion o ‘D angas’ acco ding o Goukowsky’shypo hesis (1989, 246). ‘A iobazanes’ (a o m de i ed om Sa iba zanes) ins ead o Naba zanes is clea ly an ancien con usion, as he same mis ake ega ding Da ius’sassassins appea s in A ian iii, 21.10, whe e Sa iba zanes is inco ec ly ci ed ins ead o Naba zanes (see no e 27 abo e). Unlike Bessus, Naba zanes, and Ba saen es, Sa iba zanes did no play a ole in Bessus’sconspi acy and was ini ially no pu sued by Alexande , as e idenced by his encoun e wi h Alexande in Susia (see abo e). The episode in ol ing he A iaspians (o A imaspi in he ‘Vulga e’ adi ion: Cu ius ii, 3.1–4), e e ed o as E e ge ae (Sis i 2001/1, 144), canno be p ecisely loca ed. Howe e , i is wo h no ing ha a chaeologically, he egion a ound Za anj is known o signi ican si es such as Dahan -iGhulaman and Kuh -e Khwaja. 32 I Alexande ounded an Alexand ia in Seis an, i is no he one men ioned in he Me z Epi ome 4: ‘ibi oppidum, qua in Indiam i e es , cons i ui e nomen Alexand iam imposui ’ (‘ he e he es ablished a own, on he ou e o India, and named i Alexand ia’). This passage con inues he e en s ollowing a unca ed sec ion, whe e he o iginal sou ce o he Epi ome had likely de ailed he episodes ela ed o he dea h o Sa iba zanes and he conques o A achosia. The e o e, his ‘oppidum, qua in Indiam i e es ’ can only e e o Alexand ia in he Caucasus/Beg am. This me hodological app oach allows o esol ing he p oblema ic conclusions o Be na d (1982, 234) and Goukowsky (1989, 246; Goukowsky 2023, 41–52). Tha said, he con inua ion o he ou e owa ds Beg am mus ha e passed h ough Kan- daha (Alexand ia o A achosia), Ghazni, and Kabul. To oughly loca e hese ci ies, he only p ecise dis ances come om measu emen s aken by he bema is s and men ioned by E a- os henes. These measu emen s we e con adic o ily ep oduced by Pliny and S abo and ha e been he subjec o nume ous analyses (F ase 1996). Re isi ing his s udy o dis ances wi h anew analysis o he ex s, I ound ha he igu es gi en by S abo co espond o he ac ual dis ances be ween Heca ompylos and Beg am (as ac oss oads owa ds India), p o ided ha O ospana is sepa a ed om Kabul/Kabu a (acco ding o P olemy) and iden i ied wi h Ghazni, despi e he ac ha no Hellenis ic si e has been disco e ed in his egion (Rapin 2014, 170, n. 2; Rapin 2017, 38–39, 92–95 and especially Rapin 2018c; Ball 2021). O iginally, O ospana may indeed ha e been spelled *O yospana (de i ed om U ā, which in A es an geog aphy p obably e- e ed o he egion o Ghazni) (Rapin 2018c, 149–150, 154–156, 172–173). This hypo hesis was u he suppo ed by F. G ene (G ene 2018, 173–174) in alinguis ic analysis o he su ix -spana, which i s well wi h he geog aphical si ua ion o Ghazni as a‘pos al s a ion’. This hy- po hesis sugges s ha O ospana/Ghazni belongs o he basin o he A acho os i e and no o he Pa opamisadae. This s op a Ghazni, which S abo and P olemy mis akenly iden i ied wi h Kabul, did no a ac he a en ion o ancien his o ians, pa icula ly because i could no ha e been an Alexand ia, as he e was al eady one in Kandaha , wi hin he same p o ince o A achosia. This iden i ica ion o ‘O ospana in A achosia’ (o ‘pos al s a ion in U wā’) also 32 On he ch onology o his si e, some i y kilome es wes o Za anj, see S. Ghanila i, in Encyclopaedia I anica, 2015, s. . Kuh -e Kᵛāja. 138 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 ules ou aconnec ion be ween he name Ghazni and ha o Gazaca (Fon aine 1977, 118, n. 252), which P olemy ( i, 18) and Ammianus Ma cellinus (xxiii, 70) placed in he Pa opamis- adae. Finally, as asign o he usual con usions ela ed o he connec ion wi h India, i can be no ed ha he His o ische A las de an iken Wel 2007 seemingly con used he eal Alexand ia/ Beg am wi h he alse Alexand ia/Ghazni ( om he olde edi ions o he Pu zge a lases) by posi ioning he la e as ac oss oads owa ds India. Despi e he e idence we ha e oday, he ou e leading owa ds Bac ia emains ela i ely unclea in mos ancien his o ical accoun s. Upon inally eaching he oo hills o he Hindu Kush a Beg am, Alexande ounded Alexand ia o he Caucasus, whe e he se led in p epa- a ion o his passage in o Bac ia. The ci y’sloca ion is e y aguely men ioned by his o ians. A ian (iii, 28.4) does no speci y ha he ci y he ounded du ing he win e o 330–329 BC also se ed as ac oss oads o India, as shown by he da a om he bema is s. Rega ding his second passage h ough he same a ea in 327 BC, a e he ope a ions in Bac ia -Sogdiana, A ian s ill does no speci y he geog aphical posi ion o he ci y bu men ions ha Alexande hen eached he ci y o Nicaea and he i e o Kabul (i , 22.3–6). His o ians a e he e o e unable o unde s and ha he ou e aken owa ds India in 327 BC was h ough he lowe Panjshi Valley, whe e Nicaea should be loca ed, and ha he junc ion wi h he Kabul Ri e mus ha e occu ed a leas i y kilome es eas o Kabul. I is his lack o p ecision in A ian’saccoun , combined wi h S abo’se o s, ha has led mos mode n maps– including he la es edi ions o he Pu zge a las– o mis akenly ma k Kabul as he c oss oads o India. The loca ion o his Alexand ia is e en mo e con using in he amewo k o he ‘my hical Caucasus’ p esen ed by ulga e his o ians like Diodo us (x ii, 83), Cu ius ( ii, 3.23), and he Me z Epi ome (4). These sou ces sugges ha his Alexand ia was ounded a he oo o he no he n slope o he Hindu Kush and ail o acknowledge ha Alexande passed h ough i again in 327 BC.33 This ca og aphic ‘ o a ion’ in he Vulga e (which Iha e explo ed in p e ious s udies: see sup a no es 7–8 and Fig. 2) would make i unnecessa y o posi he exis ence o ano he Alexand ia on he no he n ace o he Hindu Kush. No ancien sou ce explici ly s a es ha his Alexand ia was he c oss oads o India, excep indi ec ly in Pliny ( i, 62) and, mo e no ably, in he passage ‘ibi oppidum, qua in Indiam i e es ’ om he Me z Epi ome (4), as discussed ea lie . Howe e , as wi h Diodo us and Cu ius, i is ce ain ha he unca ed sou ce o he Epi ome had men ioned his ‘oppidum’ a e he accoun o c ossing he Caucasus a he beginning o 329 BC and a i ing in ‘Media,’ whe e Alexande c ossed he ‘ i e o he Medes’ a Ta man is. To unde s and he cohe ence o he Me z Epi ome 4, one mus also adop , wi hou modi- ica ion, he a ian s om codex D ha we e no accep ed by Thomas: ‘pe eni ad oppidum a man idem, quod es posi um in lumine medo um’ and ejec he eading ‘pa opamisada um’ p oposed by Thomas and adop ed by P.Be na d (1982, 235). ANew Ca og aphy Be ween he Hindu Kush and he S eppe Alexande ’s ou e no h o he Hindu Kush has been he subjec o he g ea es his o ical unce ain ies.34 In he 19 h cen u y, his led o inaccu a e specialised maps (Tomaschek 1877, Sogdiana An iquissima map; Schwa z 1893), which, in la e a lases, educed Alexande ’s ou e in he egion o asimple line leading s aigh o Sama kand and Alexand ia Escha e (as being on he Sy Da ya), o o asligh ly mo e complex ne wo k o ague i ine a ies. Addi ionally, 33 Be na d 1982; Goukowsky 1989; Boswo h 1980/1, 369–370; Sis i 2001/1, 546–547. 34 Rapin e al. 2006; Rapin 2013; 2014; 2018a; 2021; 2023. 139CLAUDE RAPIN some maps exagge a ed he dis ances, adding hund eds o e en housands o kilome es o he epo ed jou neys o Alexande , his gene als, and hei ad e sa ies.35 Some i ine a ies ex- end wes wa d o include he egion o he Oxus up o Bukha a (which is iden i ied as ano he Bac a o as P olemy’sT ibac a, hough Ido no conside i pa o he a ea conque ed by Alexande ), o e en as a as he Mu ghab Del a, and eas wa d o he uppe Wakhsh, whe e he ‘Rock o Cho ienes’ is conside ed by some, in my iew e oneously, o be loca ed (see below), o u he eas o he uppe Da ya -iPanj, whe e an unde ined Alexand ia is encoun e ed. Aside om a ew names like Bac a, Nau aca, and Ma acanda, mos o he oponyms a e inco ec ly placed, making i di icul o g asp he complexi y o he ope a ions conduc ed in he egion om 329 o 327 BC. To add ess hese issues, Iha e p oposed se e al new hypo heses ocused on analysing bo de s, i e s, ba le si es, and he heo e ical loca ions o ci ies. Toponymy has been ans- mi ed only e y indi ec ly in mode n geog aphy, bu linguis ics can play ac ucial ole. In se e al cases, Iha e bene i ed om hypo heses pu o wa d by linguis ic specialis s such as F an z G ene , Philip Huyse, Pa el Lu ye, and Shaul Shaked.36 SATRAPIES, ‘HYPARCHIES,’ AND THE WORLD OF THE STEPPE The dis ibu ion o e i o y among sa apies, egions, and p o inces is one o he challenges in mapping he p e -Hellenis ic and Hellenis ic pe iods. Indeed, econs uc ing Alexande ’s ou e no h o he Hindu Kush mus i s conside he loca ion o he bounda ies be ween he sa a - pies (Bac ia, Sogdiana, and ‘Scy hia in a ines’) and he poli ical -adminis a i e limi s o he ‘hypa chies,’ namely he local go e no ships iden i ied mainly in Sogdiana and cen ed a ound oases:37 Za iaspa/Ze a shan, Xenippa, Nau aca, Pa i acene, Oxiana, Bubacene, e c. Since he mid-19 h cen u y, ag owing numbe o schola s ha e a i icially es ablished he Hissa ange as he no he n bounda y o Bac ia, e e ing o he en i e igh bank o he Amu Da ya and Da ya -iPanj as ‘No he n Bac ia.’ In o he wo ds, hey conside Bac ia o be synonymous wi h he Oxus basin ups eam o Kili . In his 1833 wo k, D oysen does no seem o ha e clea ly de ined he loca ion o his bound- a y line o speci ied he sa apy o which Pa i acene belonged. Ge man a lases such as hose by Sp une and Menke (1845–1860) ini ially p esen ambiguous bounda y lines, bu since 1877, all Pu zge a lases ha e clea ly placed he bounda y be ween he wo sa apies along he Hissa ange. Howe e , he s udy o sou ces om Alexande ’s ime o ha o Claudius P olemy shows ha , om he Achaemenid pe iod h ough he Seleucid e a (and possibly he G aeco -Bac ian pe iod38), he sepa a ion be ween Bac ia and Sogdiana was aligned wi h he Oxus, de ined o he wes and sou h by he Amu Da ya and o he eas by he Wakhsh. 35 See in pa icula he map published in he Cu ius’ edi ion o The Loeb Classical Lib a y (Rol e 1946/1976). 36 Fo linguis ic app oaches o Cen al Asian oponymy o he Hellenis ic pe iod, see o example G ene , in G ene – Rapin 2001; Lu ye 2004. The Achaemenid pa chmen s om Bac ia published by Na eh– Shaked 2012 a e among he mos impo an p ima y sou ces o he geog aphy o Bac ia -Sogdiana a he end o he Achaemenid pe iod and du ing he eign o Alexande . 37 In his ecen s udy on Bac ia -Sogdiana, P.B ian (2020) o e s an impo an syn hesis on he Achaemenid o ganisa ion o he Cen al Asian sa apies and p esen s some nuances– summa ised on p.39– ega ding my econs i u ion o he hie a chy o powe in Sogdiana. 38 Jus in xli, 6.3 men ions he wa s led by Euc a ides Iagains he Sogdians, sugges ing ha he did no o e look Sogdiana as pa o Hellenic e i o y. 140 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 In An iqui y, i was al eady es ablished ha Sogdiana ex ended no hwa ds o he Sy Da ya/Iaxa es, al hough Iha e sugges ed ha , in eali y, his e i o y was geog aphically bounded by Ga es o Tame lane no heas o Sama kand. The a ea co esponding o Us- ushana be ween hese Ga es nea Jizak and he Sy Da ya could he e o e be conside ed an independen egion om Sogdiana, a‘sa apy’ go e ned by Saka (Cu ius ii, 9.17), which Iwould designa e as ‘Scy hia in a ines.’ These Saka, whose ca al y was engaged a Gaugamela, did no ac ually all unde he con ol o Bessus (and he e o e no o Bac ia -Sogdiana) bu we e p esen ed as allies o Da ius III (A ian iii, 8.3); hey co espond o he Saka in eg a ed in o he empi e by Cy us and hus o he Saka Hauma a ga o Da ius I’s ime, namely he Amy gian Sakas -Scy hians o He odo us ( ii, 64) (Rapin 2018a, 271–274; Rapin 2018b; Rapin 2021, 343–349). Independen om he capi als Bac a and Ma acanda, his ‘Scy hia’ had i s capi al a Ky escha a/Cy opolis un il i s des uc ion by Alexande . In he Seleucid pe iod, he name An ioch o Scy hia (c . S ephanus o Byzan ium, s. . Ἀντιόχεια) could ep esen ano he oponymic emnan o his o go en sa apy.39 Unlike he Saka o Us ushana, he Scy hians on he igh bank o he Sy Da ya emained independen a e Cy us’sdea h. They con inued o main ain hei independence du ing Al- exande ’s ime, despi e his a emp s o enc oach upon he egion. In la e ca og aphy, hey oughly co espond o he ‘Scy hia wi hin he Imaus moun ains’ o P olemy ( i, 14)– ha is, No he n Cen al Asia, including he Ze a shan Valley a e he all o Hellenis ic powe – o he wes , and o he ‘Saka’ o P olemy ( i, 13)– ha is, he Scy hians o he Wakhan and he Pami , whose e i o y ex ended up o he la e ‘S one Towe ’– o he eas (see analysis in Rapin 2021, 349–356, wi h e e ences). As he G eeks also knew he i e by he name o Tanais, hese Scy hians on he igh bank a e e e ed o as ‘Eu opean’. Symme ically, he Scy hians on he le bank o he lowe Sy Da ya a e e e ed o as ‘Asia ic.’ These Scy hians es ablished close ies wi h he Achaemenids and we e known in Da ius I’sgeog aphy as he ‘Saka Tig akhauda’ ( he ‘O hoko yban oi Sky hai’ o He odo us III, 92) (Rapin, 2018a, 269–272; Rapin, 2018b, 32–36). I is among hese Scy hians– and no he ‘Eu opean’ ones o he igh bank o he Sy Da ya– ha Alexande sen adelega e, De das, in 329 BC, who e u ned he ollowing yea o Sama kand wi h a iendly Scy hian delega ion (Pl. 2/1C:E). Con a y o wha adi ional maps show and wha can be in e ed om A ian, in my iew i is unlikely ha Alexande eached Bukha a, loca ed 250 km wes o Sama kand (his maximum dis ance om Sama kand p obably did no exceed 40–120 km), du ing his pu sui o Spi amenes in 329 BC.Ins ead, Spi amenes ook his ou e as a as he Khwa ezmians, who, howe e , e used o assis him o main ain good ela ions wi h Alexande (Pl. 2/1C:S). THE RIVERS OXUS AND OCHUS While exca a ing a he Sogdian I on Ga es a De ben , Iobse ed ha in sp ing 328 BC Al- exande could only ha e passed h ough his de ile om he eas . This obse a ion led me o hypo hesise ha he Ochus, which Alexande c ossed on his way o hese ga es (Cu ius ii, 39 Rapin, 2023, 467–468, n. 54. Fo his An ioch ( he en h in S ephanus o Byzan ium), see also he lis o sou ces in F ase 1996, 33. The con ex o his ci y is mos p obably Cen al Asian, con a y o Bille beck 2006/1, 215, n. 491, who limi s he commen o Jacoby’se oneous hypo hesis, acco ding o which his An ioch was he An ioch in P opon is men ioned by Pliny (V, 151). 141CLAUDE RAPIN 10.15 and Me z Epi ome 14), was loca ed in Eas e n Bac ia.40 F. G ene subsequen ly p oposed iden i ying his i e wi h he Da ya -iPanj, a i ming ea lie hypo heses (G ene – Rapin 2001, 79–81). The s udy o hyd onyms e eals ha he e we e wo i e s wi h he name Ochus, which can be iden i ied espec i ely wi h he A ek, lowing in o he Caspian Sea, and he Da ya -iPanj, which joins he Oxus nea Takh -i Sangin. The ancien name o he A ek has been he subjec o much ca og aphic specula ion. The mos common heo y is based on S abo’sdesc ip ion (xi, 8.1), which sugges s ha he ou e o he Ochus mus i s c oss he i e Sa nius, ma king he bounda y be ween Hy cania and he dese . As shown by he e olu ion o Pu zge ’sa lases, he iden i ica ion o he Sa nius wi h he A ek and, consequen ly, he Ochus wi h he Tejen and Ha i Rud u he eas , became es ablished in mode n ca og aphy by he la e 19 h cen u y and emains so oday. Howe e , i should be no ed ha S abo did no speci y ha he Ochus was an ex ension o he A ius, no ha i cons i u ed he main i e o A ia in i s en i e y. I we also conside ha S abo’s ex may ha e been dis up ed by alacuna (c . Lasse e 1975, 82, n. 2), i is mo e easonable o asse ha he Ochus is mo e likely o co espond o he A ek, while he Sa nius co esponds o he Gu gan Ri e . Meanwhile, he A ius would co espond o he combined Tejen/Ha i Rud (Ba ing on A las 2000, 1358) a he han he E ymand us/Helmand (Fon aine 1977, 116, n. 249). I can hus be hypo hesised ha he A ia ex ended longi udinally along his i e in o he dese sands o he no h, simila ly o how i also included he la e al alley o he Kasa Rud, which d ains he Susia plain.41 The p ecise iden i ica ion o he eas e n Ochus in Bac ia– along wi h ecognising he Wakhsh i e as he uppe Oxus– is one key o esol ing some con usion abou Alexan- de ’ssecond jou ney om Bac a o Sama kand. In he sp ing o 328 BC, he would ha e hen c ossed eas e n Bac ia o supp ess he Sogdian up ising by bypassing i om he sou heas , pa icula ly h ough he plain o Aï Khanoum. F om he Me z Epi ome 14 (‘Deinde pos diem undecimum ad lumen Ochum pe eni . id ansi ’), i is possible, indeed, o deduce ha Al- exande may ha e passed h ough his si e. The ele en -day ma ch eas wa d be o e c ossing he Ochus/Da ya -iPanj co esponds o his dis ance (Rapin 2013, 51). P io o p o iding his dis ance, he Me z Epi ome likely excised om i s sou ce he in o ma ion gi en by Cu ius ( ii, 10.13) ha Alexande had p e iously eached he le bank o he Oxus– nea he con luence wi h he Ka i nigan Ri e – bu wi hou c ossing i , a e ou days om Bac a (Fig. 3). Loca ed a he con luence o he Da ya -iPanj/Ochus and he Kokcha/Da goïdus, and no si ua ed on he Oxus, Aï Khanoum he e o e canno ha e been Alexand ia on he Oxus ( e- ga ding i s name, see abo e). This ci y, he e o e, was no a on ie own ei he , as i s posi ion– midway be ween he ue bounda y wi h Sogdiana on he Wakhsh and Badakhshan– mean i se ed as he capi al o ag ea eas e n Bac ia, pa allel o Bac a in wes e n Bac ia. In con as , loca ed o he wes o he con luence o he Wakhsh/Oxus and Panj/Ochus, and abou ahund ed kilome es wes o Aï Khanoum in as aigh line, he sanc ua y o Takh -iSangin (pe haps Oxiana?) geog aphically belonged o he e i o y o Achaemenid, la e Hellenis ic, Sogdiana. Al hough i was di ec ly linked o he cul o he Oxus, his cen e appealed o bo h he Sogdian and Bac ian popula ions, as sugges ed by i s posi ion on he on ie . 40 The same gene al hypo hesis was o mula ed by Boswo h in 1981, hough i did no succeed in con incing specialis s o he ime (see Boswo h 1995/2, 108, 110). P e iously, he nomencla u e o Cen al Asian i e s a ied in di e se ways (see e e ences in Fon aine 1977, 103–104, n. 227). 41 Goukowsky 1989, 262, n. 31; Boswo h 1995/2, 110. Iini ially adop ed he adi ional hesi a ion conce ning he A ek and he Tejen i e s (Rapin 2017, 47, ig. 3.4), be o e ul ima ely iden i ying he wes e n Ochus wi h he A ek (Rapin, 2018c, 145–146; new map o Hy cania in Rapin 2021, 360, ig. 1). 142 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 Ci ies and Ba les on he Conques Rou e Ca og aphic and oponymic changes a e no limi ed o bo de s and i e s; hey also a ec he posi ions o ci ies and ba le si es. These include he assaul s on he h ee amous ‘ ocks’ ha Alexande is said o ha e cap u ed all in 328 (and no in bo h 328 and 327 BC, as adi ionally asse ed by his o ians 42 ) (Tab.1: Phases II, III, V). A med con lic s also encompassed he sieges o se e al ci ies (whe he imposed o endu ed) as well as ba les in he plains, o en in ol ing ca al y engagemen s. Iwill no e isi he sequence o e en s in he conques ha can be in e ed om his new ca og aphy ( o ha , e e o my bibliog aphy on he subjec ). Ins ead, Iwill poin ou , om sou h o no h, he main new o upda ed loca ions Iconside compa ed o he adi ional ca og aphy o mode n a lases (see, o example, my mo e de ailed map o Bac ia -Sogdiana in Fig. 3). In Bac ia, 43 D epsa (P ol. i, 12) = D apsaka (A . iii, 29.1), Da apsa (S ab. xi, 11.2), o Ad apsa (S ab. x , 2.10), he i s ci y eached a e c ossing he Hindu Kush in 329 BC, is mos p obably loca ed in he Su kh -ko al egion (and no a Qunduz). — Ao nos, he nex ci y, likely co esponds o Qunduz (and no o Tashku gan/Khulm). — Al hough Khulm, he capi al o he Khulmi, was an impo an c oss oads ci y, i is no men ioned by Alexande ’shis o ians. I is om Khulm o Raba ak ( e e ences in Ball 2019, 319, n° 944) and Su kh -ko al, wi hou de ou ing h ough Qunduz, ha Alexande se ou owa ds Beg am in 327 BC, hus aking asho e ou e no h o he Hindu Kush han on his way in (S abo x , 1.26). The e o e, he e is no longe aneed, as in he His o ische A las de an iken Wel (2007), o en isage al e na i e ou es o e u ns h ough passes o he han he Khawak Pass on maps.44 — As sugges ed by he silence o he sou ces, he conques o Bac ia in 329 BC seems o ha e p oceeded almos e o lessly du ing he pu sui o Bessos. Bac a is men ioned only in alimi ed numbe o episodes, as Za iaspa– a oponym used only by A ian– no longe e e s o Bac a bu a he o Sama kand (see below). Pa adoxically, like o he ci ies in Bac ia, Bac a did no expe ience any siege, ei he by Alexande o by Spi amenes, who ne e e u ned o he ci y a e c ossing he Oxus wi h Bessos in 329 BC. Sou ces do no men ion any o he Bac ian ci y, al hough i is likely ha Alexande passed by *Oskoba a, he si e which would la e become Aï Khanoum, o he Achaemenid o ess o Kuhna Qal’a(Ball 2019, 229–230, n° 631), on acli domina ing he Da ya -iPanj one kilome e o he no h (see abo e). Sogdiana is he egion o which, in my iew, he mos oponyms ha e been iden i ied.45 The i s ci y name ela ed o Alexande ’sa i al is Ta man is (Me z Epi ome 4), an Achae- menid se lemen loca ed on he igh bank o he Oxus, likely co esponds o Sho - epe, nea Kampy - epe o he no hwes o Te mez (abo e). Alexande would ha e c ossed he Oxus a his loca ion while pu suing Bessus, he eby en e ing Sogdiana. He hen p oceeded h ough Oxiana o each he I on Ga es du ing his apid campaign o 329 BC up o he Sy Da ya (Tabl. 1: Phase I). 42 In his edi ion o A ian, Goukowsky 2023, 373–375 essen ially aligns himsel wi h Boswo h’sini ial hypo heses. 43 On he geog aphy o la e Achaemenid and Hellenis ic Bac ia, see also Na eh– Shaked 2012, and he ecen syn hesis by Ma inez -Sè e 2021. 44 On P.Be na d’sin en o y o he Hindu Kush passes, see Goukowsky 1989, 264, n. 65. 45 On he a chaeology o Sogdiana, see he syn heses by Lyonne 2021 and S ančo 2021. 143CLAUDE RAPIN The localisa ion o ba les can only be achie ed h ough acompa a i e analysis o sou ces and hei connec ions wi h he e ain condi ions. This o en leads o iden i ying wo dis inc episodes whe e he ex s desc ibe only one, as in he case o he dual de ea in 329 BC o he wo columns ha Alexande sen agains Spi amenes om Us ushana,46 o in he wo in e - en ions o C a e us in 328 BC du ing he e ol o Xenippa and hen du ing he assaul by Spi amenes agains Za iaspa/Ma acanda (e.g., Rapin 2018a, 290–291). This analysis led me o p opose alogical es o a ion o he ch onological o de o e en s ela ed o he h ee ‘ ocks’ cap u ed in Sogdiana (see abo e and Tab.1).47 In he sp ing o 328, all he Sogdian go e no s o he ‘hypa chies’ e ol ed wi hin hei own e i o ies unde he leade ship o Spi amenes, he sa ap o Sogdiana whom Alexande had ous ed om his palace in Sama kand he p e i- ous yea . A e sweeping h ough he sou heas e n pa o Sogdiana along he oo hills o he Hissa ange om eas o wes , he i s ‘ ock’ ha Alexande would ha e cap u ed was ha o Cho ienes, he go e no o he Pa ei akai (Pa i acene) in he uppe Su khan Da ya (Tab.1: Phase II). This o i ied heigh has been join ly iden i ied by se e al a chaeologis s nea Sina, on he ou e be ween Dushanbe and he I on Ga es. Howe e , i is in he capi al o Cho ienes, Gazaba (and no Gabaza), which may co espond o he si e o Kyzyl - epe (Wu 2018; B ian 2020), ha Alexande ’sma iage o Roxane ook place in 327 BC (Tab.1: Phase VII). Sho ly a e , Alexande conque ed Ma ginia (in my iew, he a ea a ound Baysun), which he secu ed wi h o i ica ions (such as Ku ganzol [S e chko 2008], e c.). The ‘ ock’ o A imazes, go e no o Oxiana,48 whose cap u e occu ed in 328 BC, immedia ely ollowing he de ea o Cho ienes, was p obably loca ed a ound he I on Ga es pass nea De ben , in line wi h se e al mode n hypo heses (Tab.1: Phase III). In cen al Sogdiana (Kashka Da ya), wo ci ies played amajo ole: Nau aca (Kish, nea Shah -iSabz), go e ned by Sisimi h es, whe e Bessus was cap u ed in 329 BC.49 In 328, Si- simi h es ook up posi ion on a hi d ‘ ock’ (p obably Moun Kapkagly -auzy, wes o he De ben on ie ), in a ain a emp o esis and block Alexande ’scommunica ions wi h he sou h (Tab.1: Phase V). Xenippa (logically, p obably E ku gan, nea Ka shi), go e ned by Da aphe nes, was a he cen e o wo e ol s in 328 wi h he help o Dahae ca al y (Tab.1: Phase IV). Fu he no h, he p oposed iden i ica ion o wo oponyms– Za iaspa and Gabae– sug- ges ha he Ze a shan Plain played amo e signi ican ole han his o ians ha e suspec ed. Con a y o along -held belie da ing back o An iqui y, Za iaspa is no ano he name o Bac a bu e e s o Ma acanda. 50 This iden i ica ion necessi a es eloca ing impo an e en s adi ionally a ibu ed o Bac ia o he Ze a shan and Kashka Da ya egion. 46 On he wo ba le loca ions o he no heas and wes o Sama kand, and Alexande ’spu sui o Spi amenes, see Rapin 2017, 97–98; Rapin 2018a, 274–275, 284–286; Rapin 2023, 466–467; con a Goukowsky 2023, 123. 47 Fo a‘ adi ional’ ca og aphy o he cap u e o he ‘ ocks,’ see, o example, he His o ische A las de an iken Wel 2007 and ecen Pu zge a lases, and simila ly Goukowsky 2023, 143–152. 48 I was mo eo e on he e i o y o A imazes ha Alexande ounded Alexand ia Oxiana a an unde e mined da e (see abo e). 49 A ian’sdesc ip ion o he place o cap u e a Nau aca coincides wi h Cu ius’ desc ip ions o he ci y o he B anchidae. The e o e, Isugges loca ing his a es in he o i ied sanc ua y o Sangi - epe, which is si ua ed ou side he walls o Uzunki /Padaya ak - epe: see Rapin 2021, 338, n. 109. On he name o Kish, he ci y encompassing hese h ee si es, see Na eh– Shaked 2012, 21, 22, 25, 28. 50 See Go shenina– Rapin 2015; Rapin 2018a; wi h a inal syn hesis in Rapin 2023; con a Goukowsky 2023, 31–32. 144 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 The ci y o Gabae men ioned by A ian (mos likely in he lacuna o i , 5.351 and in i , 17.4) has o en been iden i ied wi h Gabaza (abo e) o posi ioned wes o Bukha a unde he name ‘Bagae’, especially in Ge man maps ollowing he publica ion o D oysen’ssyn hesis in 1833 (p.341). Howe e , Gabae seems mo e likely o be iden i ied wi h he ci y o Kok epe,52 si ua ed ali le no h o Sama kand, a he edge o he s eppe. I was he e ha Spi amenes may ha e es ablished his base wi h his Massage ae ca al y un il his inal de ea and dea h du ing he win e o 328/327 BC (Tab.1: Phase VI). Mo eo e , ‘Gabae’ would co espond o ‘Ga a’ in A es an geog aphy, which also applies o Kok epe, as i s pla eau was he si e o amajo sanc ua y in he p e -Achaemenid and Achae- menid pe iods. This iden i ica ion seems o me o be u he s eng hened by he ac ha he imposing dimensions o he ou e wall o Kok epe make i one o he la ges u ban complexes on he Ze a shan plain, which would ha e ep esen ed he i s capi al o Sogdiana be o e he ounda ion o Sama kand by Da ius Iin he 530s BC (Rapin 2017; Rapin 2018a, 263, 267, 273–275, 277, 284–286, 292; Rapin 2018b). In India Alexande ’sen y in o India was ma ked by se e al s ages no shown on he cu en map.53 Descending om Beg am h ough he lowe Panshi Valley o he Kabul Ri e , Alexande would ha e likely mo ed up he Laghman (indica ed he e on he igh bank sho ly a e c ossing he bo de be ween he Pa opamisadae and India) o each he egion o Nysa. Then, a e a e sing he Kuna Valley owa ds he uppe Swa , eaching O a/Udeg am and Bazi a/ Bi ko , Alexande would ha e p oceeded sou hwa d, passing along he eas e n lank o Moun Ao nus. This moun ain, used as as onghold by he Indians, is adi ionally iden i ied wi h Pi Sa on he igh bank o he uppe Indus (including he ecen Pu zge maps), al hough I alian a chaeologis s ha e long p oposed iden i ying i mo e logically wi h Moun Ilam on he le bank o he uppe Swa . A e ha ing c ossed Dy a and Embolima ( o he sou h o Moun Ilam), Alexande would ha e inally c ossed he Indus sou h o he Ouandabanda egion54 o each Taxila, whe e he local king was al eady wai ing o him. In he plains o he Indus, he na u al en i onmen makes any ma e ial iden i ica ion o he ci ies ha came in o con ac wi h Alexande e y di icul , and one can only make con- jec u es abou he gene al oponymy inhe i ed om G aeco -Roman his o ians. Acco ding o hese au ho s, Bucephala and Nicaea, he wo ci ies ounded in he kingdom o Po us a e his de ea , we e si ua ed acing each o he on he banks o he Hydaspes/Jhelum. I we assume ha each sa apy had only one Alexand ia, hen only he i s o hese ci ies, Bucephala, could ha e bo ne he i le o Alexand ia. The geog aphy o he egions a e sed a e he ounding o Bucephala and Nicaea is based p ima ily on men ions o kingdoms a he han p ecisely loca able ci ies, as he opog aphy o he Indus plain is belie ed o ha e changed o e ime, pa icula ly in he cou se o he i e s. 51 Fo apaleog aphic eading e e ing o Gabae, see Rapin 2018a, 274. Goukowsky 2023, 166 and 361, no e 62, ins ead ills he gap wi h a ague e m: τὰ ἀβασίλευτα: ‘ owa ds he egions o Sogdiana ha did no depend on he G ea King’. 52 See he syn hesis o his ci y and Sogdiana in Lyonne 2021. 53 Desc ip ion and e e ences in Rapin 2018c; Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2. Fo he map o he ou e om Beg am o Taxila, see my new a ian comple ed a e Colo u– Oli ie i 2019, in Rapin 2021, 363, ig. 5. Fo he geog aphy o no h -wes e n India, see also he ecen wo ks by Colo u 2021 and Oli ie i 2021. 54 P olemy loca ed his egion in Sogdiana, bu nea he bo de wi h India: see Rapin 2018c, 161, 165–166. 145CLAUDE RAPIN The kingdom o Abisa es would be loca ed o he no heas o ha o Po us, in he oo hills o he Himalayas ups eam o he Acesines/Chenab (Cu ius ix, 1.7). The e i o y be ween his i e and he Hyd ao es included he ealm o he ‘bad’ Po us (Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 499), which Alexande would la e ans e o he ‘good’ Po us. Beyond he Hyd ao es/Ra i (Boswo h 1995/2, 326), he main ci y is Sangala, which may be iden i ied wi h Am i sa o Laho e a he han Sialko (Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 500). Rega ding he adjacen egions, his o ians di e on he exac loca ion o he Ca haei and he kingdom o Sopei hes/Sophi es. Alexande ceased o ad ance eas wa d, mo ing pa allel o he oo hills o he Himalayas, when he eached he banks o he Hyphasis/Bias. He e ec ed wel e al a s, which canno be si ua ed u he sou h han he con luence o he Hyphasis and he Za ad us/Su lej. His deci- sion was ein o ced by epo s o he p esence u he eas o he powe ul people known as he Ganga ides/Ganda ides/Ganda i es (app oxima ely posi ioned on he map). These likely co esponded o he powe ul Nanda dynas y (345–322 BC), which, du ing Alexande ’s ime, ex ended i s dominance o e he Ganges basin (Boswo h 1995/2, 325; A kinson– Ga giulo 2000/2, 531; Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 500). Re u ning o he Hydaspes/Jhelum, Alexande o ganised he descen o he Indus o hen esume his jou ney wes wa d. I is di icul o loca e he ou Indian Alexand ias men ioned by S ephanus o Byzan ium in he Punjab and along he Indus, as his lis is con using (5 h, 6 h, 7 h?, and 14 h) and ha d o in e p e . Addi ionally, his o ians like A ian and he Vulga e do no seem o ha e p ese ed he same episodes in hei na a i es, u he complica ing he iden i ica ion o hese ci ies. Sou h o Mul an, he capi al o he Mallians nea he sou he n bo de o hei e i o y, he only Alexand ia ha can be app oxima ely loca ed was es ablished a Uch, on acon lu- ence ha in An iqui y co esponded o he mee ing o he Indus and he Acesines/Chenab i e s. F om his posi ion, i con olled he sou he n end o he Punjab (Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 539). I is o en iden i ied wi h Alexand ia in Opiane, known as he i h Alexand ia in S ephanus o Byzan ium’slis , and his may be he ci y e e ed o by Cu ius ix, 8.8 and Diodo us x ii, 102.4. Indeed, acco ding o Goukowsky (1989, 250–251), Opiane was unlikely o ha e co esponded o he Beg am plain, as Be na d (1982, 232, 239–240) and F ase (1996, 143, 148–150) ha e a gued.55 Aconnec ion wi h he Indian people o he Opiai men ioned by Heca aeus (S ephanus o Byzan ium, s. . Ὠπίαι) may s eng hen he localisa ion o he Opiane nea he Indus (Goukowsky, ibid.). I is also di icul o asce ain he iden i y o he se en een h Alexand ia men ioned by S ephanus o Byzan ium as ‘in Sogdiana nea he Pa opamisadae (ἐν τῇ Σογδιανῇ παρὰ Παροπαμισάδαις).’ The men ion o he Pa opamisadae usually e e s o Alexand ia/Beg am (A ian i , 22.3), while he loca ion in Sogdiana e okes bo h Alexand ia Oxiana and Alexand ia Escha e o Claudius P olemy. Howe e , he amalgama ion o hese epi he s can also e e o Alexand ia Escha e alone, i one akes in o conside a ion Claudius P olemy’sca og aphical scheme, whe e his ci y is assigned owa ds he sou heas e n ex emi y o Sogdiana, nea bo h he Caucasus and he Pa opamisadae.56 The eigh een h Alexand ia, de ined as ‘on he Tanais’ as i appea s in P olemy’s hi d book, is usually iden i ied wi h Claudius P olemy’sAlexand ia Escha e, loca ed in p esen - -day Us ushana, in he egion o he Iaxa es (Sy Da ya), a i e ha Alexande ’shis o ians, such as A ian (i , 1.3), e e ed o as Tanais. By e e encing P olemy’s hi d book, S ephanus o Byzan ium did no mean P olemy Lagus and his los his o y o Alexande , bu seems o 55 Iha e also p e iously e oneously accep ed his hypo hesis: Rapin 2014, 145, n. 1. 56 As p oposed by Bille beck 2006/1, 144–145. 146 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 ha e ins ead e oneously ci ed he geog aphe ’swell -known hi d book, in which chap e 5 does no desc ibe he Sy Da ya, bu he Eu opean Don, and includes he ic i ious ‘Alexand i a ae.’57 The e o e, he se en een h Alexand ia appea s—a leas pa ially—as adouble o he eigh een h. Among he e en s sou h o his con luence, A ian i, 15.4 is he only sou ce o men ion he capi al o he Sogds (possibly Rajanpu , acco ding o A kinson– Ga giulo 2000/2, 540; Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 540), hen he o i ica ion o one o hei ci ies (possibly nea Kashmo , acco ding o Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 540–541). His o ical sou ces hen ag ee on he expedi ion agains he Musicani (A ian i, 15.5; Cu ius ix, 8.8; Diodo us x ii, 102.5) and neighbou ing kingdoms. Thus, Sindimana, he capi al o Sambos cap u ed du ing hese ope a ions, is adi ionally loca ed a Sehwan, bu o he hypo heses ha e also been p oposed (A kinson– Ga giulo 2000/2, 546; Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 543). Simila ly, he exac loca ion o Pa ala emains unce ain (A kinson– Ga giulo 2000/2, 548; Sis i– Zamb ini 2/2004, 546). The exac da e and loca ion o C a e us’sdepa u e wes wa d, possibly wi h he mission o add essing issues on he ou e be o e joining Alexande in Ca mania, a e p oblema ic due o an e o by A ian (Boswo h 1976, 127–129). This depa u e likely occu ed a e he dea h o Musicanus. I is possible ha C a e us le om Musicanus’scapi al, Alo /Roh i (A kin- son– Ga giulo 2000/2, 545), and ook he di ec ou e o Alexand ia o A achosia, hen o Alexand ia o D angiana (Alexand opolis nea Za anj). The ansi ion om he Indus plain o A achosia can be made h ough wo main passes: he Mulla Pass and he Bolan Pass. Maps, such as hose by Pu zge , o en depic awinding ou e h ough bo h passes. Howe e , since his ou e canno be ollowed con inuously, one mus choose be ween he wo passes. I C a e us did indeed depa om Alo , he mos likely c ossed he Bolan Pass, which is he mo e di ec ou e. Howe e , i is no ou o he ques ion ha he migh ha e aken ade ou h ough he Mulla Pass, pa icula ly o logis ical easons ela ed o managing his elephan s (A ian i, 17.3; F ase 1989, 179; Sis i– Zamb ini 2004/2, 541–542, 545). As he Indus del a was eached, Nea chus di ec ed his lee om Alexand ou Limen wes - wa d along he coas o he Indian Ocean, while Alexande began his e u n owa ds Ged osia and Ca mania. His o e land ou e s a ed a Rhambacia, co esponding o Alexand ia o he O i ai among he Ich hyophagi, lis ed as he ou h Alexand ia by S ephanus o Byzan ium.58 Alexande ollowed he coas o he Indian Ocean a a ying dis ances, depending on he e- cons uc ions. Acco ding o acon incing e sion p oposed by Au el S ein, Alexande migh ha e app oached he coas om he ci y o Tu ba be o e mo ing no hwa d o Pu a and Alexand ia o Ca mania (S ein 1943, 220; F ase 1996, 165–167). Howe e , i emains unclea whe he Alexand ia in Maka ene was ounded in his egion along he ocean sho e.59 57 In he commen and ansla ion o S ephanus o Byzan ium’seigh een h Alexand ia, Bille beck 2006/1, 144–145 p esen s an ambiguous posi ion. In bo h G eek and Ge man e sions o he ex , she e e s o P olemy Lagus’ FG His 138F 31, and ag ees wi h Jacoby’sopinion acco ding o which his Tanais co esponds o he Don (p.145: ‘Das ach zehn e <be inde sich> am Tanais [Don], eine G ündung Alexande s, wie P olemaios im d i en Buch <de Geschich e Alexande s des G ossen> [FG His 138F 31] angib ’). Below he G eek ex (p.144), howe e , she e e s o A ian and he Asia ic Tanais: ‘Alexand ia p ope Tanaim lumen si a’ A . An. i , 1.3. 58 Fo he loca ion o Rhambacia, whe he inland owa ds Las Bela o close o he sho e, see F ase 1996, 164–165 and A kinson– Ga giulo 2000/2, 552. Fo he ou e om he Indus del a o Rham- bacia, see Biagi 2017. See also Bille beck 2006/1, 145, n. 268. 59 I he cu en ansc ip ion is co ec , Alexand ia in Maka ene– he hi een h Alexand ia lis ed by S ephanus o Byzan ium– may ha e been loca ed in Ged osia and e e ed o Mak an (Achae- 153CLAUDE RAPIN R eladze 2019 = Ртвеладзе, Э.В.: Александрия Оксианская ‑Кампыртепа Город ‑крепость на берегу Окса. Ташкент. Schaede , H.H. 1997: Sāwa. Encyclopaedia o Islam. New Edi ion 9. Leiden, 85–87. on Schwa z, F. 1893: Alexande des G ossen Feldzüge in Tu kes an. Kommen a zu den Geschich swe ken des Fla ius A ianus und Q. Cu ius Ru us au G und ieljäh ige Reisen im ussischen Tu kes an und den ang en‑ zenden Lände n. München [S u ga 1906]. Sis i, F. 2001: A iano: Anabasi di Alessand oI. Lib i I–III. Roma– Milano. Sis i, F.– Zamb ini, A. 2004: A iano: Anabasi di Alessand oII. Lib i IV–VII ( es o c i ico e aduzione acu a di F. Sis i; commen o acu a di F. Sis i e A. Zamb ini). Roma– Milano. S ančo, L. 2021: Sou he n Uzbekis an. In: Mai s ed. 2021, 249–285. 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(ed.) 1966: Ince i auc o is epi oma e um ges a um Alexand i Magni cum Lib o de mo e es amen oque Alexand i. Leipzig (1s ed. 1960). S ephanus o Byzan ium, E hnica. C . Bille beck 2006–2017; Meineke 1849. S abo. C . Lasse e 1975. Claude Rapin AO Oc–UMR 8546: CNRS, ENS, 45, ue d’Ulm, F–750015 Pa is and Uni e si y o Lausanne cl [email protected] 228 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 Pl. 2/1: New gene al map o Alexande ’sempi e (map by C. Rapin; Augus 2024). 229PLATES Pl. 2/1 A: Wes . 230 STUDIA HERCYNIA XXVIII/2 Pl. 2/1 B: Cen e. 231PLATES Pl. 2/1C: Eas .