Coping strategies against peer victimization: differences according to gender, grade, victimization status and perceived classroom social climate

sus ainabili y A icle Coping S a egies agains Pee Vic imiza ion: Di e ences Acco ding o Gende , G ade, Vic imiza ion S a us and Pe cei ed Class oom Social Clima e Ma ía-Jesús Ca a 1,* , Es e Ayllón2and Inés Tomás3   Ci a ion: Ca a, M.-J.; Ayllón, E.; Tomás, I. Coping S a egies agains Pee Vic imiza ion: Di e ences Acco ding o Gende , G ade, Vic imiza ion S a us and Pe cei ed Class oom Social Clima e. Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605. h ps:// doi.o g/10.3390/su13052605 Academic Edi o : Cecilia Ruiz Es eban Recei ed: 29 Decembe 2020 Accep ed: 24 Feb ua y 2021 Published: 1 Ma ch 2021 Publishe ’s No e: MDPI s ays neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and ins i u ional a il- ia ions. Copy igh : © 2021 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1Depa men o Social Psychology, Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain 2 Depa men o Psychology and Sociology, Facul y o Human Sciences and Educa ion, Uni e si y o Za agoza, 22003 Huesca, Spain; eayllon@uniza .es 3Depa men o Me hodology o he Beha iou al Sciences, Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o Valencia, 46010 Valencia, Spain; Ines.Tomas@u .es *Co espondence: Ma ia.J.Ca a@u .es Abs ac : The Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) include “Good Heal h and Well-being” (SDG3) and “Quali y Educa ion” (SDG4). Ne e heless, many s uden s canno achie e hese goals i hey su e pee ic imiza ion a hei schools, and in e en ion p og ams o educe i a e necessa y. These p og ams should conside he possible di e ences in he coping s a egies p e e ed by s uden s acco ding o some pe sonal (e.g., gende , g ade, ic imiza ion s a us) and con ex ual (e.g., pe cei ed class oom social clima e) ac o s o be mo e e ec i e. The e o e, he objec i e o his s udy was o analyze he possible di e ences in he coping s a egies p e e ed by s uden s (ask a iend o help, ask a eache o help, ask pa en s o help, no ask anyone o help, igh ing back, a oid he agg esso and ask he agg esso why) o handle si ua ions o ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion acco ding o hei gende , school g ade, ic imiza ion s a us and pe cei ed class oom social clima e. The sample comp ised 479 s uden s (52.2% boys, 47.8% gi ls) aged om 9 o 14 yea s (M= 11.21, SD = 1.5 2). The esul s showed ha gi ls chose he s a egies o asking iends o adul s o help and asking he agg esso why mo e han boys, while boys chose he s a egies o igh ing back and no ask anyone o help mo e han gi ls. The coping s a egy o asking a eache o help was p e e ed mo e by s uden s o lowe school g ades and by s uden s wi h a posi i e pe cep ion o he class oom clima e. Vic imized s uden s p e e ed he s a egy o no asking anyone o help. These esul s may be use ul o de eloping mo e e ec i e in e en ion p og ams. These p og ams should aim o enhance he eache –s uden ela ionship in uppe school g ades, help ic imized s uden s o in o m abou pee agg ession si ua ions and imp o e pe cei ed class oom social clima e. Keywo ds: coping s a egies; pee ic imiza ion; gende ; school g ade; class oom social clima e 1. In oduc ion The Uni ed Na ions 2030 agenda includes, among i s 17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs), “Good Heal h and Well-being” (SDG 3) and he “Quali y Educa ion” (SDG 4). All s uden s should ha e he igh o a quali y educa ion ha includes p omo ing in hem he alues o peace ul coexis ence and espec among pee s in a social en i onmen whe e hey eel sa e and do no su e iolence. Howe e , many s uden s su e pee ic imiza ion a hei schools, which se iously a ec s bo h hei psychosocial well-being and hei abili y o concen a e on lea ning asks [ 1 – 4 ]. Pee ic imiza ion is conside ed a majo heal h p oblem wi h se ious nega i e consequences o many child en and adolescen s [ 1 – 4 ]. This ic imiza ion includes any ac o agg ession by simila ly aged pee s and can be epea ed in ime [ 4 ]. Pee ic imiza ion can occu ei he di ec ly h ough e bal o physical agg essions o he ic im o indi ec ly by sub le o ms o a ack h ough ac ions ha include social exclusion, sp eading umo s and h ea s o wi hd aw iendship [ 5 , 6 ]. Nega i e pee Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su13052605 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 2 o 17 ic imiza ion consequences include dep essi e symp oms, loneliness, anxie y, soma ic complain s, social dissa is ac ion and low sel -es eem [2,4,7–9]. Howe e , no all ic ims su e he same nega i e consequences, and pee ic imiza- ion is no always an expe ience ha is epea ed o e ime [ 10 ]. The ch onici y o pee agg ession and he se e i y o he nega i e consequences o ic ims di e depending on ic ims’ way o eac ing o a acks [ 11 , 12 ]. While some coping s a egies a e conside ed mo e e ec i e in educing pee ic imiza ion, o he s such as c ying, gi ing in o bully’s de- mands o s iking back seem o inc ease he likelihood o subsequen ic imiza ion [12–15] . Vic ims o pee agg ession use di e en s a egies o cope wi h his s ess ul si ua ion ac- co ding o hei pe sonal and con ex ual cha ac e is ics [ 16 – 18 ]. Ne e heless, ew s udies ha e analyzed he pe sonal (e.g., gende , g ade, ic imiza ion s a us) and con ex ual (e.g., pe cei ed class oom social clima e) ac o s associa ed wi h he s a egies p e e ed by he s uden s o cope wi h pee ic imiza ion. Mo eo e , he ype o ic imiza ion su e ed ( ela- ional, physical o e bal) could also be ela ed o he use o di e en and speci ic coping s a egies. G ea e knowledge abou he ela ions be ween hese ac o s and he coping s a egies ha s uden s p e e can be use ul o de eloping in e en ion p og ams aimed o educe bullying, h ough eaching mo e e ec i e coping s a egies o ic ims. Fu he mo e, hese in e en ion p og ams could also be be e adap ed o he speci ic pe sonal and social cha ac e is ics o he s uden s hey a ge , which would inc ease hei e ec i eness. 1.1. Coping S a egies agains Pee Vic imiza ion Coping s a egies a e de ined as beha io al, emo ional and cogni i e esponses o s ess [ 19 – 21 ]. They a e in en ional e o s ha indi iduals use o egula e aspec s o hem- sel es (i.e., emo ion, cogni ion, beha io , physiology) o aspec s in he en i onmen o educe s ess [ 17 ]. Laza us and Folkman [ 19 ] dis inguished be ween p oblem- ocused and emo ion- ocused s a egies. P oblem- ocused s a egies include he ac ions ha aim o a emp o sol e he p oblem and o seek help o handle he s ess ul si ua ion, while emo ion- ocused s a egies include ac ions ha in end o mo e away om he sou ce o s ess, ejec ing he p oblem, denying i o ying o igno e i . Howe e , p e ious s udies in o pee ic imiza ion ha e highligh ed he di icul y o di e en ia e be ween p oblem- ocused and emo ion- ocused coping s a egies in hese s ess ul si ua ions [ 17 , 22 , 23 ]. Vic ims o pee agg ession o en apply mul iple s a egies simul aneously o cope wi h hei si ua ion [ 23 ], and some s a egies aim o s op agg ession and o egula e emo ion a he same ime. Fo hese easons, esea ch in o pee ic imiza ion mo e o en di e en ia es coping s a egies acco ding o hei deg ee o e ec i eness. Some s a egies a e conside ed o be mo e e ec i e ways o cope wi h pee agg ession, because hey minimize he likelihood o subsequen ic imiza ion and educe nega i e e ec s on ic ims’ psychosocial well-being [ 22 ]. Help-seeking is conside ed an e ec i e way o cope wi h pee ic imiza ion and is encou aged in many in e en ion p og ams [24–26] . Along hese lines, p e ious s udies ha e shown ha asking iends o adul s o help and con lic sol ing (e.g., ying o unde s and why ic imiza ion happened) a e coping s a egies ela ed o a lowe isk o subsequen ic imiza ion [ 12 , 27 ]. Help-seeking is ela ed o less nega i e consequences o ic ims [ 20 ], p obably because i allows hem o eel suppo ed by hei social en i onmen , and i helps hem o educe he isk o u u e a acks. S uden s may ask iends, eache s o pa en s o help, and many s uden s p e e seeking o help om hei iends a he han om eache s o cope wi h pee ic imiza ion [ 28 ]. Ne e heless, he na u e o he su e ed agg ession ( e bal, physical o ela ional) could be associa ed wi h which pe son hey choose o ask o help, and hese ela ions need o be analyzed in mo e dep h. Fu he mo e, he e a e some s uden s who ell nobody ha hey a e ic ims o pee agg ession [ 22 , 29 ]. Boul on e al. [ 16 ] indica ed ha many adolescen s choose no o ell anyone, pa icula ly eache s, ha hey a e being pee ic imized. Some s uden s migh eel ha social suppo is no a ailable o hem o hey belie e ha seeking/ ecei ing help can allow people o conside hem weak because hey canno cope on hei own [16]. Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 3 o 17 Ano he coping s a egy ha can be used by ic ims is igno ing he agg ession. This s a egy has been conside ed e ec i e by some au ho s [ 30 ], bu o he s [ 17 ] ha e poin ed ou ha i s e ec i eness could depend on he na u e o he su e ed agg ession. A his ega d, Kokkinos e al. [ 17 ] indica ed ha agains social exclusion si ua ions, s uden s migh p e e dis ancing o igno ing i , while agains physical agg ession si ua ions, hey p e e help-seeking. Some a oidance s a egies (such as a oiding he agg esso o igno ing agg ession by p e ending ha i did no occu ) may no s op ic imiza ion bu can p o ec ic ims agains psychological maladjus men di icul ies. Vic ims can educe nega i e consequences i hey a e able o emo ionally dis ance hemsel es om he ic imiza ion si ua ion, al hough his dis ancing is mo e di icul when agg ession is equen and se- e e [ 12 ]. S uden s a e mo e likely o seek help in ic imiza ion cases ha a e mo e ob ious (e.g., physical agg ession), o use mo e e alia ions o ace e bal ic imiza ion and o p e e dis ancing and a oidance o e ela ional ic imiza ion si ua ions [17,30]. The coping s a egies o igh ing back o e enge-seeking a e conside ed less success- ul [ 11 , 13 , 30 ]. These coping s a egies a e ine ec i e in educing he isk o subsequen ic imiza ion and could inc ease he psychological maladjus men isk, e en hough using hem child en can eel a ce ain con ol o he si ua ion o mo e espec by pee s [ 12 ]. The easons o choosing o igh back he agg esso o gain espec o pee s could also be associa ed wi h s uden s’ pe sonal ac o s, such as gende , o con ex ual ac o s, such as he class oom social clima e. The ele ance o hese ac o s needs o be analyzed. 1.2. Coping S a egies Acco ding o Gende , G ade, Vic imiza ion S a us and Pe cei ed Class oom Social Clima e Some gende di e ences in coping s a egies agains pee ic imiza ion ha e been no ed. P e ious s udies ha e shown ha gi ls a e mo e willing o seek help, and hey a e mo e likely o ask a eache o help [ 16 , 31 – 34 ], while boys mo e o en indica e ha hey would igh back [ 34 ]. Mo e gi ls seek help om iends han boys [ 18 ], al hough he esul s o seeking help om pa en s a e mixed, wi h some s udies showing ha boys use his s a egy mo e, while mo e gi ls do in o he s [ 18 ]. Ne e heless, all hese gende di e ences migh be linked wi h he ic imiza ion ype mo e equen ly su e ed by boys and gi ls. Physical and e bal ic imiza ion is mo e equen in boys [ 1 , 35 – 37 ], and ela ional ic im- iza ion is in gi ls [ 1 , 35 , 37 ]. The e o e, esea ch on gende di e ences in coping s a egies agains pee ic imiza ion needs o also conside he ype o ic imiza ion su e ed ( ela- ional, physical, e bal), and o explo e in mo e dep h possible gende di e ences in who is asked o help ( eache , iends, pa en s) acco ding o he ype o ic imiza ion su e ed. The coping s a egies used by s uden s could also di e acco ding o hei school g ade. S uden s a ending elemen a y schools a e younge and ha e de eloped some cogni i e and social skills o cope wi h pee ic imiza ion o a lesse ex en . In line wi h his, Boul on e al. [ 16 ] showed ha help-seeking om eache s is a less used s a egy in adolescence. They sugges ed ha adolescen s ha e inc eased social-cogni i e capaci ies and a e able o sel -gene a e mo e solu ions o s ess ul si ua ions such as pee ic imiza- ion. Ne e heless, Boul on e al. [ 16 ] also sugges ed ha ano he possible eason is ha adolescen s can pe cei e i as no “no ma i e” o seek help, especially om eache s, and hey may an icipa e nega i e pee eac ions. Some s uden s could an icipa e ha classma es belie e hey a e weak i hey canno cope wi h hese si ua ions on hei own [ 38 , 39 ], which migh ac as a help-seeking ba ie [ 40 ]. This possible nega i e pe cep ion o pee s when s uden s ask a eache o help would inc ease in adolescence, and he use o his s a egy in compulso y seconda y educa ion (CSE) would be sca ce. In addi ion, eache s inc easingly expec adolescen s o independen ly sol e p oblems wi h hei pee s [ 41 ], and CSE s uden s could also pe cei e eache s being less capable o helping hem [ 42 ]. All hese easons migh explain less help-seeking, especially om eache s, by CSE s uden s. Howe e , a mo e in-dep h analysis o he possible changes in coping s a egies om elemen a y o seconda y educa ion is necessa y. The ic imiza ion s a us in he pee g oup may be ano he ac o ela ed o s uden s’ selec ion o di e en coping s a egies. P e ious s udies [ 16 ] ha e shown ha equen Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 4 o 17 ic ims a e mo e eluc an o ell eache s ha hey a e being bullied han non- ic ims. Vic imized s uden s may eel ha eache s a e unable o help hem o may be conce ned abou he po en ial nega i e ou comes o asking eache s o help by analyzing he possible nega i e pe cep ion by he pee s and hei eelings o weakness i hey decide o ask a eache o help [ 16 , 40 ]. Mo eo e , ic imized s uden s o en pe cei e no bene i s om asking eache s o help, because hei social s a us in pee g oup is simila and pee ic imiza ion si ua ions a e epea ed. Howe e , ic imized s uden s may also di e in hei use o o he coping s a egies, such as a oiding he agg esso o igh ing back, and hese possible di e ences should also be analyzed. Al hough he e a e many child en and adolescen s who ask a iend o a pa en o help when hey ha e p oblems, o he s a e eluc an o seek help om anyone [ 18 ]. The pe cei ed a ailable social suppo has been demons a ed as an impo an ac o ela ed o help-seeking o cope wi h p oblems [ 18 , 43 ]. In he school con ex , s uden s’ pe cep ion o mo e emo ional suppo is ela ed o mo e help-seeking om eache s [ 44 ], and a posi i e class oom social clima e may be a ele an con ex ual ac o o inc ease o educe he likelihood o asking o help in pee ic imiza ion si ua ions. Posi i ely pe cei ing he class oom social clima e has been p e iously ela ed o highe s uden s’ school sa is ac ion and sel -es eem [ 45 ]. The s uden s who mo e posi i ely pe cei e he class oom social clima e e alua e bo h ela ionships be ween classma es, and hose be ween eache and s uden s, mo e posi i ely, and pe cei e a highe le el o s uden in eg a ion and suppo i e beha io s [ 45 , 46 ]. So, hese s uden s a e likely o us he social suppo a ailable in hei class oom mo e and o use he help-seeking s a egy mo e. In addi ion, hey may also di e om hose s uden s who nega i ely pe cei e he class oom social clima e in o he coping s a egies. O he possible di e ences in coping s a egies acco ding o he pe cei ed class oom clima e need o be analyzed o ge mo e knowledge abou he ole ha his con ex ual ac o plays. 1.3. The P esen S udy Taking in o accoun he ele ance and need o mo e in-dep h knowledge abou how some pe sonal (e.g., gende , g ade, ic imiza ions s a us) and con ex ual (e.g., pe cei ed class oom social clima e) ac o s a e ela ed o he di e en coping s a egies p e e ed by s uden s o handle di e en ypes o pee ic imiza ion ( ela ional, physical and e bal), his s udy was p oposed. In spi e o some p e ious esea ch wo ks on he issue, a sys ema ic s udy wi h a b oade app oach is needed o cla i y how he su e ed ic imiza ion ype ela es o he ic im’s choice o di e en coping s a egies and how his choice can also di e depending on hei pe sonal and con ex ual cha ac e is ics. The speci ic objec i es o he p esen s udy we e o (1) es o di e ences in he p e e ed use o coping s a egies by he s uden s depending on he pee ic imiza ion ype ( ela ional, physical, e bal) aced; (2) es o di e ences in he p e e ence o using o hese coping s a egies acco ding o hei : (a) gende , (b) school g ade, (c) ic imiza ion s a us and (d) pe cei ed class oom social clima e. Fo hese objec i es, he ollowing hypo heses we e p oposed: Hypo hesis 1: The e a e di e ences in he p e e ed use o coping s a egies depending on he pee ic imiza ion ype ( ela ional, physical, e bal) aced. S uden s p e e using a oidance s a egy o cope wi h ela ional ic imiza ion and asking a eache o help o cope wi h physical ic imiza ion. Hypo hesis 2: The e a e gende di e ences in he p e e ed use o coping s a egies. Gi ls p e e using help-seeking s a egies (asking eache , pa en s o iends o help) mo e han boys o cope wi h he h ee pee ic imiza ion ypes ( ela ional, physical, e bal), while boys p e e employing he igh -back s a egy o cope wi h hese h ee pee ic imiza ion ypes mo e han gi ls. Hypo hesis 3: The e a e di e ences in he p e e ed use o coping s a egies depending on s uden s’ school g ade. The s uden s o lowe g ades (las elemen a y yea s) p e e using help-seeking s a egies, especially om eache s, o cope wi h ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion han hose o uppe g ades (CSE) who choose hese s a egies less. Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 5 o 17 Hypo hesis 4: The e a e di e ences in he p e e ed use o coping s a egies depending on ic im- iza ion s a us. Vic imized s uden s p e e no o use he coping s a egy o asking a eache o help and p e e he coping s a egy o no asking anyone o help o cope wi h ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion han non- ic imized s uden s. Hypo hesis 5: The e a e di e ences in he p e e ed use o coping s a egies based on he pe cei ed class oom social clima e. The s uden s who mo e posi i ely pe cei e he class oom social clima e p e e using help-seeking s a egies, especially asking eache s o help, o cope wi h ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion han he s uden s who mo e nega i ely pe cei e he class oom social clima e. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods 2.1. Pa icipan s A sample o 479 s uden s, aged om 9 o 14 yea s (Mage = 11.21; SD = 1.52), pa ic- ipa ed in his s udy. Rega ding gende , 52.2% we e boys (Mage = 11.26; SD = 1.60) and 47.8% we e gi ls (Mage = 11.15; SD = 1.44). They we e s udying in ou public schools in he Valencian egion (eas Spain), wo o which we e elemen a y schools and he o he s we e compulso y seconda y educa ion (CSE) schools. They we e s uden s om he las h ee elemen a y g ades (4 h, 5 h and 6 h g ades) and s uden s om he i s wo CSE g ades (1s and 2nd g ades). We conside ed hese wo di e en le els o educa ion because we we e in e es ed in analyzing possible di e ences be ween elemen a y and CSE school g ades. Rega ding hei age and he pe cen age o s uden s in each school g ade, he s uden s in elemen a y 4 h g ade (20.9% o he sample) we e 9–10 yea s old, 10–11 yea s old in he 5 h g ade (19.2% o he sample) and 11–12 yea s old in he 6 h g ade (19.2% o he sample). In CSE, hey we e 12–13 yea s old in he 1s g ade (22.1% o he sample) and 13–14 yea s in he 2nd g ade (18.8% o he sample). 2.2. Ins umen s Coping S a egies Ques ionnai e. This ques ionnai e allows us o measu e he di e en s a egies p e e ed by s uden s o handle pee ic imiza ion [ 22 , 47 , 48 ]. In a simila way o p e ious s udies [ 48 ], s uden s ha e o indica e wha s a egies hey p e e use o cope wi h ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion si ua ions. Fi s ly, a b ie desc ip ion o h ee ypes o pee ic imiza ion si ua ions is included: ela ional (a classma e has igno ed you on pu pose o make you eel bad), physical (a classma e has hi you) and e bal (a classma e has insul ed o made un o you). Fo all h ee si ua ions, s uden s ha e o indica e i in a simila si ua ion hey ha e used (o i hey conside ha hey use hem i hey had o cope wi h a simila si ua ion) any o he ollowing coping s a egies: “ask a iend o help”, “ask a eache o help”, “ask my pa en s o help”, “no ask anyone o help”, “ igh ing back”, “a oid he agg esso ” and “ask he agg esso why”. Fo each pee ic imiza ion si ua ion ( ela ional, physical, e bal), s uden s ha e o indica e i hey ha e used (o would use) each o he se en abo e p oposed coping s a egies. They can indica e mo e han one coping s a egy in each ic imiza ion si ua ion. Pee Vic imiza ion Scale [ 5 ]. This scale includes 11 i ems ha e alua e how o en adolescen s ha e expe ienced pee ic imiza ion si ua ions. These i ems a e g ouped in o h ee ac o s: ela ional ic imiza ion, physical ic imiza ion and e bal ic imiza ion. Rela ional ic imiza ion includes h ee i ems desc ibing si ua ions such as being a ic im o malicious umo s o being socially isola ed (e.g., “A classma e old o he s no o ha e any hing o do wi h me”). Physical ic imiza ion has ou i ems desc ibing si ua ions such as being hi o pushed (e.g., “A classma e hi me”). Ve bal ic imiza ion has ou i ems desc ibing si ua ions such as being insul ed o called a nickname (e.g., “A classma e insul ed me”). The esponse ange o he i ems goes om 1 (ne e ) o5(a lo ). The in e nal consis ency (C onbach’s alpha) o hese h ee ac o s in he s udy sample is 0.72, 0.85, and 0.83, espec i ely. Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 6 o 17 Class oom En i onmen Scale [ 49 , 50 ]. This scale allows o di e en issues o he class- oom i sel (e.g., o ganiza ion, inno a ion) and s uden s’ pe cep ion o he in e pe sonal ela ionships in he class oom, o be e alua ed. In his s udy, as we we e in e es ed in he in e pe sonal ela ionships (among classma es and eache –s uden s), we conside ed only he h ee subscales on he in e pe sonal ela ionships dimension: in ol emen , 10 i ems abou he pe cep ion o he deg ee o s uden s’ in e es and pa icipa ion in class ac i i ies (e.g., “S uden s pu a lo o ene gy in o wha hey do he e”); a ilia ion, 10 i ems abou he pe cep ion o iendship ha s uden s eel o one ano he (e.g., “S uden s in his class ge o know each o he eally well”); eache Suppo , 10 i ems abou s uden s’ pe cep ion o suppo and help om eache s (e.g., “Teache s show in e es in s uden s”). Fo each i em, he answe op ions a e ue– alse. In his s udy, he in e nal consis ency (C onbach’s α ) o he in ol emen , a ilia ion and eache suppo subscales a e 0.69, 0.63 and 0.73, espec- i ely. The in e nal consis ency o he in e pe sonal ela ionships dimension, in eg a ed by hese h ee subscales, is 0.82. 2.3. P ocedu e Ini ially, we elephoned he schools o o e hem he possibili y o pa icipa ing in his esea ch s udy abou school co-exis ence and o eques a mee ing o explain hem he objec i es o his esea ch in de ail. Du ing he mee ings held wi h school s a , we explained he objec i es and eques ed hei collabo a ion. We in o med hem abou he ele ance o p e en ing bullying and he need o be e unde s and s uden s’ coping s a egies o handle pee agg ession, and we also o e ed hem he possibili y o p o iding hem wi h guidance o imp o e co-exis ence a hei school, i hey wished, once he esea ch had ended. The ou con ac ed schools accep ed o pa icipa e in his s udy. S uden s’ amilies we e also in o med abou he esea ch p oposal by le e , which indica ed ha all he da a would be con iden ially used. A e ecei ing his in o ma ion, hey we e asked o p o ide consen o hei child en o pa icipa e. Less han 2% o pa en s s a ed ha hey did no wish hei child en o pa icipa e in his s udy. S uden s anonymously and olun a ily illed ou he scales du ing a egula class pe iod (50 min in elemen a y schools, 40 min in CSE schools). T ained esea che s adminis e ed he ins umen s and in o med s uden s ha hei pa icipa ion was olun a y and anonymous, hei da a we e con iden ial, and hey could d op ou o he s udy a any ime. No-one e used o pa icipa e in his esea ch. This s udy was app o ed by The E hics Commi ee o he Uni e si y o Valencia (P o ocol Numbe : H1456762885511). 2.4. Da a Analyses Fi s , desc ip i e s a is ics we e used o iden i y he p opo ions o s uden s who had used (o would use) he di e en coping s a egies (“ask a iend o help”, “ask a eache o help”, “ask pa en s o help”, “no ask anyone o help”, “ igh ing back”, “a oid he agg esso ” and “ask he agg esso why”) when acing (o i hey would ha e o ace) each di e en pee ic imiza ion ype ( ela ional, physical, e bal). Di e ences in he p opo ion o using he coping s a egies we e es ed o all he pee ic imiza ion ypes using Coch an’s es (which is sui able o compa ing h ee pai ed p opo ions o mo e). Chi-squa e es was used o es o di e ences in p opo ions ac oss independen g oups (e.g., g oups de ined by gende , g ade, ic imiza ions s a us and pe cei ed class oom social clima e). In his s udy, di e ences in he p opo ion o p e e ed coping s a egies acco ding o s uden s’ gende and school g ade we e es ed. Possible di e ences in he p opo ion o p e e ed coping s a egies acco ding o s uden s’ ic imiza ion s a us (non- ic imized s. ic imized s uden s) we e also analyzed. Following he c i e ia used by o he p e ious s udies [ 51 , 52 ], we conside ed ha s uden s had a ic imized s a us when hei sco es o his a iable exceeded he mean plus one s anda d de ia ion. The s uden s wi h sco es abo e he mean sco e o ela ional ic imiza ion by one s anda d de ia ion (sco e > 2.38; M= 1.61, SD = 0.77) we e assigned o he “ ela ional ic imized” g oup; hose whose sco es exceeded he mean sco e o physical ic imiza ion by one s anda d Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 7 o 17 de ia ion (sco e > 2.55; M= 1.67, SD = 0.88) we e assigned o he “physical ic imized” g oup; hose wi h sco es o e he mean sco e o e bal ic imiza ion by one s anda d de ia ion (sco e > 3.20; M= 2.13, SD = 1.07) we e assigned o he “ e bal ic imized” g oup. We compa ed he p e e ed coping s a egies agains ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion in he ic imized s uden s wi h he p e e ed coping s a egies in he non- ic imized s uden s. Finally, di e ences in he p opo ion o p e e ed coping s a egies acco ding o s uden s’ pe cei ed class oom clima e we e es ed. To di e en ia e be ween he s uden s wi h mo e posi i e and mo e nega i e class oom clima e pe cep ions, he pe cep ion o he class oom clima e a iable was dicho omized acco ding o he 75 h and 25 h pe cen iles simila ly o p e ious s udies [ 53 ]. Those s uden s whose sco es wen abo e he 75 h pe cen ile in he pe cep ion o class- oom social clima e a iable ( he s uden s who mo e posi i ely pe cei ed he in e pe sonal ela ionships in hei class oom) we e compa ed o hose s uden s whose sco es wen below he 25 h pe cen ile (mo e nega i ely pe cei ed he in e pe sonal ela ionships in hei class oom) as o hei choice o di e en coping s a egies agains ela ional, physical and e bal pee ic imiza ion. All he analyses we e pe o med wi h he SPSS-26 s a is ical package. 3. Resul s 3.1. Di e ences in Coping S a egies Acco ding o Pee Vic imiza ion Type Table 1shows he esul s o he analysis ca ied ou o es o di e ences in he pe - cen ages o s uden s who used (o would use) each coping s a egy o handle di e en pee ic imiza ion ypes ( ela ional, physical, e bal). The esul s o he Coch an’s es s showed ha s uden s p e e ed using di e en s a egies depending on he ic imiza ion ype hey su e ed. Thus, in o de o handle ela ional ic imiza ion ( Coch an’s Q (6) = 154.70 ; p< 0.001 ), he mos widely used (o p e e ed) s a egies we e “ask pa en s o help” (39.0% o he s uden s) and “a oid he agg esso ” (38.6%). Fo physical (Coch an’s Q (6) = 258.02; p< 0.001) and e bal ic imiza ion (Coch an’s Q (6) = 92.56; p< 0.001), he mos widely used (o p e e ed) s a egy was “ask a eache o help”. Almos hal he s uden s (49.3%) chose o ask a eache o help agains a physical agg ession by a classma e and 40.0% agains a e bal agg ession. Ne e heless, some s uden s did no ask (o would no ask) anyone o help when hey su e ed (o should hey su e ) pee ic imiza ion: 19% o ela ional, 13.6% o physical and 18.4% o e bal ic imiza ion. Table 1. P e e ed coping s a egies acco ding o ic imiza ion ype. Rela ional Vic imiza ion Physical Vic imiza ion Ve bal Vic imiza ion Ask a iend o help 22.1% 13.8% 18.4% Ask a eache o help 29.6% 49.3% 40.0% Ask my pa en s o help 39.0% 35.1% 29.5% No ask anyone o help 19.0% 13.6% 18.4% Figh ing back 11.1% 20.9% 18.6% A oid he agg esso 38.6% 15.4% 28.7% Ask he agg esso why 34.9% 29.2% 23.8% 3.2. Gende Di e ences in Coping S a egies agains Pee Vic imiza ion Rega ding gende di e ences, he esul s indica ed some signi ican di e ences be- ween boys and gi ls in hei p e e ed coping s a egies (see Table 2). In ela ional ic imiza ion si ua ions, gi ls asked (o would ask) a iend ( χ2 (1) = 12.397; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.164 ) and hei pa en s o help ( χ2 (1) = 14.918; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.176 ) mo e han boys. In physical ic imiza ion si ua ions, gi ls chose he s a egies o “ask a iend o help” ( χ2 (1) = 5.114; p= 0.024; C ame ’s V = 0.103), “ask a eache o help” ( χ2(1) = 12.306 ;p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.160), “ask hei pa en s o help” ( χ2(1) = 39.246 ; p< 0.001 ; C ame ’s V = 0.286) and “ask he agg esso why” ( χ2 (1) = 9.185; p= 0.002 ; C ame ’s V = 0.138) mo e han boys; while boys chose he s a egies o “no ask anyone o Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 8 o 17 help “( χ2(1) = 10.402 ;p= 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.147) and “ igh ing back” ( χ2(1) = 12.657 ; p= < 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.163) mo e han gi ls. Simila ly o physical ic imiza ion, in e bal pee ic imiza ion si ua ions, gi ls chose he s a egies o “ask a iend o help” ( χ2(1) = 10.691 ;p= 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.150), “ask a eache o help” ( χ2(1) = 3.849 ; p= 0.05 ; C ame ’s V = 0.090), “ask hei pa en s o help” ( χ2 (1) = 22.166; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.215) and “ask he agg esso why” ( χ2 (1)=8.269;p=0.004; C ame ’s V = 0.132 ) mo e han boys; while boys chose he s a egies o “no ask anyone o help” ( χ2(1) = 4.682 ; p= 0.03; C ame ’s V = 0.099) and “ igh ingback” ( χ2 (1) = 6.261; p= 0.012; C ame ’s V = 0.114 ) mo e han gi ls. Table 2. Coping s a egies agains pee ic imiza ion p e e ed by boys and gi ls. Rela ional Vic imiza ion Physical Vic imiza ion Ve bal Vic imiza ion Boys–Gi ls Boys–Gi ls Boys–Gi ls Ask a iend o help 15.6–29.3% *** 10.4–17.5% * 12.9–24.5% ** Ask a eache o help 28.1–31.4% 41.6–57.6% *** 35.7–44.5% * Ask my pa en s o help 30.8–48.0% *** 22.0–49.3% *** 20.1–39.7% *** No ask anyone o help 22.0–15.7% 18.4–8.3% ** 22.1–14.4% * Figh ing back 13.6–8.3% 27.2–14.0% *** 22.9–14.0% * A oid he agg esso 40.0–37.1% 14.4–16.6% 27.7–29.7% Ask he agg esso why 31.2–38.9% 23.2–35.8% ** 18.5–29.7% ** No e: *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05. 3.3. Di e ences in Coping S a egies Acco ding o S uden s’ School G ade The coping s a egies agains pee ic imiza ion p e e ed by s uden s om di e en school g ades a e shown in Table 3. Signi ican di e ences we e no ed when compa ing school g ades, wi h younge s uden s p e e ing o use he coping s a egy “ask a eache o help” o a g ea e ex en han olde ones. The esul s showed ha his coping s a egy was p e e ed less by s uden s as hey mo ed up school g ades, and his dec ease was obse ed in he h ee ic imiza ion ypes: ela ional ( χ2 (4) = 58.804; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.350 ), physical ( χ2 (4) = 31.033; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.255) and e bal ( χ2 (4) = 42.514; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.298). Mo e han hal he s uden s (57%) asked (o would ask) a eache o help o cope wi h ela ional ic imiza ion in he elemen a y 4 h g ade, while only 11.1% o he s uden s chose his coping s a egy in he CSE 2nd g ade; 68% o he s uden s asked (o would ask) a eache o help agains a physical ic imiza ion si ua ion in he elemen a y 4 h g ade, bu only 30% did (o would do) in he CSE 2nd g ade; 31.4% o s uden s o elemen a y 4 h g ade asked (o would ask) a eache o help agains e bal ic imiza ion, bu only 8.9% chose his coping s a egy in he CSE 2nd g ade. Table 3. Coping s a egies agains pee ic imiza ion acco ding o school g ade. Rela ional Vic imiza ion El. 4 h g ade El. 5 h g ade El. 6 h g ade CSE-1s CSE-2nd Ask a iend o help 18.0% 14.3% 27.2% 23.6% 27.8% Ask a eache o help 57.0% *** 34.1% *** 27.2% *** 17.9% *** 11.1% *** Ask my pa en s o help 46.0% 33.0% 37.0% 42.5% 35.6% No ask anyone o help 19.0% *** 34.1% *** 26.1% *** 8.5% *** 8.9% *** Figh ing back 11.0% 14.3% 12.0% 8.5% 10.0% Sus ainabili y 2021,13, 2605 9 o 17 Table 3. Con . Rela ional Vic imiza ion A oid he agg esso 24.0% *** 30.8% *** 37.0% *** 47.2% *** 54.4% *** Ask he agg esso why 38.0% 37.4% 33.7% 31.1% 34.4% Physical Vic imiza ion El. 4 h g ade El. 5 h g ade El. 6 h g ade CSE-1s CSE-2nd Ask a iend o help 16.2% 8.8% 20.7% 10.4% 13.3% Ask a eache o help 68.0% *** 53.8% *** 52.2% *** 41.5% *** 30.0% *** Ask my pa en s o help 44.0% 34.1% 38.0% 26.4% 33.3% No ask anyone o help 8.0% *** 27.5% *** 23.9% *** 5.7% *** 4.4% *** Figh ing back 11.0% ** 15.4% ** 19.6% ** 28.3% ** 30.0% ** A oid he agg esso 16.0% 14.3% 21.7% 9.4% 16.7% Ask he agg esso why 43.0% * 26.4% * 28.3% * 24.5% * 23.3% * Ve bal Vic imiza ion El. 4 h g ade El. 5 h g ade El. 6 h g ade CSE-1s CSE-2nd Ask a iend o help 17.2% 13.2% 25.0% 14.2% 23.3% Ask a eache o help 31.4% *** 19.9% *** 23.6% *** 16.2% *** 8.9% *** Ask my pa en s o help 39.4% 31.9% 30.4% 24.5% 21.1% No ask anyone o help 20.2% *** 31.9% *** 21.7% *** 10.4% *** 8.9% *** Figh ing back 12.1% 12.1% 20.7% 24.5% 23.3% A oid he agg esso 20.2% 29.7% 28.3% 29.2% 36.7% Ask he agg esso why 33.3% 24.2% 18.5% 22.6% 20.0% No e: El. = Elemen a y; CSE-1s = compulso y seconda y educa ion—1s g ade (12–13 yea s old); CES-2nd = compulso y seconda y educa ion—2nd g ade (13–14 yea s old). *** p< 0.001; ** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05. The highe pe cen age o s uden s who p e e ed o no ask anyone o help agains ela ional ( χ2 (4) = 30.012; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.250), physical ( χ2 (4) = 38.078; p< 0.001 ; C ame ’s V = 0.282) and e bal pee ic imiza ion ( χ2 (4) = 21.848; p< 0.001; C ame ’s V = 0.214 ) was obse ed in he elemen a y 5 h g ade. Olde s uden s p e e ed o cope wi h pee ela ional ic imiza ion by a oiding he agg esso ( χ2 (4) = 24.266; p< 0.001 ; C ame ’s V = 0.225): only 24% o he s uden s in he elemen a y 4 h g ade p e e ed his coping s a egy, while 54.4% o he s uden s in he CSE 2nd g ade p e e ed his. Olde s uden s also p e e ed o cope wi h physical ic imiza ion by igh ing back he agg esso ( χ2 (4) = 15.736; p= 0.003; C ame ’s V = 0.181): only 11% o he elemen a y 4 h g ade s uden s indica ed using (o ha hey would use) his s a egy, while 28.3 and 30% in he CSE 1s and 2nd g ade, espec i ely, indica ed using (o ha hey would use) i . In a physical pee ic imiza ion si ua ion, younge s uden s (4 h g ade) p e e ed he coping s a egy o “ask he agg esso why” mo e han olde s uden s ( χ2 (4) = 12.213; p= 0.016; C ame ’s V = 0.160): 43.0% o he s uden s in he elemen a y 4 h g ade p e e ed his coping s a egy, while 23.3% o he s uden s in he CSE 2nd g ade p e e ed his. 3.4. Di e ences in Coping S a egies Acco ding o S uden s’ Vic imiza ion S a us The pe cen ages o s uden s who p e e ed each coping s a egy, es ing o di e ences be ween s uden s who su e ed pee ic imiza ion and hose who we e no ic imized by hei pee s, a e shown in Table 4. The ob ained esul s e ealed only one signi ican di e - ence be ween ic imized and non- ic imized s uden s in hei p e e ed coping s a egies: “no ask anyone o help”. 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