The twisting path to adulthood: Roma/Cigano youth in urban Portugal

Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803) 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 h ps://doi.o g/10.17645/si. 10i4.5683 A icle The Twis ing Pa h o Adul hood: Roma/Cigano You h in U ban Po ugal Judi e Ie 1and Ma i U sin 2,* 1Depa men o Sociology and Social Wo k, Uni e si y o Valladolid, Spain 2Depa men o Educa ion and Li elong Lea ning, No wegian Uni e si y o Science and Technology, No way * Co esponding au ho (ma i .u sin@n nu.no) Submi ed: 27 Ap il 2022 | Accep ed: 26 Augus 2022 | Published: 10 No embe 2022 Abs ac While he e is a g owing body o esea ch on Ciganos/Roma in Po ugal, li le is known abou how Cigano you h ansi ion in o adul hood. In his a icle, we add ess his gap by d awing on a quali a i e s udy on he ansi ions o young Ciganos li ing in Cascais, a coas al municipali y in he Lisbon dis ic . Using a mul i‐me hod app oach, we explo e he li e cou se ajec o ies o Cigano you h wi hin he a eas o educa ion, li elihoods, and ma iage, and how hese a eas shape hei ansi ion expe iences. The empi ical ma e ial shows ha he ansi ion in o adul hood o Cigano you h is in luenced by b oade s uc u al and socio‐cul u al ac o s. P ocesses o socializa ion, e hnici y, and gende es ic young Ciganos’ pa ‐ icipa ion in educa ion and o mal labo ma ke s, which inc eases hei ulne abili y o ma ginaliza ion and exclusion in socie y. Cigano you h, howe e , ini ia e di e en pa hways in hei li e ajec o ies o achie e adul hood. By ocusing on he oices o Cigano you h, we challenge he homogeniza ion o hei li es in Po ugal and highligh how social age and linked li es shape hei ansi ions in o adul hood. Keywo ds Cigano/Roma; educa ion; linked li es; ma iage; social age; you h ansi ion Issue This a icle is pa o he issue “Li e Cou se Jus ice and Lea ning” edi ed by Aija Lulle (Uni e si y o Eas e n Finland), Remus G. Anghel (SNSPA–Na ional Uni e si y o Poli ical S udies and Public Adminis a ion / Romanian Ins i u e o Resea ch on Na ional Mino i ies), Cai iona Ní Laoi e (Uni e si y College Co k), and Russell King (Uni e si y o Sussex). © 2022 by he au ho (s); licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu‐ ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY). 1. In oduc ion Despi e he Eu opean Union and Po ugal’s conce n wi h inequali ies and ci izenship o Ciganos/Roma, po e y, illi e acy, ma ginaliza ion, and social exclusion con inue o be p e alen wi hin his popula ion (ERRC/NÚMENA, 2007; FRA, 2017; Magano & Mendes, 2021). Po uguese Ciganos a e gene ally pe cei ed as a homogenous g oup, s e eo ypically depic ed as “nomads,” ee om com‐ mi men s and bonds excep blood ies (Mendes, 2007), li ing in social housing alongside o he Cigano amilies (Magano, 2017). These gene aliza ions, howe e , dis‐ miss he indi idual di e si y and cul u al plu ali y o Cigano li e pa hs and ail o co e he complexi y o hei social eali ies (Magano, 2017, 2022). Cigano cul‐ u e in Po ugal is commonly based on cus oms and he alue a ibu ed o age and expe ience, shaping hei no ions o s a us, gende oles, amily ela ions, and dis ancing hem om non‐Ciganos (e.g., Magano, 2010; Mendes, 2007). While g oups may “claim o own cul u e” o he sake o g oup iden i y, “no e e yone inside a g oup [o Cigano cul u e] sha es he same belie s and no ms” (Ande son‐Le i , 2012, pp. 444–445). Hence, being a Cigano is connec ed o expe iences and p ocesses o socializa ion ha indi iduals acqui e wi hin hei own e hnic g oup by sha ing mo al al‐ ues (e.g., espec , hono , shame) and adi ions and cus oms exp essed h ough i es o passage (Magano, 2010), which a e ega ded as pilla s o g oup cohesion and iden i y (Hogg e al., 2017). In he Po uguese con‐ ex , he wo d o Roma indi iduals is ciganos. We use he e m in Po uguese, capi alized, because i is ecog‐ nized and used by Po uguese Ciganos hemsel es (see Magano, 2017). Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 93 While he e has been an inc ease in esea ch on Po uguese Ciganos in gene al, he e is a pauci y o esea ch on how Cigano you h expe ience ansi ions in o adul hood. In any socio‐economic con ex , you h is con‐ side ed a li e‐changing pe iod in which young people acqui e and de elop educa ional and aining skills ha a e c ucial componen s in achie ing adul hood (Wo ld Bank, 2006). Howe e , s udies ha e shown ha he e a e many ways in which young people li e and expe i‐ ence such ansi ions, a ying wi hin and ac oss e hnic‐ i y, social class, gende , and geog aphical en i onmen (e.g., A ne , 2007; U sin & Abebe, 2017; an Ble k, 2008). S uc u al and socio‐cul u al ac o s allow us o unde ‐ s and he di e se con ex s ha impinge upon he ansi‐ ions o young Ciganos, as hey sha e and ini ia e di e ‐ en s ages in di e en dimensions o hei li e ajec o ies (Magano, 2017). In his a icle, we d aw on an e hno‐ g aphic and a mul i‐me hod s udy o explo e he com‐ plexi ies o ansi ions h ough educa ion, wo k, and ma ‐ iage o Ciganos coming o age in Cascais, Po ugal, and o show he impo ance o “social age” (Laz, 1998) and “linked li es” (Heinz, 2009) in hei ansi ion expe iences. The s udy aims o explo e how bo h Cigano and main‐ s eam Po uguese cul u e in luence Ciganos’ ansi ions o adul hood. We s a wi h an o e iew o he heo‐ e ical and concep ual amewo k and p e ious esea ch on you h ansi ions, ollowed by a con ex ualiza ion o young Ciganos ega ding educa ion, employmen , and social policies in Po ugal and a p o ision o some key ea u es o con empo a y Cigano socie y. In he me hod‐ ology sec ion, we discuss he s udy’s esea ch design and e hical conside a ions. Then we p esen he empi ical ma e ial, explo ing he in e connec ed hemes o school‐ ing, li elihoods, and ma iage be o e discussing he da a in ela ion o p e ious esea ch and chosen concep ual amewo k. A las , we o e a b ie conclusion. 2. Concep ualizing You h T ansi ions In he mains eam cul u e o he Global No h, you h ansi ions ha e commonly been seen as mo ing om dependency o independency. Inspi ed by de elop‐ men al psychology and analyses o pos ‐wa gene a‐ ions, you h s udies in he 1980s and ea ly 1990s de ec ed h ee main pa hways o becoming a “success ul adul ”: school‐ o‐wo k ansi ion, domes ic ( amily) an‐ si ion, and housing ansi ion (Coles, 1995). Al hough esea che s ha e documen ed ha you h ansi ions o he 1950s and 1960s we e mo e he e ogeneous han p e iously assumed (see Galland, 2007), i emains he “golden s anda d” o g owing up. Hence, he acquisi ion o highe educa ion, en y in o he o mal labo ma ‐ ke , and subsequen economic independence a e pe ‐ cei ed as essen ial ansi ion ma ke s by leading in e ‐ na ional o ganiza ions (see UNICEF, 2011; Wo ld Bank, 2006). You hs who ail o comply wi h he golden s an‐ da d ha e been labeled “de ian ” (Jones, 1995) o ha ‐ ing ansi ions ha a e “delayed, b oken, highly ag‐ men ed and blocked” (Chisholm, 1993, as ci ed in Wyn & Whi e, 1997, p. 95). Fu he mo e, he golden s anda d p omo es a no ma i e unde s anding o you h and adul ‐ hood, ende ing ea ly ma iage, eenage p egnancy, and school d opou s as “social p oblems.” The applicabili y and uni e sali y o he golden s anda d ha e been c i i‐ cized as mo e di e se accoun s o young people’s biog a‐ phies a e inc easingly in o ming heo iza ions (Fu long e al., 2011; Robe son e al., 2018; U sin & Abebe, 2017; an Ble k, 2008). You h is oo ed in socio‐ empo al spaces whe e social ca ego ies a e expe ienced and in e p e ed di e en ly. Bea ing in mind ha “you h” is a socially and cul u ‐ ally cons uc ed phenomenon (c . Be ge & Luckmann, 2000), i s exis ence as a dis inc ca ego y o li e is nei he biologically de e mined no uni e sal bu di e s ac oss space and ime. Acco ding o Be ge and Luckmann (2000), social cons uc ionism is ad an ageous as an ana‐ ly ical ool when explo ing in e p e a ions, in his case ques ioning he “ aken‐ o ‐g an ed‐ness” o how you h ansi ions un old. He e we would add ha while he pe iod o you h as a social phenomenon has been ex en‐ si ely analyzed wi hin he social sciences, he e is a need o un a el he social cons uc ion o adul hood as i is o en ende ed sel ‐explana o y, pe manen , and uni‐ e sal wi hin ansi ion s udies (Ho on & K a l, 2005). As some s udies ha e demons a ed, (young) adul hood may also be ansi o y, mul iple, ambiguous, and com‐ plex (Lange ang, 2008; U sin & Abebe, 2017). We a e inspi ed by heo iza ions conce ning social age as opposed o ch onological age, whe e he social in e p e a ion o age is asc ibed meaning con ex ually, de e mined by his o ical, poli ical, biological, cul u al, and social condi ions (Cla k‐Kazak, 2013; see also Laz, 1998; Sø s een & U sin, 2021). Laz (1998) sugges s ha he way age is “done” is shaped by no ma i e unde ‐ s andings and expec a ions a ound how we a e sup‐ posed o “ac ou age.” She desc ibes how expe iences and expec a ions o aging, as well as li e cou se ansi‐ ions (i.e., educa ion, ma iage, childbea ing, and wo k), a e pa e ned by—and wo k in in e play wi h—e hnici y, class, and gende in addi ion o poli ical and economic o ces ha gi e ise o he ins i u ions, p ac ices, and poli‐ cies ha c ea e and ein o ce hese pa e ns. Howe e , whils ou cul u e p o ides us wi h esou ces o “doing age,” indi iduals d aw on and gi e meaning o hese (see Sø s een & U sin, 2021). While we o en con o m o p e ailing no ms and concep ualiza ions, we migh also ques ion hese in he p ocess o c ea ing and main aining ou sel es, oles, and iden i ies (Laz, 1998). T ansi ions hus occu a he in e sec ion o pe sonal choice, and ejec ion, and adap ion o cul u al, bu eauc a ic, ins i u‐ ional, and s uc u al ac o s. As Huijsmans (2013) asse s, a ela ional app oach o age is bene icial, as i is a en i e o agency while app ecia ing how ela ions o age a e ied in o s uc‐ u al p ocesses. To make sense o li e cou ses, i is impo an o emphasize highly ela ional aspec s, a ying Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 94 by class, e hnici y, gende , and o he social a iables. Wal he (2006), o example, de ines sou he n Eu opean coun ies as sub‐p o ec i e ansi ion egimes cha ac‐ e ized by a low pe cen age o o mal employmen and a high a e o unp o ec ed li ing condi ions, esul ‐ ing in you h ansi ions ha a e ma ked by in o mal wo k and high dependency on ex ended amily. He dis‐ misses wha he pe cei es as “a diagnosis o ongoing de‐s anda diza ion, indi idualiza ion, and agmen a ion o ansi ions” (Wal he , 2006, p. 120) in he Eu opean con ex . Following his, Je ey (2010) challenges he assump ion ha people mo e om dependence o inde‐ pendence, a guing ha adul hood is mo e abou s a es o in e dependence a he han au onomy in many soci‐ e ies (see U sin e al., 2022). Aligned wi h he ela ional app oach, Heinz (2009) no es ha while we ha e suc‐ ceeded in documen ing young people’s agency in an‐ si ions, we know li le abou how “linked li es” (i.e., hei ela ionships) con ibu e o he ou comes o ansi‐ ions. Simila ly, while ansi ion poin s and ma ke s such as school‐ o‐wo k p o ides insigh s in o li e ajec o ies, Wyn e al. (2019) a gue ha such ocus igno es he ac ha young people’s ela ionships enable hese ansi‐ ions. In he same ein, o he s ha e a gued ha you h ansi ion pa hways should no be pe cei ed simply as a means o secu ing educa ion and employmen bu should also be acknowledged as new spaces o iden i ica ion and belonging (Robe son e al., 2018; Wyn e al., 2019). Al hough ew s udies ocus speci ically on you h an‐ si ions among Po uguese Ciganos, some s udies explo e educa ion, wo k, and ma iage, documen ing g ea cul‐ u al he e ogenei y and a ia ion in social and spa‐ ial in eg a ion (Magano, 2010; Mendes, 2007; Nicolau, 2010), pa icula ly be ween hose who li e a Cigano li e om hose who li e a non‐Cigano li e, wi h se e al di ‐ e ences in e ms o li es yles (Magano, 2010). Recen s udies e eal changes wi hin he Cigano communi ies in e ms o inc eased educa ional le el, s onge ies o o mal employmen , and weakened adi ions o ea ly, a anged ma iages (Magano, 2017, 2022; Mendes & Magano, 2016). Howe e , he adi ion o he Cigano ma iage emains a ene o he Cigano cul u e and a i e o passage o he adul Cigano wo ld (Magano, 2017, p. 50). Ma iage unc ions as an a i ma ion o Cigano cul u e h ough he alo iza ion o endogamic ma iages ca ied ou a a e y young age, especially o gi ls upon eaching he age o pube y (Magano, 2017; Mendes & Magano, 2016). This cu en s udy d aws on aluable indings om p e ious esea ch and adds a no el ocus on li e cou se ansi ions among young Ciganos wi h an emphasis on hei ela ionali ies— hei so‐called “linked li es.” In he ollowing sec ions, he cu en si ua ion o young Ciganos will be desc ibed u he . 3. Cigano You h, Educa ion, and Social Policies Ciganos a e he poo es e hnic g oup wi h he wo s housing condi ions in Po ugal (Mendes & Magano, 2016). Many Po uguese Ciganos a e illi e a e and do no comple e any le el o schooling, including compul‐ so y schooling (12 yea s o schooling; see Magano, 2022; Mendes e al., 2014). D op‐ou a es and school ail‐ u e con inue o be common among Cigano child en e en be o e he comple ion o he second cycle o he Po uguese school sys em (6 h g ade; Mendes e al., 2014). Gi ls lea e school be ween he ages o 11–14 and boys be ween 16–18 yea s o age (Mendes & Magano, 2016). A su ey ca ied ou in public schools by he Minis y o Educa ion showed ha he num‐ be o Ciganos en olled in schools dec eases as he le el o educa ion ad ances, and his is mo e no ice‐ able o gi ls (Di eção Ge al de Es a ís icas de Educação e Ciência, 2020). In a na ional s udy abou Cigano communi ies, Mendes e al. (2014) ound ha 57% o Ciganos we e unemployed, looking o a job, o had ne e been employed. Those who epo ed being unemployed said ha hey ook on adi ional, low‐skilled ac i i ies wi hin he in o mal sec o (e.g., s ee ending, ag icul u e, cleaning, and cons uc ion) and did no ecognize hese ac i i ies as wo k. Acco ding o Mendes e al. (2019), he e is a s ong p esence o Ciganos in in o mal jobs, bu a g owing inse ion o Ciganos (some imes ha ing o hide hei e hnic iden i y) in he o mal labo ma ke is also no iceable. In he job ma ke as in he es o socie y, Ciganos a e o en subjec o sys ema ic acism and dis‐ c imina ion (Magano, 2017; Mendes & Magano, 2016). In an a emp o imp o e he si ua ion o he Roma people a a na ional and Eu opean le el, he Eu opean Union p osed ha membe s a es de ine na ional s a egies o in eg a ion (Eu opean Pa liamen , 2011). The Po uguese Na ional S a egy o In eg a ion o Ciganos (ACIDI, 2013) is based on ou main goals, includ‐ ing access o heal h, educa ion, housing, and employ‐ men / oca ional aining. This s a egy was e iewed in 2018 by acknowledging ha , despi e conside able social changes in he pas yea s, many Ciganos s ill ace dis‐ c imina ion, po e y, and social exclusion (Mendes e al., 2014). This e iew sough o imp o e Ciganos’ in eg a‐ ion and gene al well‐being as well as decons uc s e eo‐ ypes be ween Ciganos and non‐Ciganos (Mendes & Magano, 2021). Recen changes we e made in he de ini‐ ion o he s a egy, speci ically in e ms o cla i ica ion and implemen a ion o he measu es, and he p io i iza‐ ion o in e en ions ega ding gende equali y, knowl‐ edge abou Cigano indi iduals, and hei pa icipa ion in he implemen a ion o his s a egy (ENICC, 2018). Se e al social policies ha e been implemen ed in Po ugal o inc ease he educa ional le el and oca‐ ional aining o he Po uguese popula ion, such as he Educa ional Te i o ies o P io i y In e en ion, he Social Inse ion Income (RSI), and he New Oppo uni ies P og am, o name a ew. The Ope a ional P og am o he P omo ion o Educa ion, awa ding schola ships o Cigano s uden s, and he Educa p og am o suppo Cigano s uden s in p ima y and seconda y educa ion Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 95 we e ecen ly de eloped (Magano, 2022). Much e o has also been pu in o p omo ing equal wo k oppo u‐ ni ies o , and in eg a ion o , Cigano you h in he o ‐ mal job ma ke . O ele ance o he ollowing analysis, he Municipal Media o s Pilo P ojec , launched in 2009, employs Ciganos as media o s o liaise be ween Ciganos and mains eam socie y and imp o e Ciganos’ access o local se ices (Cas o e al., 2010). 4. Conduc ing Resea ch Wi h Cigano You h: The Me hodology This s udy d aws on da a om wo‐mon h ieldwo k ca ‐ ied ou by he i s au ho wi h young Ciganos in a neighbo hood in Cascais. The o e all aim o he s udy was o explo e Cigano you hs’ ansi ions o adul hood. The i s au ho was amilia wi h he pa icipan s’ cul‐ u e and luen in he local language. Pu pose sampling s a egy was used o he selec ion o he esea ch si e, and we also elied on snowball sampling o ind Ciganos who wan ed o pa icipa e in he esea ch. I p o ed di icul o ec ui gi ls, pe haps because hey depend on pa en s’ and husbands’ consen , as pe cul u al cus‐ oms. The e o e, in‐dep h in e iews we e conduc ed wi h eigh you hs o 17 o 24 yea s o age wi h simila social o igins: Fi e boys and one gi l whose pa en s we e bo h Ciganos, and wo emale siblings (Ines and Ka ia) whose mo he was Cigano bu whose a he was no . The sample size allowed o an in‐dep h app oach o a no el analy ical insigh and gene a e ich da a (Vasileiou e al., 2018). Table 1 p o ides an o e iew o he pa ici‐ pan s’ s a u es ega ding educa ion, wo k, ma iage, and pa en hood. Mos pa icipan s’ pa en s had low school‐ ing le els (one being illi e a e). All pa icipan s li ed in social housing. The da a was collec ed be ween June and Augus 2015. The s udy was inspi ed by a igh s‐based app oach, ensu ing pa icipan s’ igh s h oughou he esea ch p ocess (Ennew e al., 2009); i had a mul i‐ me hod app oach ha included pa icipan obse a ion and in o mal dialogue, ocus g oup discussion, semi‐ s uc u ed in e iews, and used he li e‐g id me hod. Con ex ual in o ma ion abou young people’s e e yday li es was ob ained h ough pa icipan obse a ion and in o mal dialogues in communi y spaces, such as ca es, supe ma ke s, sidewalks, and ba s. This enabled de el‐ opmen and ede ini ion o esea ch hemes and con‐ ex ualiza ion o empi ical da a ga he ed h ough o he me hods (Ennew e al., 2009). Six pa icipan s pa icipa ed in wo gende ‐ seg ega ed ocus g oups: One g oup wi h h ee gi ls and one g oup wi h h ee boys (see Table 2). Examples o gene al hemes discussed a e: when is one conside ed an adul ; wha does i mean o be an adul ; simila i ies and di e ences be ween Cigano and Po uguese cul u e; ela ionships wi h non‐Ciganos. Examples o ques ions in he indi idual in e iews a e: How is/was you li e a school? How do you make a li ing? Wha cul u e do you hink in luences you he mos ? Fo pa icipan s who ound i di icul o ecall e en s o who showed di icul ies in exp essing hemsel es e bally, he li e‐g id me hod was employed. This ool and he isual o e iew o hei li e his o ies unc ioned as a good aide o memo ies (Bell, 2005). The li e e en s w i en on he g id mos ly conce ned age/e en , including wo k, amily, and cul u e, acili a ing u he discussion. Focus g oups we e ape‐ eco ded and las ed app ox‐ ima ely one hou each. The indi idual in e iews we e also ape‐ eco ded (excep one, o which no es we e made manually as his pa icipan el uncom o able Table 1. Biog aphical o e iew o pa icipan s. Schooling Ma i al/ Name Age le el Gi en easons o school d opou Occupa ion pa en al s a us B uno 19 5 h g ade Did no lea n any hing abou Cigano School media o Single/no child en his o y, cul u e, and cus oms Da id 22 5 h g ade Did no lea n use ul knowledge School media o / Ma ied/no child en D ug deale Fabio 19 12 h g ade No ele an S uden Single/no child en Gabi 17 8 h g ade Fo ced by a he Domes ic wo k Ma ied/wi h child en Ines 24 Highe No ele an Unemployed Single/no child en educa ion Ka ia 19 4 h g ade Finds educa ion unnecessa y o make Domes ic wo k Ma ied/wi h child en a li ing ( ending) Miguel 22 5 h g ade Fel s igma ized and excluded in he D ug deale Ma ied/ class oom by his eache and colleagues wi e p egnan Rui 22 5 h g ade Did no ecei e suppo and School media o Single/no child en encou agemen om home Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 96 Table 2. O e iew o pa icipan s’ gende , age, and in ol emen in esea ch ools. Name Age Gende Resea ch ools B uno 19 Boy Focus g oup/Indi idual in e iew Da id 22 Boy Focus g oup/Li e‐g id Fabio 19 Boy Indi idual in e iew Gabi 17 Gi l Focus g oup/Li e‐g id/Indi idual in e iew Ines 24 Gi l Focus g oup/Indi idual in e iew Ka ia 19 Gi l Focus g oup/Li e‐g id Miguel 22 Boy Focus g oup/Indi idual in e iew Rui 22 Boy Indi idual in e iew being eco ded) and las ed be ween 30 minu es and wo hou s. All ape eco dings we e ansc ibed e ba‐ im by he i s au ho . In analyzing he ansc ip s, we engaged in a communi y o in e p e a ion and alida ion (B inkmann & K ale, 2014). Key hemes we e iden i ied acco ding o he s udy’s aim and o ganized acco ding o desc ip i e and analy ic codes (C eswell & Po h, 2016). Recu en hemes we e school expe iences, li elihood oppo uni ies, and p epa a ion o ma iage, which s uc‐ u es he ollowing analysis. We chose exce p s desc ib‐ ing young Ciganos’ sensemaking o hei pa hways o adul hood, explo ed li e a u e and heo ies o be e unde s and he complexi y o hese pa hs, and discussed and alida ed analy ical poin s. The s udy was app o ed by he No wegian Social Science Da a Se ices. Pa icipan s p o ided bo h w i ‐ en and e bal consen be o e he s udy s a ed. They we e assu ed ha hei p i acy and anonymi y would be secu ed and ha hey could wi hd aw om he s udy a any ime wi hou p o iding any eason. The young pa ‐ icipan s decided on he enue o he in e iews and ocus g oups, sugges ing he You h Club as i was con e‐ nien and com o able, being local ye p o iding p i acy o alk eely. 5. Resul s In he ollowing, we explo e ou main hemes: (a) young Ciganos’ gende ed encoun e s wi h he school sys em; (b) childhood and adolescence as p epa a ion o ma ‐ iage; and (c) inding li elihood possibili ies a he ma ‐ gins o socie y. The hemes a e closely in e ela ed, a ec ing one ano he , as he ollowing will demons a e. 5.1. Young Ciganos’ Gende ed Encoun e s Wi h he School Sys em 5.1.1. Male Expe iences o Disc imina ion and Lack o Recogni ion Fo many Cigano boys, school li e was ma ked by disc im‐ ina ion, exclusion, and p ejudice by eache s who “o h‐ e ed” hem based on hei e hnic backg ound. Miguel ecalled: “My eache s used o pu me in a co ne by mysel and would only alk o me when o he s u‐ den s didn’ need he .” Rui and Fabio we e a o ed by hei eache s o ha ing minimal Cigano physical ai s. Rui epo ed ha his eache conside ed him a sma boy, who esponded “pe ec ly o his age men ali y.” Howe e , his changed adically when he eache s dis‐ co e ed his Cigano e hnici y and s a ed o igno e him. Like Rui, Fabio said ha no ha ing ypical Cigano ai s was o his bene i a school, and he would consciously hide his e hnici y. In addi ion o e hnic disc imina ion as a o m o o h‐ e ing Cigano boys a school, hey also exp essed a lack o ele ance o o mal schooling. While some boys c i i‐ cized he lack o Cigano his o y, cul u e, and cus oms in Po uguese na ional cu iculum, o he s el he cul u e o schooling is incompa ible wi h Cigano cul u e. Fo exam‐ ple, B uno s a ed: “Schools should also include ou his‐ o y and music.” Da id acknowledged ha schooling was necessa y o lea n o ead and w i e, which hey needed “ o ge a d i ing license” and “deal wi h go e nmen bu eauc acies,” sugges ing he e y p ac ical easons why one would a end school. He complained ha schooling should be “mo e o ien a ed o p ac ical li e.” Simila ly, Miguel did no see schooling as a means o achie e a li eli‐ hood in his u u e: “I won’ ge money om books.” B uno easoned ha he “didn’ ha e a head o be a school” and ha Ciganos “don’ go a in school.” O e all, he boys con i med a belie ha schooling is no only i ele an bu also incong uous wi h Cigano social li e and iden i y. 5.1.2. Female Expe iences o Gende ed Expec a ions The gi ls’ school expe iences di e ed somewha om he boys’, as hey did no aise he issue o disc imina‐ ion o o he ing in school. Ra he , cul u al expec a ions ega ding gi ls’ posi ion in he Cigano socie y ma ked hei ansi ion na a i es. Gabi explained ha she was o ced by he a he o lea e school in 8 h g ade o ma y (a age 16). She desc ibed he a he ’s gende ed upb ing‐ ing as he ollowing: Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 97 Fo him, I [should ha e] s opped a 5 h g ade. He hinks ha being able o ead, w i e, and coun is good enough o a gi l. Bu wi h my b o he , he was di e en . He suppo ed him and encou aged him o inish seconda y school. Gabi exp essed disappoin men in lea ing school and wished ha she had been able o con inue he s udies. She also connec ed he d opou o an ab up end o child‐ hood: “I wished I could ha e been a eenage ….I wen om childhood o adul hood.” Con a y o Gabi, Ka ia said: “I ha ed school, bu I kep going o keep he s a e bene i s.” She alked abou how emba assed she el being 16 yea s old and s udy‐ ing wi h younge child en. Ka ia pe cei ed ea ly school depa u e as he igh hing o do. She asse ed: “I don’ wan my baby gi l o con inue o s udy beyond 9 h g ade. I wan my child o ha e he same des iny as me,” mean‐ ing lea ing school o ma y. Fo Ka ia, he mo e ime a gi l spends in school, he mo e likely i is ha she will be sexu‐ ally ac i e ou side ma iage. She explained ha his is no ole a ed; a woman mus be a i gin when she ma ies. In addi ion, in he mind, school a endance inc eases he chances o a gi l encoun e ing a non‐Cigano adoles‐ cen , also s ongly discou aged by he Cigano commu‐ ni y. Acco ding o B uno, his pa en s easoned in simila ways, as his sis e s we e no allowed o con inue educa‐ ion when eaching 16: “A 16 gi ls ha e o be wi h hei pa en s, so hey won’ b ing a bad epu a ion and shame o he amily.” Ines, howe e , ollowed a di e en educa ional a‐ jec o y, mo e in line wi h mains eam cul u e and alues. Ines conside ed he sel paya—an ou cas — o acqui ‐ ing ce ain habi s and cus oms ha a e in line wi h non‐Ciganos, such as con inuing s udying and in e ac ing mos ly wi h non‐Ciganos. Ines belie ed his is a ypical in Cigano communi ies. He decision o con inue he s ud‐ ies ins ead o ma ying b ough disappoin men o he amily, she explained, being accused by he mo he and g andpa en s o dis espec ing Cigano adi ions. Despi e being encou aged o qui schooling, she began o explo e o he social eali ies beyond Cigano communi ies in 5 h g ade: “I go o know o he people who we en’ Ciganos, I s a ed o ead… hings ha I hadn’ ead be o e.” She con inued: “I s a ed o in e ac mo e wi h eache s, and hey in luenced my way o hinking, and hey somehow made me wonde : Why shouldn’ I con‐ inue o s udy? Tha he e isn’ any ha m in doing so.” 5.2. Childhood and Adolescence as P epa a ion o Ma iage As seen conce ning educa ion, p epa a ion o ma iage was a i al componen in a gi l’s upb inging. Bo h Gabi and Ka ia desc ibed lea ning di e en household ac i ‐ i ies om ea ly on o a oid p oblems wi h hei u u e husband and in‐laws. Ka ia, who ma ied a he age o 14, said his p epa a ion allowed he o become a “good woman, good mo he , and a good daugh e ‐in‐ law.” Raising a daugh e he sel , Ka ia s a ed ha she wan s he daugh e o lea e school ea ly o ma y, con‐ inuing: “Bu ins ead o ma ying a he age o 14, I wan he o ma y when she is 17.” Ines, howe e , e used o ollow he pa h aken by he younge sis e and o he amily membe s who ma ied a he age o 14 o 15. She an icipa ed being cons ained when ge ing ma ied: “As long as I am in my mo he ’s house, I can do and li e as I like….I can’ ha e paya habi s when I go o my in‐laws….I mus lis en and obey.” In he iew, ha ing been aised by a single mo he (he a he le when she was 10 yea s old) allowed he a ce ain deg ee o independence and paya li es yle. Ines spoke abou a emp s a nego ia ing he u u e, as she said she nei he wan s o ma y no lea e he mo he ’s house. This seems o ha e allowed he o con inue he s udies. The gende ed expec a ions owa ds Cigano boys in adolescence we e also connec ed o p epa a ion o ma ‐ iage, howe e wi h a di e en ocus. The boys’ upb ing‐ ing concen a ed on lea ning how o suppo hei u u e amily and become b eadwinne s. In he ocus g oup dis‐ cussion, he boys desc ibed being augh by he elde s in he amily collec i e how o nego ia e and exchange goods om an ea ly age. Rui said ha a he age o 11 o 12 hey we e expec ed o help wi h hei a he ’s busi‐ ness, as a way o lea ning “ he malice o li e’s c uel ways,” e e ing o he de elopmen o su i al s a egies. The gende ed expec a ions ega ding p epa a ion o adul hood and ma iage we e deeply en wined wi h he socio‐spa ial adius o gi ls and boys in hei adolescence. While he gi ls we e p epa ed o domes ic asks and oles, he boys lea ned how o na iga e public space socially as well as spa ially. As B uno said: “Fo Ciganos i is wo se o be a gi l han a boy because a gi l can’ go ou as a boy does. I she does, she will b ing a bad ep‐ u a ion.” Since public space is pe cei ed as h ea ening o gi ls’ i gini y (“pu i y”), a he ime o ma iage, hey ha e, acco ding o B uno, “ o s ay a home” and, in he wo ds o Rui, be “in cha ge o he house.” Res ic ing he socio‐spa ial adius o gi ls ci cum‐ sc ibed hei social li es and educed hei chances o mee ing a non‐Cigano pa ne , in he same manne as lea ing school ea ly, as men ioned abo e. The pa ici‐ pan s explained ha hey a e expec ed o ha e in a‐ e hnic ma iage and ind a spouse wi hin hei own com‐ muni y. I no , he amily is looked down upon and loses espec in he communi y. As Ka ia e lec ed: “I my baby gi l ends up ma ying someone wi h a di e en e hnic backg ound, I will kick he ou o he house.” 5.3. Finding Li elihood Possibili ies a he Ma gins o Socie y The young pa icipan s exp essed a sense o economic esponsibili y owa ds hei amilies and e ealed c e‐ a i i y ega ding how o ge by. Ka ia occasionally pa ‐ icipa ed in in o mal ending ac i i ies. Al hough she Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 98 ini ially wan ed o wo k in a nu se y, Ka ia easoned ha he educa ional backg ound p e en ed he om secu ing such a job. Howe e , she complained ha he ending e enue combined wi h child bene i s and RSI was no enough o p o ide o he sel , he husband, and hei daugh e . Thus, she depended on inancial help om he mo he and mo he ‐in‐law. Gabi did no ecei e any amily allowance o child bene i s and hus aspi ed o complemen he domes ic wo k wi h o mal wo k. Despi e lacking expe ience in income‐gene a ing ac i i ies, she easoned ha she migh ind a job as a cleane . She exp essed disappoin men ha nei he he a he no husband allowed he o wo k, indica ing s ong gende ed oles, esponsibili ies, and powe hie ‐ a chies wi hin he amily. Despi e ha ing a bachelo ’s deg ee in social wo k, Ines explained ha secu ing a job u ned ou o be di i‐ cul : “I g adua ed las yea and since hen I began looking o a job [as a social wo ke ], bu all my applica ions ha e been unsuccess ul. I ha en’ e en been called o an in e ‐ iew in any place I applied.” Due o amily obliga ions and ha ing o suppo he mo he who had heal h issues, she sough empo a y employmen as a ho el housekeepe : “I had o conside any kind o job because my mo he isn’ e y well. I can’ si back and wai o he job I eally wan .” Ines emained op imis ic and an icipa ed ha con inu‐ ing he s udies and comple ing a mas e ’s deg ee would make he “mo e a ac i e o he labo ma ke .’’ Fo he boys in he s udy, li elihood p ospec s we e somewha di e en . Some o hem we e employed as media o s, a job ela i ely common among Ciganos, liais‐ ing be ween he Cigano communi ies and mains eam socie y. Fo Rui, he job as a media o was seen as an oppo uni y ha allowed him o de elop aluable skills and expe iences and inish high school. He wan ed “ o be somebody in li e” and d eam o “becoming a banke .” Some exp essed ha despi e secu ing a media o posi‐ ion, whe e hei e hnic backg ound was ound alu‐ able, hey s ill expe ienced p ejudice. B uno, o ins ance, explained: “The p oblem is when we ell hem how o deal wi h he kids [Cigano child en], hey igno e wha we say. They don’ lis en o us. Bu we know how Cigano kids wo k, hey don’ .” Wi h a low le el o educa ion, di icul ies in access‐ ing he o mal job ma ke , and money p oblems, Miguel and Da id sea ched o income possibili ies a he ille‐ gal ma gins o socie y, epo ing o engage in d ug ade. Miguel desc ibed how he had o inancially suppo his p egnan wi e, g andmo he , and a he who was ecen ly eleased om jail. He d eam o in es ing his income in a business o buying a house bu easoned ha “ he money… om selling d ugs is only enough o ood and accommoda ion.’’ 6. Discussion The empi ical ma e ial p o ides insigh in o how ansi‐ ions o adul hood may un old in con empo a y Cigano communi ies in u ban Po ugal. The s udy e eals a se ies o school expe iences and pe cep ions, hea ily in luenced by he you hs’ e hnic iden i y and gende . The boys expe ienced being “o he ed” in wo ways, bo h by being disc imina ed by eache s and by no inding el‐ e ance in o mal schooling, which ollows he s udy o Smi h (1997). In addi ion o an a e sion o he le el o heo iza ion o con empo a y schooling, hey also ound ha hei cul u e and his o y we e made in isible and insigni ican in he cu icula ac i i ies. Despi e his, he boys comple ed mo e schooling han he gi ls, suppo ‐ ing indings in p e ious s udies wi h young Ciganos in Po ugal (Magano, 2010, 2017; Mendes & Magano, 2016; Mendes e al., 2014). Magano (2017) also ound ha Cigano men p o ide di e en easons o no comple ing compulso y educa ion, o en s essing pe sonal choice a he han a pa en al decision. In he gi ls’ ansi ion na a i es, a di e si y o mind‐ se s conce ning educa ion eme ged. In Gabi’s case, she no only wished o con inue schooling bu also pe ‐ cei ed a ending o mal educa ion as a c ucial pa o adolescence. Ha ing been denied his oppo uni y by he amily, she eckoned ha she had “los ” he you h. This social cons uc ion o you h es s upon a no ma‐ i e unde s anding aligned wi h mains eam socie y, whe e con inued schooling is seen o p o ide b ea h‐ ing space be ween childhood and adul hood, p olong‐ ing he pe iod wi hou hea y amily esponsibili ies. Ines, who was able o con inue s udying, pe cei ed he school enue as a place o expand he social, educa ional, and cul u al ho izons—a place whe e she could explo e and de elop he paya iden i y. Ka ia, on he o he hand, ega ded schooling as d ead ul, as a necessa y e il o ob ain s a e bene i s. He iewpoin s aligned wi h adi ional Cigano alues and wo ld iew, whe e he school a ena inc eases he isk o gi ls encoun e ing non‐Cigano boys, seen as a h ea o he p ese a ion o emale i gini y. The gi ls’ educa ional ajec o ies we e hea ily in luenced by gen‐ de ed expec a ions conce ning amily obliga ions and ma iage, seen as a key ansi ion o adul hood by mos o he pa icipan s. This is in line wi h p e ious esea ch, s a ing ha when young Cigano gi ls each pube y, he amily becomes mo e p o ec i e (Magano, 2022). The socio‐spa ial and empo al eedom is seen as con agious and dange ous, h ea ening he “pu i y” o gi ls who spend ime wi h non‐Ciganos (Magano, 2022; Mendes e al., 2014). In Magano’s (2022, p. 4) wo ds, “ he goal o p ese ing i gini y un il ma iage makes he a hos age o he amily, p e en ing he om p olonged schooling o p o essional unde akings ou side o he domes ic sphe e.’’ How gi ls and boys we e socialized in o—and p e‐ pa ed o — hei u u e olesas husbands and wi es we e highly gende ed and ancho ed in Cigano cul u al no ms and cus oms. While he gi ls lea ned abou domes ic asks and ained o be “good” wi es, mo he s, and in‐laws, he boys we e augh how o economically Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 99 sus ain he amily by seizing mone a y oppo uni ies a ailable in socie y. This echoes Magano’s (2022) ind‐ ings ha he Cigano amily has a c ucial ole in p ese ing gende ‐based adi ions ega ding ma i al commi men s, e en i his con lic s wi h schooling. Magano eminds us ha amily p essu e makes i ha d o ejec Cigano al‐ ues and expec a ions. Bea ing in mind he pa ia chal na u e o Cigano cul u e, he absence o Ines’ a he seems o ha e p o ided he mo e leeway in choosing he li e ajec o y. Thei gende ed oles also had a g ea impac on hei li elihood ajec o ies. Ea ning a li ing en ailed d awing on wha e e esou ces a ailable, anging om social ben‐ e i s o o mal employmen whils ba ie s encoun e ed included in e nal cul u al and gende ed pe cep ions and s uc u al disc imina ion in bo h he educa ional sys em and he job ma ke (see also Magano, 2017). Many pa ‐ icipan s exp essed being challenged by needing o mal educa ion and skill aining o ind wo k due o he g owing social di ision o he labo ma ke in con em‐ po a y Po ugal. All he gi ls exp essed a wish o con‐ ibu e o he amily economy, ye hei op ions a ied. Al hough Cigano emale labo o ce is o u mos impo ‐ ance o he su i al o he amily (Mendes e al., 2014), hei ole emains ied o—and alo ized o — asks con‐ duc ed in he domes ic ealm (Magano, 2022). This o en esul s in a si ua ion whe e he women a e o e bu ‐ dened (Mendes & Magano, 2016). In his s udy, bo h Ka ia and Gabi had ex ensi e domes ic asks. While Ka ia some imes also ook pa in ending ac i i ies, Gabi’s amily denied he access o income‐gene a ing ac i i‐ ies. Cigano women’s obedience o male au ho i y is no o en ques ioned, and i is in e nalized om an ea ly age as necessa y o g oup cohesion and ha mony (Lopes, 2008). Women ques ioning o ejec ing adi ional oles isk amily con lic o being cu o en i ely (Magano, 2010), such as seen in he case o Ines, who s udied and pa icipa ed in he o mal job ma ke despi e he am‐ ily’s disapp o al. Wi h limi ed school and wo k oppo uni ies, h ee boys in his s udy iewed hei job as media o s as he mos easible ga eway o o mal employmen . Al hough Cigano media o s a e seen as impo an o b idge he gap be ween Cigano communi ies and mains eam socie y (Magano & Mendes, 2021), some o he young media o s epo ed expe iences o exclusion and disc imina ion. Two boys also engaged in li elihoods ha a e deemed “immo al” by socie y. As such, his s udy di e s om he indings o Mendes and Magano (2016) in ha no all Cigano pa icipan s wo ked in he o mal labo ma ‐ ke . Being in ol ed in he d ug ade, Miguel and Da id we e acu ely awa e ha li elihood choices a e no neu‐ al bu engende p ocesses o inclusion and exclusion. Thei uncon en ional li elihood choice con lic ed wi h mains eam socie y, ein o cing hei posi ions as socially excluded (see U sin & Abebe, 2017). Ra he han pe ‐ cei ing ce ain li elihoods as ma ginalized, hese li eli‐ hoods mus be seen as eme ging in ma ginalized con‐ ex s, acknowledging he socio‐cul u al, economic, poli ‐ ical, and his o ical condi ions ha keep some Cigano you h a he ma gin. Al hough mos li e a u e and pol‐ icymaking deem in ol emen in uncon en ional li eli‐ hoods as ailed o un ul illed ansi ions, i is necessa y o decouple he link be ween adul hood and he o mal labo ma ke ( an Ble k, 2008) and ecognize i as al e ‐ na i e ansi ions o adul hood (U sin & Abebe, 2017). The empi ical ma e ial sugges s ha he socially con‐ s uc ed cha ac e o bo h educa ion and wo k should be enego ia ed and econs uc ed. Ra he han ak‐ ing o g an ed ha educa ion equalizes o mal school‐ ing, his s udy sugges s ha in o mal educa ion and in e gene a ional ans e o skills and alues among Ciganos a e impo an o success in en e ing adul ‐ hood. Fu he mo e, in o mal educa ion—in ela ion o in ol emen in bo h domes ic asks and ending—is di ‐ icul o disce n om con ibu ions o in o mal wo k. A he same ime, o mal schooling is seen, in he case o Ka ia, as wo k, ea ning s a e bene i s due o he school a endance. The ansi ion na a i es o hese you hs s and in con‐ as o no ma i e unde s andings o you h and young adul hood, and hei ansi ions a e o en ende ed “de ian ” by no ma i e unde s andings. Fo ins ance, while ea ly ma iage, eenage p egnancy, and school d opou a e commonly pe cei ed as “social p oblems,” se e al o he pa icipan s see hese as bo h necessa y and no mal in o de o en e adul hood. Fu he mo e, esea ch and policy on you h ansi ions in he Global No h ha e ended o concep ualize he school‐ o‐wo k ansi ion as consis ing o wo ch onologically sepa a ed domains, based on he assump ion ha young people do no wo k while hey s udy and ha schooling esul s in ele an employmen . Fo he Cigano you h in his s udy, his dicho omy is p oblema ic as all pa icipan s had been wo king since childhood, combining schooling wi h domes ic o emune a ed ac i i ies. Hence, he engage‐ men in ( enume a ed) wo k does no unc ion as a de ‐ ini e “ma ke ” o adul hood. In addi ion, he imagined mo e om dependence o independence, ei he ela‐ ionally o economically, does no ma e ialize o mos young Cigano adul s, as hei social li e and cul u e es upon a deep s a e o in e gene a ional in e dependence. This is seen in how young people depend on hei pa ‐ en s and in‐laws, and he o he way a ound, in he case o Ines’ sick mo he . Wi hin ansi ion s udies, ma iage is seen as ha ing los i s key unc ion as a ma ke o adul s a us (A ne , 2007), ye among many o hese Ciganos ma iage was pe cei ed as a co ne s one in becoming an adul (see also Magano, 2022). In ac , g ea pa s o hei child‐ hoods and you h e ol ed a ound p epa a ion o ma ‐ ied li e when hey a e expec ed o wo k, ake ca e o each o he , and aise child en o hei own. This also high‐ ligh s he longi udinal cha ac e o ansi ions and shows ha i al ansi ions occu h oughou he li e cou se o mos Ciganos, in hei childhood, p esen being, and Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 100 u u e becomings (Elde e al., 2002). Commen ing on he app op ia ion o no ma i e ideals o wha cons i u e a “no mal” you h ansi ion, Valen ine and Skel on (2007, p. 105) highligh ed ha “no all young people ei he aspi e o all o hese ‘no ms,’ o achie e hem in a o m ha can be measu ed o acknowledge in con en ional ways.” Many young Ciganos li ing in Po ugal will nei he achie e no should be expec ed o achie e adul hood based on linea and no ma i e no ions, as hei li es unde sco e he impo ance o a “mul iplici y o u u es” in g asping he complexi y and di e si y o ansi ions (Je ey, 2010). The empi ical ma e ial suppo s he idea o social age, whe e age is p oduced by no ma i e age‐based assump ions on how o beha e along he li e cou se (Laz, 1998). The s udy b ings o he su ace he impo ance o bo h e hnici y and gende in he making o social age, whe e age‐based expec a ions o he Po uguese mains eam socie y and policymaking o en di e om hose o he local Cigano communi y ega ding school‐ ing, wo k obliga ions, ma iage, and childbea ing. Mos o he pa icipan s con o med o Cigano no ms, ep o‐ ducing he “Cigano way o li e” (Magano, 2022). Howe e , some ques ioned p e ailing no ms, mos isibly Ines. In many ways, Ines’ li e ajec o y is aligned wi h, and adap ed o, mains eam alues and poli ical objec i es, aking highe educa ion and pos poning ma iage and p egnancy. O e all, he s udy hus con i ms p e ious esea ch indings ha he deg ee o impo ance gi en o Cigano cus oms and adi ions a ies among he young gene a ion o Ciganos (Magano, 2022; Mendes & Magano, 2016). In ela ion o his, he impo ance o young peo‐ ple’s linked li es (Heinz, 2009) in molding hei ansi ion expe iences also becomes appa en . The ela ionships in which hei li es a e embedded p o ide s ong expec‐ a ions, s uc u al bene i s and ba ie s, and deg ees o leeway o hei own agen ic beha io , anging om eel‐ ing in cha ge o majo li e decisions o being subjec o social p essu e. This is, o ins ance, seen in he case o o mal educa ion, whe e Gabi wished she had con in‐ ued s udying while Ines emained in school despi e he amily’s disapp o al. In mos cases, amily and commu‐ ni y seem o o m he basis o hei linked li es, being he dominan o ce in he li e choices o you h. This concu s wi h p e ious s udies on Cigano communi ies, documen ing s ong in a‐e hnic sociabili y and solida ‐ i y whe e he amily is he keys one (Mendes & Magano, 2016). Howe e , Ines’ ajec o y shows how he scope o agency is enac ed h ough esis ance o he e hnic backg ound while acili a ed by he ou ‐o ‐communi y in e pe sonal ela ionships. Connec ing wi h suppo i e eache s mo i a ed he o s udy wi hin an in e cul u al social en i onmen ha su passed he Cigano communi‐ ies. He ajec o y di e s g ea ly om ha o he sis e , Ka ia, who emained loyal o he Cigano gende ed oles and alues, wishing likewise o he daugh e . By d aw‐ ing a en ion o he o ma ions o linked li es, we ecog‐ nize he impo ance o bo h sel ‐iden i ica ion (as Cigano o paya) and sense o belonging (in he Cigano o he mains eam communi y) as pa o hei na iga ions in o young adul hood (c . Robe son e al., 2018; Wyn e al., 2019). 7. Conclusion Following ecen de elopmen s in c i ical you h s ud‐ ies, his s udy shows he need o ocus on indi idual oices and expe iences in un a eling he complexi y o he ansi ion expe iences o Cigano you h in Po ugal. The indings ha e shown ha p edominan and no ma‐ i e ideas, alues, and no ms ha end o ocus on one speci ic ansi ion need o be p o ac ed in o de o us o unde s and hei cul u al‐speci ic con ex . Fu he mo e, he s udy sugges ed some o he ways in which gen‐ de and e hnici y shape he mul iple ansi ions o adul ‐ hood o young Ciganos. We a gue ha he socially con‐ s uc ed cha ac e o you h ansi ions, including he school‐ o‐wo k model, should be acknowledged. In addi‐ ion, bo h esea ch and policies conce ning you h ansi‐ ions should be mo e lexible, aking in o conside a ion he di e en eali ies and embodied expe iences o con‐ empo a y you h and emb acing social eali ies and cul‐ u es ha emain ma ginalized. To make sense o local and global policies on inc eas‐ ing school en olmen and i s impac on Cigano/Roma you h, i is necessa y o balance a en ion no only o he ele ance o lea ning and sui abili y o skills o wo k oppo uni ies bu also o young people’s cons ained choices, especially o Cigano/Roma gi ls. Ye , he he ‐ e ogeneous cha ac e o he ways Cigano/Roma you h na iga e in o adul hood migh ende i di icul o c e‐ a e alid solu ions. To ca e o he di e si y o you h a‐ jec o ies wi nessed in his s udy, we sugges ha poli‐ cymake s’ ini ia i es should be highly con ex ‐sensi i e and indi idually ailo ed, ejec ing he idea o “one‐size‐ i s‐all.” In addi ion, policy ini ia i es need o be wa y o cul u al condi ions as bo h a esou ce and a po en‐ ial ba ie in young people’s li es. We p opose encou ‐ aging Cigano/Roma child en and you h o in eg a e in o he o mal educa ional sys em, he eby enhancing hei u u e chances in he o mal labo ma ke , a he same ime as hey should be encou aged o main ain hei cul‐ u al he i age. I is c ucial o schools o be mo e inclu‐ si e and ep esen a i e, enhancing a sense o belong‐ ing among Cigano/Roma s uden s. This includes ha ing Cigano/Roma his o y, cul u e, and music on he cu icu‐ lum as well as aising eache s’ consciousness abou Cigano/Roma cul u e and he de imen al e ec s o e h‐ nic disc imina ion and ma ginaliza ion. Acknowledgmen s Ou since e g a i ude goes o he young people who ook pa in his s udy. Thei openness and gene osi y o sha e hei li e s o ies gene a ed in aluable in o ma ion Social Inclusion, 2022, Volume 10, Issue 4, Pages 93–104 101