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Technische Universität Dresden Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Institute for Machine Tools and Control Engineering Development of a method for the selection of logistics components based on process models. Bachelor Thesis Bearbeiter: Pilar Arcega Blanco Matrikelnummer: 0815 Betreuer: Dr.-Ing Hajo Wiemer; Dr. rer. pol. Jens Weller Bearbeitungszeitraum: 01.06.2010 – 01.10.2010 Abstract Page i Abstract During the modeling process, it must be considered the importance of relevant tasks such as transport and storage. These are relevant tasks to the modeling method of the corresponding elements of logistic information. The resulting models should allow selecting the type of storage needed and transport on the basis of developed articles (semi-finished, finished products ...). Each object has obtained relevant features that its storage involves, to take the decision, such as physical characteristics or hazard class. Therefore, there will be a classification by types of warehouses and other for goods to store, detailing its features and most suitable packaging to optimize storage. In this thesis, the properties that are needed to know how to make the selection of a particular type of storage or transport will be specified. This will create a methodology for selecting storage and transport based on an existing process model. Table of contents Seite ii Table of contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ i Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ ii 0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 4 2 Warehouse classification ..................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Depending on the nature of items stored ..................................................................... 6 2.1.1 Storage of raw materials ....................................................................................... 6 2.1.2 Semi-processed materials warehouse ................................................................... 7 2.1.3 Finished goods warehouse .................................................................................... 7 2.1.4 Spare parts warehouse .......................................................................................... 8 2.1.5 Storage of auxiliary materials ............................................................................... 8 2.1.6 Information Files .................................................................................................. 9 2.2 According to its role in logistics: ................................................................................. 9 2.2.1 Storage in plant ..................................................................................................... 9 2.2.2 Field Stores ......................................................................................................... 10 2.2.3 Transit warehouses or platforms......................................................................... 12 2.3 According to its location: ........................................................................................... 13 2.3.1 Covered storage .................................................................................................. 13 2.3.2 Outdoor store ...................................................................................................... 13 2.4 According to its legal status: ...................................................................................... 14 2.4.1 Itself warehouse .................................................................................................. 14 2.4.2 Warehouse for rent ............................................................................................. 14 2.4.3 Leasing warehouse ............................................................................................. 15 2.5 According handling techniques: ................................................................................ 16 2.5.1 Conventional ....................................................................................................... 17 Table of contents Seite iii 2.5.2 In Block .............................................................................................................. 18 2.5.3 Compact drive-in ................................................................................................ 19 2.5.4 Dynamic ............................................................................................................. 21 2.5.5 Automatic warehouses ........................................................................................ 22 3 Goods classification .......................................................................................................... 26 3.1 Classification of goods according to their nature, ..................................................... 26 3.1.1 Bulk Material: ..................................................................................................... 26 3.1.2 Single item sent .................................................................................................. 27 3.1.3 Liquids ................................................................................................................ 28 3.1.4 Gases ................................................................................................................... 29 3.1.5 Long goods ......................................................................................................... 30 3.1.6 Small goods ........................................................................................................ 31 3.2 Classification of goods according to their properties or characteristics .................... 31 3.2.1 Shape and dimensions: ....................................................................................... 31 3.2.2 Amount: .............................................................................................................. 32 3.2.3 Weight: ............................................................................................................... 32 3.2.4 Temperature: ....................................................................................................... 33 3.2.5 High-risk products. Sensibility: .......................................................................... 35 3.2.6 Perishability: ....................................................................................................... 36 3.2.7 Physical properties: ............................................................................................ 37 3.2.8 Market value: ...................................................................................................... 37 3.2.9 Need for administrative controls: ....................................................................... 38 3.2.10 Substitutability: ................................................................................................... 38 4 Package classification ....................................................................................................... 39 4.1 Individual packaging .................................................................................................. 40 4.1.1 Metal containers ................................................................................................. 41 Table of contents Seite iv 4.1.2 Glass containers .................................................................................................. 42 4.1.3 Wood containers ................................................................................................. 42 4.1.4 Paper/cardboard containers................................................................................. 43 4.2 Collective packaging .................................................................................................. 43 4.2.1 Pallet ................................................................................................................... 44 4.2.2 Container ............................................................................................................ 44 4.2.3 Box ..................................................................................................................... 45 4.2.4 Silos .................................................................................................................... 46 4.3 Hazardous materials packaging ................................................................................. 46 5 Relationship between goods and packaging ..................................................................... 50 5.1 Relationship between packaging and goods according to their nature ...................... 50 5.2 Relationship between packaging and goods according to their properties or characteristics ....................................................................................................................... 51 6 Relationship between warehouses and packaging ............................................................ 53 6.1 Relationship between packages and warehouses depending on the nature of items stored… ................................................................................................................................ 53 6.2 Relationship between packages and warehouses according to its role in logistics.... 54 6.3 Relationship between packages and warehouses according to its location ............... 55 6.4 Relationship between packages and warehouses according to its legal status .......... 56 6.5 Relationship between packages and warehouses according handling techniques ..... 57 7 Example: Milk storage ..................................................................................................... 58 7.1 Collective packaging for distribution and treatment .................................................. 59 7.2 Individual packages for retail..................................................................................... 60 8 Summary and Outlook ...................................................................................................... 62 List of figures ......................................................................................................................... VII List of tables .......................................................................................................................... VIII Table of contents Seite v List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................. IX References ................................................................................................................................. X Eidesstattliche Erklärung ....................................................................................................... XIII 0 Introduction Seite 1 0 Introduction We can define the store as the physical place in which it is developed a complete management of products that contains. One factor to consider in storage is the preservation of the goods in perfect condition since its entry into the warehouse until they leave it. Therefore it must be applied existing regulations in regard to safety and health. Besides, the goods and packaging can be selected ensuring that corresponds with the conditions provided by the customer. ([Par+04], p.91) To ensure appropriate conditions of the goods stored, the store should be prepared for the different kind of goods that are in it. Many economic activities are dedicated to transform some goods into others, altering its nature. A good is an object (a manufactured good, service or a contract) in one place, at a time and under certain circumstances. Warehousing is referred to all decision-making facts which have an influence on the stock, which is why we also speak of inventory management. Stocks are a buffer between input and output flows of goods. This buffer is created as soon as the temporal and quantitative structure of the input-output flows from is different. Such buffers due to the different structure of the input and output flows can occur at different places on the sales channel. ([Pfoh96], p.92) As an introduction to the terms of the study, it will be made a description of the three main areas: goods, warehouses and packaging. There is also a relationship between these three concepts that we will be outlining in the course of this thesis. This is because the packaging may be considered a small storage system of products, the smaller ones in particular. They can be described as it follows:  Good One of the main factors to be considered when planning for logistics is the product itself. The product is, in fact, a mixture of its physical nature, its price, its package and the way in which it is supplied. For the logistics planner, the physical characteristics of the product and package are seen to be of great significance. This is because, in distribution and logistics, we are directly concerned with physical flow-movement and storage. We must be borne in mind the type of unit load. ([Rus+06], p.111) 0 Introduction Seite 2  Warehouse The design of a warehouse involves making long-term well; it is understood that these decisions condition then the equipment and services that will be required to achieve effective and efficient storage. ([PaDe98], p.358)  Packaging Taking into account of the various forms and volumes in which an item can be packed, it is necessary to determine the units of delivery or packaging containing the total amount requested. Some of the most commonly used packages are jugs, bottles, cans, boxes, reels, coils, and bags. Throughout this thesis, a conclusion reached based on the optimization of the relationship between the packages, stores and merchandise. At some point, it will be considered that the containers are a small warehouse that aggregates and organizes the goods. Also, packages can be considered as individual loads for storing goods. - Storage Unit Established delivery units, it is necessary to determine how you want to be grouped these units to meet the needs of storage and maintenance of that good, considering means that the company has. So, it will determine the sizes of storage units and delivery units and purchase contained in a storage unit. Some storage units are boxes, shrink, pallets and containers. ([PaDe98], p.98) - Transport unit The frequency and importance of the issue, as well as the various load opportunities offered by the lorry, make it increasingly take into account the possibility to buy goods on the basis of complete units of transport. Some transport units are truck, container, trailer and semitrailer. It can be considered as well used as a transport unit if the filling ratio is above 80%. 0 Introduction Seite 3 In the following table they are found the correlations between the logistics unit of measure that applies to the case for purchase, transport, sale, delivery or storage. TYPES OF PHYSICAL LOGISTICS UNITS PURCHASE UNITS TRANSPORT UNITS SALE UNITS DELIVERY UNITS STORAGE UNITS LIQUIDS SOLIDS Truck LIQUIDS SOLIDS Packages Boxes Units Units Trailer Units Units Boxes Retractable Liters Meters Semitrailer Liters Meters Pallets Pallets Cubic meters Square meters Wagon Cubic meters Square meters Rolls Containers Kilograms Kilograms Tank Kilograms Kilograms Coils Drums Container Cans Bags Bottles Drums Table 1: Types of physical logistics units. Source: ([PaDe98], p.73) 2 Warehouse classification Seite 10 The products tend to be located within the grounds of the factory, is the first step of the logistics system. The production centers replenish this store, leaving their products to the "field". 2.2.2 Field Stores Within the logistics system are at different levels: central, regional, provincial, local, etc. 2.2.2.1 Local stores Every time less used. Also denominated deposits, they were located in close proximity to target markets, thereby reducing the time of transport and delivery to the customer, and increasing customer satisfaction. If demand is excused geographically and difficult to predict, local stores can lead to high inventory costs. 2.2.2.2 Regional warehouses They are similar to the locals but are approached to larger markets. They are located near the point of consumption. They are the intermediaries between the central storage and point of sale. These stores have a small stock whose mission is supply a given area or region, in order to provide service as quickly as possible. As known too as approach warehouses, they are supplied from central or regulator warehouses. ([Anay08]; p.26) They are ready to pick up large loads and they use distribution trucks by retail with less capacity. This type of storage reduces transport costs by reducing inventory costs reduce overall costs associated to products, but can also increase the shipping and delivery distances, which can affect customer satisfaction. 2.2.2.3 Central warehouses They are in the first step of logistic system. Its aim is to collect all or part of the inflows (production, imports, returns, etc.) for distributing it later into other stores. It is a central store or buffer warehouse, when it aims are to supply a fixed number of peripheral points (regional warehouses, sales channels or customers). They are the warehouse for many regional markets 2 Warehouse classification Seite 11 and deliver products directly to customers. They are located as close as possible to the center of manufacturing and these stores are prepared to handle large loads. They have to be prepared for any unforeseen event that may occur along the supply chain as it constitutes the most distant point of sale. Eventually, they often make direct deliveries to certain areas and / or customers. ([Anay08], p.26) Incomings to the warehouse are often in full trailer and palletized goods, as well as outputs, although sometimes also outputs are dispatched in boxes as the unit of manipulation. Their mission is the maintenance of stocks in the logistics system. They are usually classified as follows: - In normal stock, such as all kind of reserves of something available in a future use. It is contained different assets that the company has and which serve as raw material for the realization of their products. - The seasonal stock requires temporary storage. Those stocks that are used seasonally, being only at certain times of the year, and disappear at the same time they do the products. - The outstanding stock (stock speculative). The shares of a corporation's stock that have been issued and are in the hands of the public, also called shares outstanding. The choice of central or regional warehouses stores depends on the type of cargo and the cost structure of the company. So, in case of low value products or high transport costs, lead to the use of regional warehouses. In contrast, in a situation with high inventory costs for the value of the product, it involves central warehouses. In any case, there are methods for evaluating the best decision. 2 Warehouse classification Seite 12 2.2.3 Transit warehouses or platforms As known as temporary storage, it must carry out national and safety at work legislation. The concept of platform it is used in situation of Cross-docking. They are stores in transit to optimize transportation between the factory warehouses and offices or customers. In crossdocking platform type goods are exchanged between trailers and pallets as a unit of manipulation. This system achieves greater efficiency in the distribution: decrease the mileage of each trailer and, therefore, the consequences are less time and cost reduction. They must be suitable for storing, loading, examining and sampling of goods. Normally there is an approved place situated within the appointed area of an approved port or airport, but outside the Customs approved area. Created primarily to take the needs of transport in account, storage outweighs the costs with higher volumes transported. They are used when the journey is long and we must move large quantities of goods, thus prevents the transport cost is very high. ([Fue+06], p.76) They have a wider activity than the field storages and even platforms. They are dedicated to, almost always, the passage of perishable goods. Because of its special characteristics, we must highlight the importance of involving the services of storage tank. The bonded warehouse storage is an agreement between the owner of the goods and the government, and consists essentially of such goods cannot leave the store until they pay their taxes. This type of tax agreement is mostly applied to products entering the country and is subject to import customs fees. This establishes, generally in ports, warehouses in limited areas, so that a foreign company can enter it your goods, do some manufacturing process and store their products, not paying the appropriate import duties until the goods not enter the country legally, if sent to another country, do not pay these fees. 2 Warehouse classification Seite 13 2.3 According to its location: 2.3.1 Covered storage Storage products with complete protection against any of the weather agents, allowing even modify the conditions of temperature and lighting. To determine the dimensions of the building, it should be planned prior to their purpose and content. However, in all cases must be taken into account the number of plants, geometry, floor, columns, walls, ramps, lighting, building materials, safety, cover and accesses. The suitability of different areas where a warehouse is divided for a specific use, let’s talk about high utility in the operation of storage. 2.3.2 Outdoor store This type of store lacks any type of building and it consist of spaces marked by fences, marked by numbers, painted signs, etc. They are stored products that not need protection from the elements. If the solid bulk has a low unit price and is impervious to the action of local weather, and it is processed in large quantities, is usually stored in large heaps in the open or in sheds without much protection: for example, include such solid coal, sulfur, pyrites, limestone, sand, common salt, etc. It can be used cover systems for outdoor storage. The plastic materials provide adequate protection for limited periods of time. Polyethylene products are highly resistant to moisture, are lightweight, easy to use and retain their flexibility at temperatures below freezing. Another widely used material is elastic laminated vinyl, coated with nylon on both sides. This product is quite resistant to corrosion, for example, salt water or different types of acids. ([Fue+08], p.96) 2 Warehouse classification Seite 14 2.4 According to its legal status: The storage activity can take place under three different legal regimes, 2.4.1 Itself warehouse They are those whose facilities belong to the holding company. The company has made an investment in space and equipment for the storage of their goods. These types of stores are profitable because of not having to pay any rent. The advantage of this situation is, first of all, profitability, if its use is intensive. So this kind of storage is recommended when dealing with larger volumes and high turnover. Furthermore it gives more control of storage operations, helping to ensure a higher level of service when the operation and maintenance require special conditions. It allows the company more flexibility in the future use of space and in the design of storage facilities. It can serve as a basis for other complementary activities (sales offices, the center of the vehicle fleet, purchasing department, etc.). The only notable difficulty of this type of store is the high volume of investments to be made in land, buildings and even plants above all at the beginning of the industrial activity. The costs incurred belong to the organization of the company. In some cases the nature of the product or particular logistics system makes this the only valid. ([PaDe98], p.346) 2.4.2 Warehouse for rent A common scenario is the leasing of industrial buildings already built, but generally not equipped and is intended for use in warehouses, practicing as if it were their own. In addition to rental costs, there are the investments in equipment and facilities they need to function properly. They are of public ownership or private property, publics are the property of the council, the administration in general and privates are from companies or individuals. Public warehouses allow a group of companies’ converged services and solutions optimizing and minimizing costs. In both cases, public or private, the owner rent it to companies that need seasonally. ([Fue+08], p.76) 2 Warehouse classification Seite 15 For example, a store of this type can be used during a season to store oranges, another to store grapes, other rice, etc., depending on the activity of the employer who hires him. At present there are companies whose business is to provide storage services. The configuration of these public stores usually oriented multiple use and widespread. It is recommended when storage space required is variable in many different places. It is possible to distinguish two main types of rental service stores: those who simply are hired on the basis of the volumes occupied and those that offer a variety of complementary services. The services usually offer the latter, also known by ADIF (physical distribution warehouse), in addition to basic reception, storage, transmission, consolidation or shipping division, are: Storage in transit, storage tank for customs office, storage temperature and controlled humidity, inventory, consolidation of loads, preparation of orders, packaging, labelling, issuance of delivery notes... etc. 2.4.3 Leasing warehouse This option is presented as an alternative to the two previous terms. Since the user is obliged to hire the rental store for a predetermined period of time, you lose flexibility as to the possibility of changing the location of the store, but allowing you to control both storage space and the operations performed. In an effort to reduce costs and to meet the increasingly stringent demands of the customers, companies are getting rid of their private stores for the benefit of outside options. Although is not a universal solution, outsourcing is a cheap alternative, based on a comparison of internal costs against external. ([Sanc08], p.111) Leasing companies prefer an external store to manage inventory continuously, and they can also rent other warehouses to resolve emergencies and situations of temporary storage. 2 Warehouse classification Seite 16 Not only store but also the industrial and office equipment, transportation, real estate, machinery and control equipment can be obtained with the leasing system. Increases flexibility in changing markets very quickly and allows them to cope with technological obsolescence. 2.5 According handling techniques: Selecting the right storage system for an application involves reconcile the movement and storage needs with the characteristics of equipment. This fact involves balancing two conflicting objectives that are: To maximize the use of volume, and allow easy and fast access to stored products. Handling unit in the stores is measured in terms of type of pallet to be used and their composition to the number of packages that can accommodate, taking into account the limitations of way and high of the level of product family. ([Anay08], p.41) The design of the pallet handling system represents the most widely used in industry. The choice between the use of own or public warehouse is not an easy task, requiring a detailed comparative study of the costs involved. The leasing will cost money in the short term; it is considered a cost to doing business. It is universally manufacture of wood, although developed metal or plastic models for very specific applications, since in general the cost is higher to achieve the same performance. In Europe, standard measures are 800 x 1200cm europallet and 1000 x 1200 cm. They have access on all four sides to facilitate their movements. It is the basic starting point of the entire logistics system for storage, handling and physical distribution, because from here will define the required storage systems, characteristics of the shelves, areas, etc. Important is to mention that in any case we get a significant reduction in handling time of the product, and therefore costs. The following are just these types of stores: 2 Warehouse classification Seite 17 2.5.1 Conventional Classic storage system with manual access shelves served by trucks, which have the advantage of access to materials can be done manually, thereby is possible to gain a more rapid removal and placement of tools. The assembly of these shelves is easy and convenient, and offers great versatility in terms of regulating the height of the shelves. Figure 1 - Conventional shelving boxes (manual picking). Source: ([Maul06], p.127) If the stored pieces are large or heavy, the most suitable stores are these for pallet racks, because they can withstand high weights and contain very large pieces. These shelves are made of scales (columns) and the beams, which are assembled without the need for any tools that may be done at different heights, adaptable to the size and shape of the parts. The pieces are placed on the shelf, directly on pallets or in a container or covered with something that prevents gather dust. Efforts will be made up no shelf high towers, which would be difficult to access for workers, endangering their safety. The height of the shelves should allow the operator to see the parts to be removed. This operation should be done with trolley lifts, when the parts are stored on the upper floors, or trolley for pallets, to withdraw when there are parts of high weight and they are placed on the lower floors. 2 Warehouse classification Seite 18 2.5.2 In Block This system, also known as compact store, is possible to use both palletized products as for non-palletized ones. It involves a stack of products (or pallets), one above the other or on shelves for this, forming solid blocks in the store , which represents a minimum cost, as it requires no special infrastructure, possibly manipulated by hand (courier) or with simple equipment such as forklifts conventional, when the products are palletized. Pallet height depends on the resistance of materials to the stack. Figure 2 – Example of block warehouse viewed from the front. Source: [Geor08] This type of storage requires no investment on shelves and has high density storage. This type of installation is sometimes used for storage of produce in bulk packaging (such as fertilizers), which are stored in bags, tote bags with handles to be handled by forklift, empty containers of soft drinks in plastic boxes, etc. The bags are stacked directly on the ground or on the pallet, which facilitates handling. Only one operator can pick up and leave the pallets from the truck. ([Maul03], p.9) This system is widely used in temporary storage, such as products still sorting or quality control. As disruptions, it is possible to mention: the possibility of spoilage if the packaging is not good, the difficulties in counting and rotation of products, and a low efficiency in the stack if the height is not large enough. 2 Warehouse classification Seite 19 2.5.3 Compact drive-in Corridors may represent an area equal to that occupied by furniture storage. That is true also in terms of volume. However, when stocks move little, these corridors are neither frequented. A solution for improving the organization of the store would be that the furniture to keep things can moves and save a single corridor between 5 and 8 furniture. The mobile storage (also called compact), consists of pallet racks or lockers that can move sideways. When you want to access a box, it will move some furniture for the hall opens to the storage address of interest. The displacement of these units can be powered in case of heavy loads or when necessary automation is demonstrated, if it is not the case, the workers carried the movements out manually by turning a steering wheel or a crank. ([Roux03], p.99) Figure 3.a – compact shelving palletization. Source: ([Maul03] p.16) Figure 3.b – compact shelving palletization. Source: ([Maul03] p.16) 3 Goods classification Seite 26 3 Goods classification They are called stocks all those goods that the company has for sale in the ordinary course of operation, or for processing. The concept of commodity includes any marketable sort, an object of sale treatment or that can be transported for commercial purposes. The factors taken into account when classifying the goods are the unit of loading, the special characteristics and handling capabilities of such goods ([LoGo04], p.28). The good determines the interpretation of the warehouse. Liquid assets are stored in storage tanks, pressure vessels, and gases in silos or stockpiles. The unit loads shall be classified for storage planning depending on their volume, weight, support tools (container), type (eg flat, quaderformig or stored) or special requirements (eg cooling) and risks (eg fire or hazardous material). They are considered as foreground in general cargo warehouse for manufacturing industries. The more detailed classification is presented below. ([Roux03], p.53) 3.1 Classification of goods according to their nature, 3.1.1 Bulk Material: Some items are stored or delivered in bulk (liquid or powder), and require special equipments for transport and storage. During the transport process usually changes its shape depending on where it is deposited. To establish means of transport or storage types have the characteristic physical and chemical properties of the bulk material to be known as accurately as possible. These properties are used for material classification. Bulk material is lumpy (for example, coal), grainy (for example, cereals) or dusty bulk (for example, cement). ([Mart04], p.64); ([Rupp91], p.183) The bulk goods are transported without packaging of any kind. It is deposited in piles of merchandise to be delimited by workforce partitions fixed or mobile made of wood, steel or aluminum plates, etc. some kind of bulk goods such as plaster or cement is stored in silos. In this case, it is established a division between dry bulk (grain, coal, phosphate and other 3 Goods classification Seite 27 minerals) and liquid bulk (water, oil and other chemical products or metals) ([LoGo04], p.28). Typical bulk material is for example: ore, coal, garbage, sand, cement, gravel, stones, grain, wood shavings, flour, coffee or cereals. If it is possible, bulk store should be located near the place of consumption because transportation is expensive. It must make the material transportable and storable, so that it can be poured. Its contents should automatically be measurable; their extraction must be controlled and connected to a mean of transport. If the solid has a low unit price and is impervious to the action of local weather, and processed in large quantities, is usually stored in large heaps in the open or in sheds without much protection: for example, include such solid coal, sulfur, pyrites, limestone, sand, common salt. Solids alterable to weathering are stored in large closed sheds or silos. These are cylindrical containers with discharge by mechanical pneumatic conveying or spoon. The burden of solid materials delivery services or other process operations is usually done through hoppers, which are containers with gravity unloading containers from the bottom. The transport of continuous solids is made by conveyors and bucket elevators or chain hoists. Bins, silos, bunkers and hoppers are the materials handling equipment most often identified with the storage of bulk materials. Bulk materials storage bins can be in many shapes. The most important factor is selecting the shape of the bin or hopper and the method of unloading it. 3.1.2 Single item sent The individually packaged goods include not only packaged products in boxes or sacks, but also heavy single items such as vehicles, pieces of heavy equipment or blocks. ([Rupp91], p. 183) 3 Goods classification Seite 28 Unit volumes of the articles are clearly important in the warehouse planning. For example, in a warehouse of spare parts of cars, there will be assigned areas and resources appropriate to the different morphologies of the pieces. Allow an area to store small parts that can be stored in small trays or drawers: bolts, light bulbs, electronic components, etc. A second area is dedicated to everything that can be stored on pallets or in containers of equal volume. A last area will house special forms parts: windscreen, spoilers of the body, chassis, etc. The aim is to gather the material in units of transport and storage for full utilization increasing the capacity of a transport vehicle to get its economy. Barrels, crates, packages, boxes or bags are the materials handling equipment most often identified with the storage of single items. General cargo is the cargo that moves on pallets, platforms that keep the load is placed at ground level in the hold, which facilitates stacking and shipment by truck. This load is packed in bags, boxes, cans, etc. 3.1.3 Liquids The bulk liquids are stored in cylindrical tanks with wide base and not much height. For packaged liquid goods, tank containers are not necessary. For bulk commodity specifying means of transport fitted tank. Volatile or flammable products are usually stored in floating roof tanks. In them the metal roof rests directly on the liquid through a flexible coupling. This minimizes the steam chamber and the risk of explosion and fire down considerably. The small amount of fluids can also be stored in horizontal cylindrical tanks, more expensive but easier to transport and assembly ([Cos+04], p.85). Some liquids can be transported by pipeline or plumbing. The most common types of liquids are: water, oil, wine, chemical products, metals, etc. 3 Goods classification Seite 29 3.1.4 Gases The gases are stored in many different ways depending on the conditions under which they are. The gasometers are large containers of mobile metal roof panel, whose purpose is to store gas at low pressure for delivery. They usually have a closing hydraulic device and are given pressure by the ratio between the weight of the roof and the cross section of the container. Illuminating gas is so stored and hydrogen for combustion in some industries. The storage of gas in large amounts should be in terms of pressure and / or temperature different than normal ones to avoid having to dispose of huge volumes. Easily liquefiable gases are stored as liquids at room temperature (eg butane, propane, CO2) in spherical tanks (have better resistance to pressure by its symmetrical shape.) The gases that require very high pressures and low temperatures to liquefy are usually stored in liquid form at very low temperature and ambient pressure in very well insulated tanks, for example liquefied natural gas (LNG), liquid O2, N2 liquid. ([Cos+04], p.85) Sometimes the gases to be used in not so large quantities are used compressed in gas phase at room temperature, in spherical or cylindrical deposits of elongated shape (cylinders, bottles) resistant to pressure. For example, compressed air O2, N2, H2 and noble gases are so sold out. The ratio of height to diameter tank of liquid is different according to the feature storage. Thus, the tanks whose surface has a high unit price - with sophisticated insulation, special alloys, etc. - will be higher to minimize the total area of the container. LNG tanks are a good example. In contrast, crude oil tanks are more flat, thus avoiding the use of thick plates, because the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom will be lower. To maintain the volume of gaseous substances as small as possible, the compressed gases are stored in pressure containers. Small amounts of gases are stored and transported in 3 Goods classification Seite 30 pressurized bottles. Large amounts of gas transported by tubular conduits. Compressors are used to compress gases at high pressure, whereby the temperature rises resulting from the heat of compression. These gases require special security measures that must be observed by the high pressure or particular flammability. 3.1.5 Long goods The use of long loads requires special ways of storage and manipulation. The handling of long loads requires storage means and special handling means. Each of the means of storing and handling provides a different level of land use and accessibility to each reference and required investment levels. ([Maul03], p.172) Some stores must accommodate loads which lengths are important and variable, such as profiles for sale. The storage is then carried out on cantilever arm racks, shelves or cantilever. Some of the most common long goods are: tubes, rods, sticks, profiles, planks, sheet metal, etc. Figure 8- Structure to support long loads: a) jamb, b) stringer, c) crossbar, d) diagonal, e) foot, f) body, g) pigeonhole. Source: ([Maul03], p.175) 3 Goods classification Seite 31 3.1.6 Small goods Some common small goods are made of paper, wood, plastics, etc. They are also small packets to sell retail products such as tea, sweets and spices. 3.2 Classification of goods according to their properties or characteristics The goods have very different properties and characteristics, the most important ones are shape and dimensions, amount, weight, temperature, high-risk products, sensibility, perishability, physical properties, market value, need for administrative controls, and substitutability. ([Rus+06], p.112); ([Roux03], p.53); ([Hein04], p.65); ([Rupp91], p. 183). Some of them might even belong to more than one group in which this classification has been divided. 3.2.1 Shape and dimensions: The most important geometrical characteristics are length, width, height and diameter. Volume and weight characteristics are commonly associated, and their influence on logistics costs can be significant. For example, to place small goods near the exit points can minimize the costs of handling. The shape may also be important. There are products on a regular basis, snap, or irregular. It may happen that one side has different dimensions to the others (considerably larger or smaller). The volume may be small, medium or large. A high volume to weight ratio, tends to be less efficient for distribution. Typical products include paper tissues, crisps, disposable nappies… Most companies measure their logistics costs on a weight basis (cost per ton) rather than a volume basis (cost per cubic meter). Thus, a low-volume/high-weight product will best utilize the handling cost component of storage. 3 Goods classification Seite 32 Figure 9- Effect of product volume to weight ratio on logistics costs. Source: ([Rus+06], p.113) Unit volumes of the articles are clearly important in the warehouse planning. Furthermore, there are a lot of different external forms such as rod-shaped, ring, post, tubular, plate, cubic, cylindrical, spherical, conical, or closed on all sides. There are also different kinds of surfaces. We can emphasize plain, flat, rough, corrugated, striated, curve or interrupted surfaces. Some examples are flat surfaces such as sheets, particle board, or glass panes; long goods such as profiles, tubes, or rods; and winding material like paper or wire coils. 3.2.2 Amount: The number of items is directly related with its nature. Also, the quantity of stored goods is related to weight and volume. Parts or small products are grouped into containers, forming a unit load. It can be distinguished, individual packaged goods such as work piece, machine part or the package; and bulk cargo such as parcel post, castings or bags. 3.2.3 Weight: The gross weight means the weight of the goods plus the weight of packaging used. Both weight and size of the articles, is important in the definition of warehouse. There are different 3 Goods classification Seite 33 types of shelves, as they are designed to withstand heavy loads or accommodate light but bulky packages. For example, storage of pillows or soft toys accepts very light structures, made of mesh. On the other hand, storage of metal parts shall require otherwise. ([Roux03], p.53) The optimization of the warehouse will be achieved by occupying the greatest volume and avoiding open spaces. Particular care should be taken when storing goods to be lightweight and irregular volume as it may happen that large spaces are wasted. In addition it will prevent damaged goods during the period of storage or process of loading and unloading. 3.2.4 Temperature: Articles which need special environmental conditions must maintain a controlled temperature. For serum, photography products or food is required that the temperature not differ more than 1 or 2 degrees from the indicated value. If it is necessary to store products that require temperature controlled areas, it is important to consider the safety of employees and protect them from sudden temperature changes. The handling of the products can also be slower due to the limited time you can spend in the temperature-controlled environment. The Maximum Safe Storage Temperature (MSST) is the highest temperature to store a chemical (like organic peroxide) above which slow decomposition and explosion may occur. A special type of cargo is called reefer cargo and it concerns refrigerated goods, which usually comes packaged. They can be considered general merchandise, but requires certain weather conditions because they are perishable goods that need a specific temperature to preserve them. There are hygiene rules that determine the maximum allowable temperatures for storing food which largely depend on food type and they are designated storage conditions. These conditions include not only temperature, but also humidity. 3 Goods classification Seite 34 It should give special attention to the location and dimensions of the cold-storage rooms inside the store. Preference is square or rectangular shapes, with no major differences between the sides in order to achieve a homogeneous distribution of cold air, avoiding the creation of areas that are poorly refrigerated. The access doors are often the elements that generate losses, therefore, also they have to be constructed so as to be good insulators, and they must provide watertight seal to the camera. If the movement of vehicles is common, it is desirable to create a camera or prior entry tunnel leading directly to the refrigerated. ([PaDe98], p.363) The soil will be covered with slip-resistant materials, providing ease of cleaning of the chamber, where conditions of hygiene should be higher. The evaporator, cold diffuser type is currently used mostly for cold storage. This can be placed on the floor or hung from the ceiling. Forced ventilation is used to provide a rapid air movement and maintain uniform temperature in the warehouse. Very few units provide the means to maintain high relative humidity, apart from that the product produce for his breathing and the one that result from a good design. It helps to have an evaporator as large as economic, so as to maintain high relative humidity in the store. With a small size evaporator, evaporator temperature decreases and humidity in the air condenses on its surface, and thus reduces the relative humidity of the air. ([HaSa68], p.173) Due to the diversity of temperatures that products require, it will be created separated zones within the chamber, if it is possible with variable capacity, even with the possibility of individually chilled at different temperatures. At least it will be provided four zones of temperature: from + 10 to 8 ° C for fruits, vegetables and legumes, + 8 to + 4 ° C for dairy products, + 4 to - 4 º C for cold food, cooked, boiled, frozen, meat, etc., And - 4 to - 18 ° C or lower for frozen products. 3 Goods classification Seite 35 3.2.5 High-risk products. Sensibility: There are products submitted to particular statutes as e.g. these that need quarantine (alcohols, pharmaceutical products that includes toxic products, hazardous substances and drugs; certain petroleum products…). They all need a separately storage and often a security system. The quarantine is the time required to carry out checks for deciding whether a product is usable or not. This requirement is common in the pharmaceutical and agro-food, and more generally in the workshops practicing quality control on raw materials that come from abroad. The quarantine also applies to finished products. A product in quarantine, though physically be present, it is not available. It is like "frozen" before passing the checks. ([Roux03], p.57) The characteristics of some products present a degree of risk associated with their distribution and storage: fragility, dirtiness, hazard/danger, contamination potential and extreme value. It’s a legal obligation to minimize this kind of risk. As with any form of specialization, there will be a cost incurred. The storage of explosives may require electrical installations have adapted: intrinsic safety, enhanced protection anti exploder materials, etc. ([Roux03], p.98) Hazardous goods may require special packaging, a limited unit load size, special labeling, isolation from other products, and regulations for the movement. It is not allowed to store large quantities of hazardous materials. It is available security metal containers to store flammable solvents. Volatile or flammable liquids are usually stored in floating roof tanks. In them the metal roof rests directly on the liquid through a flexible coupling. This minimizes the steam chamber and the risk of explosion and fire down considerably. ([Cos+04], p.85) 4 Package classification Seite 42 common is the cylinder, but also flat, oval and square cans are used. The three-piece cans are made of steel coated internally with a thin layer of tin and a lacquer or varnish to prevent corrosion. Tin containers are larger, with capacities ranging from 2 to 20 kg, and they are used to package products such as milk powder or oil. Provide excellent protection in wet weather. Steel drums, from 20 to 200 liters capacity, are usually used to transport vegetable oils and fats. Due to its strength, they can be reused many times. They can also be used to transport chemicals and materials such as kerosene, fuel, etc. Under no circumstances should these drums used to store food. ([OtAx98], p.21) 4.1.2 Glass containers Glass is probably the best choice as a material for containers for a variety of foods that will be subjected to heat treatment. Their properties, positive and negative, can be summarized in the following points: it is inert, impermeable to gases, aromas and flavors, plus a resistance to chemical attack against a variety of compounds that often food contains. Typically, they are transparent, allowing examination of the product by the consumer before purchase, though this feature can be a disadvantage when it comes to light-sensitive foods. There are green and brown bottles that protect against the light when it is necessary. Another advantage is that this type of packaging can be reused and recycled. They present a drawback to its fragility. Conductor heat is bad, so a sudden change in temperature, usually above 60-65 ° C, can cause a range of dangerous tensions result of thermal shock. However, sudden cooling is more dangerous because the tension generated on the surface. Another disadvantage is the high weight compared to alternative materials used in the manufacture of containers, which contributes to an increase in transportation costs. ([Rodr05], p.18) 4.1.3 Wood containers Wood is a strong material used to make various types of boxes and crates to store fish, fresh fruits and vegetables. It is also used to make barrels, commonly used for storing and transporting liquids such as wine. Due to its resistance, the wooden containers provide good 4 Package classification Seite 43 protection against damage such as breaking or crushing, and they have the advantage of easily stacked. Wooden containers can be reused many times. However, during use it must be taken care that the resin from wood not contaminates the product with its smell or taste. ([OtAx98], p.14) 4.1.4 Paper/cardboard containers As the paper absorbs moisture easily and is a very soft material, it is a material not suitable for storing products with a high average content of moisture if storage is intended for an extended period. There are two main types of paper: Kraft and sulfite paper. The Kraft paper is strong and is commonly used in multilayer food packaging bags, for storing flour, cereals, legumes, fruits and heavier products such as potatoes. They are easy to handle and store, it can be used for packaging oily foods. The sulfite paper is more thin and fragile; it is used in candy bags and sheets. It loses its properties when it gets wet. The cardboards are similar to the paper, but they are thicker and stronger, and offer greater protection against breakage and injury. Its main features are its thickness and its ability to bend without cracking. A small-scale system, they are available pulp paper molding systems that require a lot of labor, in which recycled paper can be molded into egg cartons and various forms of disposable plates and containers. They are used to package some sterilized and pasteurized food, such as milk or fruit juice, using different types of plastic and laminated cardboard. This kind of boxes is known as Tetrapacks. They require large-scale production. ([OtAx98], p.18) 4.2 Collective packaging There are packages that are used not for each item but for a group of them. In this classification, it is possible to noun pallets, cardboard, metal or plastic tubs, containers of wood, metal or grating, etc. In Europe there are a range of standard containers (plastic or metal) whose dimensions are sub-multiples of the European pallet size. They are described below, the more used collective packaging: 4 Package classification Seite 44 4.2.1 Pallet It is the most universal storage group, and in particular the European pallet 800 x 1200 mm. Its length corresponds to slightly less than half the maximum width of the trucks, regulated by the code of road (2.5 meters), which streamlines the filling rate of the vehicles. Simply choose the combination that offers the highest fill rate, which presents less risk of flooding and better stability of the loads by the alternating layers. A quality of the pallets that it is not always taken into account is dry wood. If the wood is not dry enough, the pallet with the load, takes a curved shape. The package also covers the load on the pallet and if the store management should monitor the pallets. The pallets must meet several standards: AENOR, DIN and ISO, and the tab 435.2.0 of the International Union of Railways. 4.2.2 Container Finally we should speak of containerized goods. Such goods are transported in closed and sealed boxes, called containers which facilitate handling and transport of goods. Container has been a revolution in all modes of transport. Initially this type of packaging was used only in sea lanes and road, but over time would be extended to rail and air. It is sealed metal boxes for transport of goods, avoiding the deterioration of the charges. The most common are steel, but aluminum is also used (usually for refrigerated containers) and wood or fiberglass, though less used, because despite its light weight materials are not as strong as steel. ([LoGo04], p.29) Transport by container, in whatever form (sea, land, air or rail) is a way of transport increasingly booming and rapidly evolving. The reason for this rapid evolution is that the goods transported in this way are not altered to the warehouse, the point of destination. Although there are also disadvantages, since both the port and terminal infrastructure and equipment require high investment. There are two classifications of containers; in the first place, according to their shape and, secondly, to the general conditions in respect of the goods they carry. In the first classification 4 Package classification Seite 45 (by shape), we discussed of: standard containers for general cargo goods (Dry van container) closed container (box container), container platform (Flat container), standard high-capacity container (high cube container), and open side container, open top container, folding container or igloo container. In the second category (according to the goods carried), the containers are classified as bulk containers, insulated container with a heating system (calorific container), container Europallet (parallel stacking with two pallets of European measure), insulated container, temperature controlled container, refrigerated containers (reefer / to-air container), container hangers for clothes and tank container for liquid cargo. 4.2.3 Box They are small containers for parts and manual fast preparation orders. Sometimes the boxes replace the shelf items, by having greater adaptability, and they may be used equally as a means of transport and as a storage medium in the workshop. Cardboard boxes are the most used. The FEFCO and the ASSCO have issued an international code that normalizes the main types. Among the boxes with flaps, the American box is very used, since it has an excellent surface-volume carton useful. Its use, widespread, has led many builders propose shaping machines and close them. Telescopic boxes offer the advantage of having a variable volume, hence reducing the number of different sizes required. They have the disadvantage of not protecting the contents against crushing, so it is reserved to a bit fragile items. ([Roux03], p.124) A solution must be found to limit the number of cartons of different sizes without the need to transport volumes increase so too significant. The automatic sewing machines of cards do not support adequately the diversity of formats; it seems that the maximum is 3 or 4. The format change requires a period of adjustment that practically prevents the production of different cartons in a chain. We must work in spurts and have a stock of cards available and trained. The "just in time" does not work. 4 Package classification Seite 46 Wooden boxes can serve as external containers for transporting food by volume, or small packets to sell retail products such as tea, sweets and spices. These containers do not provide much protection against climatic effects, but when they are lined with plastic film or aluminum foil and covered, they can counteract the effects of air. For example, for packing of tea, production countries often use plywood boxes lined with metal sheets. These containers are inexpensive and they are effective to keep the area in good condition. ([OtAx98], p.15) 4.2.4 Silos They are prismatic or cylindrical tanks. A silo is a structure designed to store grain and other bulk materials. The most common are cylindrical in shape, resembling a tower, built of wood, concrete or metal. There are flat silos, reinforced, unreinforced and hopper silos. The dimensions are according to the capacity of the silo and the company that manufactures them. Its diameter usually varies from 3 to 20 m. and height of 2.5 to 20 m. The capacities of the silos in general, can vary from 3 tons to 18,000 tons. Usually a silo employs mechanical appliances for loading and unloading from the top. It is not advisable to store in the same silo different types or grades of grain. It is used for storage of agricultural products, animal feed, cereals, seeds and other bulk products, but also to store various products like cement. 4.3 Hazardous materials packaging An essential aspect for the safety of hazardous materials is made up for the containers in which they are contained. Containers can be grouped and protected by a package or overpack. One determined type of container will be valid for a wide range of materials more or less wide. - Bottles: Containers specially designed to withstand the pressure exerted by the subject. They are mainly used for gases, both compressed and liquefied, or dissolved under pressure. They are usually metal and thick walls to ensure high resistance (in some cases pressures up 300 kg/cm2). Blocks are a set of cylinders joined together by a manifold so that they are used and transported as an inseparable whole. For the 4 Package classification Seite 47 transportation of cryogenic gases (liquefied at very low temperature), it is used a type of special packaging, like a thermos, keep the cold, preventing the liquid becomes gas by heat. Figure 12- Different types of bottles and blocks. Source: ([Gome09], p.61) - Composite packaging: means a set built for a plastic inside container, glass, porcelain or stoneware, and external protection (metal, cardboard, plastic, plywood, etc.). This set is an inseparable; it is filled, stored, dispatched and emptied as such. - Overpack: it is an enclosure used by a single consignor to contain one or more packages, making them a unit easy to handle and stowed for transport. An overpack is widely used to shrink-wrap pallet. Labels and UN mark of the package must still be visible from the outside or otherwise added to overpack. In the latter case, must also be equipped with the mark "overpack" clearly visible. For international transportation, it requires that the mark is in a language of the country of origin (and in English, French or German if it was not any of these.) - IBC (intermediate bulk containers): mobile, rigid or flexible container, designed to be handled mechanically (eg by forklift) and resist efforts to be subjected during handling and transport. It is allowed a big number of construction materials: metals, plastics, textile, etc. Its main feature is to have an intermediate capacity between typical packaging, seen above, and containers. Usually they have the dimensions of a pallet. The use of these containers, relatively new in the transportation of hazardous materials, is expanding rapidly due to its significant advantages: higher capacity, 4 Package classification Seite 48 mechanical handling, lower packaging costs, increased product protection, etc. ([Gome09], p.61) Figure 13- Different types of IBC (intermediate bulk containers). Source: ([Gome09], p.61) Containers used for hazardous materials must be approved, for it must pass certain tests of stacking, dropping, side impact, etc. The severity of these tests will depend on the characteristics of the materials that the package is allowed to contain. All packages must be properly marked and labeled. Packaging shall be constructed and closed so as to prevent loss of content. Packages will not carry dangerous goods remains affixed to the outside. Parts of packaging which are in direct contact with dangerous substances will not suffer alterations produced by these materials. When containers containing liquids, it should leave ullage to allow expansion of the liquid during transport (you cannot fill 100%). Otherwise, by heat, the contents may leak or distort the container, and can even pop it. In cases where the content can release gases that cause pressure, the container may be fitted with a vent (where the gas produced does not lead to danger.) Before being filled and offered for transport, it must be ensured that all packaging is in perfect working order, free from corrosion, contamination or other damage. Otherwise, it cannot be used. The responsibility for the correctly environmentally management of industrial packaging is the final holder. Discarded containers that contain residues of dangerous goods should be 4 Package classification Seite 49 transferred to a licensed waste manager to their treatment. Mixed packing consists in transport in the same outer packaging two or more different materials placed in separate inner packaging. Each container or package shall bear markings which are durable, legible and visible, describing the type of container, building material, year of manufacture, approval, etc. 5 Relationship between goods and packaging Seite 50 5 Relationship between goods and packaging To verify the relationship between the goods and containers, it will be given score indicative. There are various options of packaging required by the product. There shall be a numeric value of 0 points for a commodity that cannot be stored in a given container. It will be marked with a 1 in the case that this type of packaging can be used but it is not recommended for other issues. Finally, it will be given a score of 2 points so as to those goods to be stored using that particular container for a variety of production issues, cost savings, protection of goods from external agents, etc. 5.1 Relationship between packaging and goods according to their nature Goods according to their nature Bulk material Single item Liquid Gas Long good Small good Individual packaging Metal container 2 2 2 2 0 2 Glass container 1 2 2 1 0 0 Wood container 0 2 2 0 0 2 Paper/cardboard 2 2 0 0 0 2 Collective packaging Pallet 0 2 0 0 0 2 Container 1 2 2 0 1 2 Box 1 2 0 0 0 2 Silo 2 0 2 2 0 0 Hazardous materials packaging 2 2 2 2 1 0 Table 2- Relationship between packaging and goods according to their nature. In the table above, depending on the nature of goods stored, it can be noted that individual products (single item), present no difficulty to be packaged in different types of packaging 5 Relationship between goods and packaging Seite 51 (with the exception of silos). However, when it comes to long materials, packaging storage options are minimal. When the materials are in liquid or gas, they have drawbacks due to its nature as a material of this kind tends to occupy the entire volume of the container in which it is located. 5.2 Relationship between packaging and goods according to their properties or characteristics In the case of classification according to properties or characteristics of goods, it will be related to different types of packaging as noted in the table below. There are sometimes problems with glass or wood containers, especially when it comes to weight, physical properties or market value. Products with a high value in the market cannot be stored in any container, it must be an appropriate one according on what is carrying. Goods according to their properties or characteristics [a] [b] [c] [d] [e] [f] [g] [h] [i] [j] Individual packaging Metal container 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 Glass container 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 1 2 Wood container 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 0 1 2 Paper/cardboard 2 2 0 1 0 2 1 0 1 2 Collective packaging Pallet 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 0 1 2 Container 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 Box 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 Silo 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 0 0 1 Hazardous materials packaging 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 Table 3- Relationship between packaging and goods according to their properties or characteristics. 7 Example: Milk storage Seite 58 7 Example: Milk storage To implement the classification made in the preceding paragraphs, it will be explained a practical example consisting of the way in which milk can be stored. It will be considered that the same substance can be stored in different containers according to at which point in production process is, or depending on to whom the product is directed. Germany is the largest milk producer in Europe with an annual production of 28.488 thousand tonnes of milk. Milk production increased uniformly, while the number of cows on farms decreases. 47% of milk production is used as liquid milk, 25% for the manufacture of butter and the rest for evaporated milk, condensed milk, cheese and ice cream. The average milk consumption of milk in Spain was in 2006, of 100 liters per person. [Mapa06] The aim is to produce and maintain fluid milk clean, healthy and acceptable smelling, taste and appearance. The bacterial quantity of milk is used as an indication of their quality (it must be less than one million per cm3). Common materials whose surface is in contact with milk are aluminum, tin and stainless steel. They don’t affect the taste and they are used in milking buckets. It must be cooled rapidly to 4.5 ° C to maintain the quality of fresh milk. There is a considerable difference in taste and smell of raw milk and that which is bought in bottles and cartons after processing, because the product is treated with heat during pasteurization. In the heat treatment, they are produced slight changes in taste and flavor of the product. The aim of pasteurization is to destroy organisms which produce disease and to inactivate certain chemicals known as enzymes, so as to achieve a longer shelf life of the product. The ultra pasteurization (UHT = Ultra High Temperature) uses a higher temperature than pasteurization. It removes all bacteria less the lactic acid. No refrigeration is required rear and it has yet no microorganisms. ([HaSa68], p.30) The packages are tailored to the characteristics that the product requires. The density of milk changes with fat content and temperature. As the temperature increases, the density or weight 7 Example: Milk storage Seite 59 decrease. Milk does not absorb food flavors and animals through the air or by close proximity to them. It is distinguished two types of packaging and storage, depending on the function that is intended. For the same product, in this case milk, it will be established several possibilities: 7.1 Collective packaging for distribution and treatment - Tanks of milk, they cool and store milk in bulk, some to pressure and others in vacuum. A milk tank is a tank tub used to cool and preserve milk at low temperature until it can be withdrawn by a milk collection truck. Usually they are made of stainless steel, and may be open or closed. They can be of various sizes; silos for milk reach over 10,000 liters and are used by large producers. The normal temperature of tank is 3 or 4 º C. Figure 14- Milk tank. Source: [Gala10] - There are also milk jugs but there are not so used as milk tanks. The milk jugs have a capacity of 38 liters. The milk is cooled in a cooler surface and the pots can be put in cold storage in dry atmosphere. 7 Example: Milk storage Seite 60 7.2 Individual packages for retail Colored bottles and packages made of plastic or cartons reduce the effect of sunlight, as this is detrimental to the product. - Tetrabrik: is the trade and registered name of the brick built by Tetra Pak, it becomes synonymous with a phenomenon par excellence. It is a mixed multilayer container, composed of three different materials: 21 g of cardboard (from virgin pulp), 5.8 g of polyethylene plastic and 1.4 g of aluminum. This is a special cardboard sanitized box, covered internally with a glossy film. Its capacity can be of a quart, pint or liter. - Glass and plastic bottles: milk bottles can be packed in a glass or plastic quart, pint or liter. - Bags and cans: dry milk, also known as milk powder, can be presented in bags for easy transport and storage. Evaporated or condensed milk is stored in cans, because in this way, it can keep in excellent condition up to 1 year at temperatures below 18 ºC. 7 Example: Milk storage Seite 61 On the one hand we have the primary packaging, which includes packaging that is in direct contact with the goods carried. In a new instance, we have the secondary packaging, which is commonly used for the removal of certain primary packaging or products contained within their respective containers. In the case of milk, we can say that after filling the bottles or cartons, containers are placed in their cases. The boxes are transported to the storage, keeping refrigerated temperatures next 1 - 4ºC. The milk cartons are stored in the following way: a group of 6, 8, 10 or 12 cartons are packed in cardboard boxes, and after this, they are placed in a pallet. When it joins a specific number of boxes on the pallet, the load is protected with plastic wrap and stored in a semitrailer for onward transport. For example, if it is bought milk in packages of 1 liter brik, it will have the following types of groups: 1 case = 12 cartons = 12 liters 1 pallet = 864 cartons 1.200x800 A semi-trailer 12.20 m = 30 pallets 8 Summary and Outlook Seite 62 8 Summary and Outlook Each store is different. It is therefore necessary to establish mechanisms to classify and differentiate the stores, one from each other. In designing the store, we have to limit us to the physical space built and the needs required for goods to be stored. It has to be taken into account the description, shape, size, weight and physical properties of the products stored therein. It must be planed the space for storage in order to achieve the set objectives and profitability in the logistics plan by testing it before making the distribution, it is necessary to know the type of legal regime of the store, its location and which are essentially, techniques manipulation that in it are carried out. One of the main factors to consider when defining industrial flows is the product itself. The product is perceived as an amalgam of their physical nature, its price, its packaging and how is it served. The physical characteristics of a product, any specific requirements for the packaging and the type of cargo unit, are very important factors to try to minimize the total costs for given service levels. For this reason, we have developed in this thesis a system for selecting the most appropriate storage according to the type of goods and packaging. It has been made a thorough study of the types of storage, types of goods and types of packaging. These three concepts are related in a way that containers can perform the function of bringing together smaller or store goods (warehouses function), and in turn a warehouse store such containers. So it is necessary to know the specifics of each one of them. Through the evaluation and comparison is possible to find an adequate solution, but if you want to reach a single solution, it would need to know more detail of the production process to achieve a solution that encompass not only the most appropriate and convenient, but also one that can reduce costs, that is what every company is looking at after all. List of figures Seite VII List of figures Figure 1: Conventional shelving boxes (manual picking) ([Maul06], p. 127) ......................... 17 Figure 2: Example of block warehouse viewed from the front ([Geor08]) .............................. 18 Figure 3: Compact shelving palletization ([Maul03], p. 16) .................................................... 19 Figure 4: Structure of dynamic storage with slides ([UNE legislation]) .................................. 21 Figure 5: Horizontal carousel ([Maul06], p. 128) .................................................................... 23 Figure 6: Paternoster ([Maul06], p. 129) .................................................................................. 24 Figure 7: Transelevator ([Meca10]) ......................................................................................... 25 Figure 8: Structure to support long loads ([Maul03], p.175) ................................................... 30 Figure 9: Effect of product volume to weight ratio on logistics costs ([Rus+06], p.113) ........ 32 Figure 10: Effect of product value to weight ratio on logistics costs ([Rus+06], p. 114) ........ 37 Figure 11: a) Drum, b) Carafe, c) Sack, d) Box ([Gome09], p. 59) ......................................... 41 Figure 12: Different types of bottles and blocks ([Gome09], p. 61) ........................................ 47 Figure 13: Different types of IBC (Intermediate Bulk Containers) ([Gome09], p. 61) ........... 48 Figure 14: Milk tank ([Gala10]) ............................................................................................... 59 List of tables Seite VIII List of tables Table 1: Type of physical logistics units .................................................................................... 3 Table 2: Relationship between packaging and goods according to their nature ...................... 50 Table 3: Relationship between packaging and goods according to their properties or characteristics ................................................................................................................... 51 Table 4: Relationship between packaging and warehouses depending on the nature of items stored ................................................................................................................................ 53 Table 5: Relationship between packaging and warehouses according to its role in logistics .. 54 Table 6: Relationship between packaging and warehouses according to its location .............. 55 Table 7: Relationship between packaging and warehouses according to its legal status ......... 56 Table 8: Relationship between packaging and warehouses according handling techniques…57 List of abbreviations Seite IX List of abbreviations ADIF Physical Distribution Warehouse AENOR Asociación Española de Normalización y Certificación ASSCO European Solid Board Organisation CNC Computer Numerical Control DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.g. exempli gratia (for example) etc. etcetera FEFCO European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers FIFO First In, First Out i.e. id est (it is said) IBC Intermediate Bulk Container ISO International Organization for Standardization LIFO Last In, First Out LNG Liquefied Natural Gas LP Long Play MSST Maximum Safe Storage Temperature UHT Ultra High Temperature UN United Nations UNE Una Norma Española References Seite X References [Anay08] ANAYA TEJERO, J.J.: Almacenes. Análisis, diseño y organización. Pozuelo de Alarcón: Esic Editorial, 2008. [Cos+04] COSTA LÓPEZ, J.; CERVERA, S.; CUNILL, F.; ESPLUGAS, S.; MANS, C.; MATA, J.: Curso de Ingeniería Química. Introducción a los procesos, las operaciones unitarias y los fenómenos de transporte. Barcelona: Editorial Reverté, S.A., 2004. [Ferr07] FERRÍN GUTIÉRREZ, A.: Gestión de stocks en la logística de almacenes. Madrid: Fundación Confemetal, 2007. [Fue+06] DE LA FUENTE GARCÍA, D.; GÓMEZ, A.; GARCÍA, N.; PUENTE, J.: Organización de la producción en Ingenierías. Oviedo: Ediciones de la Universidad de Oviedo, 2006. [Fue+08] DE LA FUENTE GARCÍA, D.; PARREÑO, J.; FERNÁNDEZ, I.; PINO, R.; GÓMEZ, A.; PUENTE, J.: Ingeniería de organización en la empresa: Dirección de Operaciones. Oviedo: Ediciones de la Universidad de Oviedo, 2008. [Gala10] GALACTEA: Milk Coolers & Spare Parts. 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