Influence of milling type on tef injera quality

In luence o Milling Type on Te Inje a Quali y Yoseph Asse aa,⁎, Shimelis Emi ea, Ma ina Villanue ab, Wo kineh Abebec, Felicidad Rondab a Addis Ababa Ins i u e o Technology, School o Chemical Enginee ing, Food Enginee ing S eam, P.O. Box 385, Addis Ababa, E hiopia b College o Ag icul u al and Fo es y Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Valladolid, A . Mad id 57, 34004 Palencia, Spain c E hiopian Ins i u e o Ag icul u al Resea ch, P.O. Box 2003, Addis Ababa, E hiopia Abs ac Inje a is an E hiopian la b ead ha is mos ly made om e lou . Inje a making on an indus ial scale holds a signi ican economic and social in e es bu equi es a ho ough s udy o how he p ocess a iables a ec he p oduc quali y. The aim o his wo k was o in es iga e he e ec s o mill ype (hamme , disc, and blade) on inje a senso y quali y and s a ch diges ibili y. The applica ion o so wa e o he de e mina ion o inje a quali y desc ip o s and i s compa ison wi h isual human eye e alua ion was also es ablished. Inje a made wi h disc mill lou had highe o e all accep abili y (6.6) han ha ob ained om hamme mill (4.2) and blade mill (4.1) lou s. The inje a made wi h blade mill lou ob ained he lowes apidly a ailable glucose and apidly diges ible s a ch. The ou come o in oducing so wa e o he de e mina ions o inje a numbe o eyes was ound e ec i e; i s di e ence wi h human eye de e mina ion was insigni ican . Keywo ds: Te ; Milling; Inje a quali y; Senso y quali y e alua ion so wa e 1. In oduc ion Inje a is lea ened, la ound E hiopian adi ional b ead made om ce eals such as e and so ghum (Pasqualone, 2018). I s su ace has essen ially e enly spaced gas holes ha make up a honeycomb-like s uc u e o med due o he p oduc ion o gas du ing e men a ion and baking. Inje a has a shiny and smoo h bo om su ace. As s a ed by he wo k o Ye nebe k e al. (2004), good inje a is exp essed as so and oll-able. A sligh sou ness is a cha ac e is ic as e o inje a. Because inje a is lea ened b ead made om na u al glu en- ee lou , i has g ea po en ial o comme cial p oduc ion in e na ionally. Inje a p epa ed om he lou o e [E ag os is e (Zucc.) T o e ], a iny, mille -like g ain, is he mos p e e ed (Ye nebe k e al., 2004).Te is an E hiopian indigenous opical ce eal c op, and i has been cul i a ed o many yea s in he E hiopian highlands (Viswana h, 2012). I is he main s aple in he coun y and is mos ly used o make inje a. Te ep esen s 24% o he g ain c op a ea in E hiopia and 17.6% o he g ain p oduc ion (Cen al S a is ical Au ho i y, 2015). The whole e g ain is g ound o lou o making inje a, local be e age po idges and soup and unlea ened b ead (Bul osa and Taylo , 2004).The sizes o he seed a e e y small, anging om 0.6–1 mm diame e and 1–1.7 mm long wi h l000 seed weigh a e aging 0.3–0.4 g and 150 g ains o e ha e compa able weigh wi h almos one seed o whea (Disks a, 2008).Te g ain p oduc s a e nu i ionally ich because hey a e ea en as whole g ain wi h he signi ican ly highe con en o ibe , ca bohyd a e (USDA, 2007), i on, zinc and calcium han whea , ba ley and so ghum (Abebe e al., 2007). Due o he absence o glu en and glu en-like p o eins, e has ecen ly been popula globally pa icula ly, as a “heal hy ood”, making i igh o celiac disease pa ien s (Spaenij-Dekking e al., 2005), and in addi ion, because o o he die a y bene i s such as he slow- elease o ca bohyd a e cons i uen s, i is use ul o diabe ic pa ien s (Abebe and Ronda, 2014). Depending on he mechanical o ces and empe a u e du ing he g inding p ocess, a ious milling o g inding me hods ha e been in oduced o p oduce di e en lou s wi h di e en pa icle size and s a ch damage le el(Kadan, B yan & Mille , 2008).In E hiopia, mos ly disk millisused o g ind e g ain in he homemade inje a p ocess. Howe e , o he ypes o mills ha e no been checked o hei be e quali y o inje a. The e ec o milling echnique on he senso y a ibu es o whole-whea pan b ead was s udied by Kihlbe g e al. (2004). The esul showed ha echnique o milling had a g ea e in luence on b ead senso y quali y and on he slice a ea han did he baking echnique and a ming sys em. Howe e , echniques o milling on senso y a ibu es o e inje a emain lacking. The numbe , size, and dis ibu ion o holes (commonly called eyes) on he inje asu ace ep esen one o he mos impo an quali y a ibu es o inje a (Ye nebe k e al., 2005). Howe e , de e mina ions o hese inje a quali y desc ip o s a e e y di icul due o he na u e o i s uncoun able eyes, which lead o subjec i e quali y e alua ion. Due o his, he inje a s anda d, which was de eloped by he E hiopian s anda d agency, lacks hese quali y a ibu es in measu able o m. Cu en ly, as inje a indus ializa ion is eme ging, a sys ema ic way o inje a quali y de e mina ion (inje a numbe o eyes, eye size, and eye dis ibu ions) is manda o y o main aining uni o m quali y. The e o e, he objec i e o his esea ch was o in es iga e he e ec s o h ee di e en mill ypes (Hamme , Disc, and blade) on inje a senso ial quali y and s a ch diges ibili y and o compa e a so wa e-based e alua ion o inje a quali y desc ip o s wi h isual e alua ion. 2. Ma e ials and me hods 2.1 Ma e ials Based on i s popula i y among E hiopian e a me s and use s, he Qouncho e a ie y (DZ-C - 387) was selec ed and ob ained om he Deb eZei Ag icul u al Resea ch Cen e o he E hiopian Ins i u e o Ag icul u al Resea ch (EIAR). The e sample was he me ically s o ed in a cool and d y place using polye hylene bag. Be o e milling, he e g ain was cleaned by si ing. 2.2 Te milling Te g ain was milled using h ee ypes o mills o ob ain he whole lou o he e sample. The i s one was he Hamme mill (HM) (Pe en 120, Finland) wi h a 0.8 mm sie e i ed inside as pa o he mill, he second mill was he s one-disk mill (DM) (co age e g ain-milling, Denma k) and he hi d mill was he blade mill (BM) (Nu i Bulle NB-101B, China).One kg o sample was milled by HM and DM o 7 minu es, and i e kg o samples we e milled by BM o 7 minu es a ambien empe a u e. 2.3 Inje a p epa a ion The e inje a samples we e p epa ed acco ding o Pa ke e al. (1989) and Zegeye (1997). An amoun o s a e (E sho) equal o 60 ml was ini ially added o each kg o lou . E sho is a small amoun o ba e kep om p e ious dough o s a i s s age e men a ion (Pa ke e al., 1989). The e lou was mixed 2:3 (w/w) wi h po able wa e and kneaded by hand in a bowl un il ob aining a homogenous mix u e in he adi ional way. The dough was allowed o spon aneously e men o 60 hou s a oom empe a u e (30  5) ºC in an inje a baking household in Addis Ababa, E hiopia. A e his p ima y e men a ion, 10% o he dough was mixed 1:3 ( / ) wi h boiling wa e and hea ed o 15 min wi h con inuous s i ing. The ho cooked dough (absi ) was hen mixed back in o he e men ing dough, and su icien po able wa e was added o make a ba e . The ba e was le co e ed o 2 hou s o seconda y e men a ion. Addi ional wa e was added o hin and o m he igh consis ency o he ba e . Finally, hal a li e o ba e was pou ed on o he ho clay g iddle in a ci cula o m. A e 2-3 min o cooking using adi ional elec ic inje a baking equipmen , he inje a was emo ed and placed in a baske . 2.4 Flou cha ac e iza ion 2.4.1 P oxima e analysis Te g ain was milled using a s one-disc mill and lou p oxima e composi ion (C ude p o ein, a , ash, ibe ) was de e mined using AACC me hods (AACC, 2000). To al ca bohyd a e was de e mined by di e ence o 100% (FAO, 2003). 2.4.2 Flou colo Flou colo was e alua ed acco ding o he me hods o Abebe, Colla & Ronda (2015). The spec opho ome e was used o lou colo measu emen s. CIE L*a*b coo dina es we e used o ob ain he esul by using he D65 s anda d illuminan and he 2◦s anda d obse e . The hue (h) and he ch oma (C*) we e calcula ed om Eqs. (1) and (2) espec i ely.  )1( an * * 1 a b h      )2( 2 1 2 * 2 **        baC 2.4.3 Pa icle size dis ibu ion Acco ding o Si a amak ishnan, Senge, and Cha opadhyay (2003), he pa icle size dis ibu ion was e alua ed by passing he e lou h ough an au oma ic s anda d sie e shake (Re sch, Ge many) ha con ains 5 sie es. Sie es wi h he sizes o 710, 500, 250, 125 and 90m we e used. The pe cen age ac ion o he sample e ained on each sie e was measu ed by weighing. 2.4.4 Damaged s a ch e alua ion The damaged s a ch le el o he e lou samples was de e mined acco ding o he AACC me hod (AACC, 2012) using a Megazyme s a ch damage ki (Megazyme In e na ional I eland L d., Co., Wicklow, I eland). Abso bance was ead a 510 nm in a mic opla e eade om BIOTEKEPOCH (Izasa, Ba celona, Spain). The damaged s a ch le el o he e lou was de e mined as a pe cen age o he lou weigh on a d y basis. 2.4.5 Scanning elec on mic oscopy (SEM) Scanning Elec on Mic oscope (SEM) model Quan a 200-F (FEI, O egon, USA) equipped wi h an X- ay de ec o was used o examine he h ee e lou s. Samples we e di ec ly placed on s ubs, and obse a ions we e done by accele a ing ol age o 1.5 keV. 2.5. Inje a quali y analysis 2.5.1 S a ch ac ions analysis The me hod by Englys , Kingman, and Cummings (1992) was used o measu e in i o s a ch diges ibili y o e inje a wi h he modi ica ions by Englys e al.(1999); Englys e al. (2000). The hyd olyzed glucose a 20 min (G20) and 120 min (G120) and he o al glucose (TG) we e measu ed by he glucose oxidase colo ime ic me hod. The ee suga glucose (FGS) con en was measu ed by a sepa a e es acco ding o he p ocedu e p oposed by Englys e al. (2000). Rapidly diges ed s a ch (RDS) = 0.9 * (G20 − FGS), slowly diges ible s a ch (SDS) = 0.9 * (G120 − G20), esis an s a ch (RS) = 0.9 * (TG − G120), o o al s a ch, (TS) = 0.9 * (TG − FGS) and apidly a ailable glucose o he sample (RAG) = G20 we e calcula ed. As used by Abebe, Colla , and Ronda (2015), he s a ch diges ibili y a e index (SDRI) was compu ed om he pe cen age o RDS in TS in he lou s. 2.5.2 Desc ip i e senso y analysis The senso y e alua ion was conduc ed by a panel ained acco ding o Eins ein (1991). The selec ed panelis s we e es ed o hei abili y o de ec basic as es (Jellinek 1985). The selec ed panel comp ised 10 people, as ecommended by S one and Sidel (1985). They we e emales and males, who we e s uden s a Addis Ababa Uni e si y. Nine inje a quali y desc ip o s we e used o e alua ion: colo , as e, odo , ex u e (deg ee o so ness), inje a numbe o eyes, eye size, eye dis ibu ion (eye uni o mi y), and op and bo om su ace (deg ee o being powde y and s icky); o e all accep abili y was also e alua ed. A sco e shee was p epa ed using he selec ed desc ip o s. Each one o he a ibu e was e alua ed using a 10-poin nume ical scale (0–9) ancho ed on bo h sides wi h e bal desc ip ions (i.e., 0 = unpleasan , 9 = pleasan ) o allow he panel o sco e he in ensi y on a amed common scale. Good senso y p ac ices we e ollowed acco ding o Lawless and Heymann (1999). Inje a samples we e p esen ed o he panelis s on a ay a ambien empe a u e (≈25°C) wi hin 3-4 h a e baking. A glass o d inking wa e was used o insing be ween samples. 2.5.3 So wa e based inje a quali y e alua ion Pho os o inje a samples we e acqui ed and impo ed in o ImageJ so wa e ( e sion 2) de e mining inje a numbe o eyes, eye size, and eye dis ibu ions. Inje a pho os we e con e ed o g ay scale using ImageJ so wa e, and he so wa e con e ed he image in o de ec able o m o easily ecognize he inje a eyes. 2.6 S a is ical analysis Analysis o a iance was pe o med on he da a o es ablish signi ican (p <0.05) di e ences be ween he samples. All analyses we e done in duplica e, and he desc ip i e ca ego ies we e con e ed o nume ical sco es. The sco es we e hen subjec ed o analysis o a iance using SPSS s a is ical so wa e (Ve sion 16), and he means o duplica e esul s we e compa ed by Tukey’s Hones ly signi ican di e ence es . 3. Resul s and discussion 3.1. Flou cha ac e is ics 3.1.1 P oxima e composi ion Te sample has 10.9±1.2% o mois u e and 2.13±0.01% o ash con en . Baye (2014) p esen ed a simila esul o ash con en (2.8).Whea (1.6) and so ghum (1.6) ha e lesse amoun s o ash han ha o he e sample. The highe ash con en o he sample could be due o i s highe ibe con en , as e lou comes om whole g ain (Abebe & Ronda 2014). Howe e , he a (2.53±0.29%), p o ein (10.99±0.29%) and ca bohyd a e (81.35±0.21%) con en s o he sample ag eed wi h hose o he epo ha was compiled by Baye (2014) wi h 2.5% o a , 11.0% o p o ein and 80% o ca bohyd a e in d y ma e . The highe con ibu ion o b an o he whole e g ain lou composi ion could be explained by he smalle size o he e g ain (Bul osa, 2007), which gi es a highe su ace a ea o b an pe uni amoun o g ain, in compa ison wi h whole whea . Howe e , he c ude p o ein con en o he sample is sligh ly highe han so ghum (8.3) and compa able o whea (11.7). 3.1.2 Flou colo The colo coo dina es o he e lou s ob ained om he h ee mills a e summa ized in Table 1. Al hough he alues o he coo dina es show signi ican di e ences, he colo di e ences, E, ha esul ed we e low enough o be app ecia ed by he human eye (<5), excep o he blade mill lou , which depic ed signi ican ly lowe ligh ness han he lou s om he wo o he mills. The e ec o mill ype on he colo o he e lou s a ied signi ican ly; his a ia ion may come om he di e ence in milling p inciples among he h ee mills. Ligh ness (L*), hue angle (h*) and ch oma (c*) o samples a ied signi ican ly among HM, DM, and BM (Table 1). DMF (87.7) had signi ican ly highe ligh ness, which was ollowed by HMF (85.3) and BMF (71.0).Such an e ec o mill ype could p obably be ela ed o he deg ee o b eaking and pul e iza ion o he b an o he e g ains. The hue angle o he h ee lou a ied signi ican ly in he o de BMF (68.9) < HMF (71.4) < DMF (72.7). This seems sligh ly di e en om he wo k o Abebe e al. (2015) in he case o cyclo ech sample mill (L* 83.2, h* 85.3) and disk mill (L* 81.7, h* 85.2). Howe e , he ch oma o lou s a ied signi ican ly in he o de DMF (15.1) < HMF (17.1) < BMF (18.5). Howe e , he ch oma o lou om he disk mill ag eed wi h he epo by Abebe e al. (2015) o cyclo ech and disk mill (14.6 and 15.4). Table 1. Te lou colo Mill L* a* b* h* c* HMF 85.3 ± 0.0b 5.45± 0.0b 16.2 ± 0.0b 71.4± 0.04b 17.1 ± 0.0b DMF 87.7± 0.0c 4.50 ± 0.0a 14.5± 0.01a 72.7± 0.03c 15.1 ± 0.0a BMF 71.0± 0.02a 6.68± 0.01c 17.3 ± 0.01c 68.9± 0.04a 18.5± 0.0c HMF, DMF, and BMF s and o lou om hamme , disk and blade mills, espec i ely. Da a a e exp essed as he mean ± s anda d de ia ions; di e en supe sc ip s in he same column indica e s a is ically signi ican di e ences (P < 0.05). L*, a*, and b* a e CIE coo dina es, h = hue, and C* = ch oma. 3.1.3 Pa icle size dis ibu ion Pa icle size dis ibu ions o he h ee e lou (HMF, DMF, and BMF) showed a signi ican di e ence in pe cen e en ion a all sie e sizes used, excep a 710m (Table 2). In pa icula , a 500 and 250m sie e, 6.7 and 56.2% o BMF was e ained, espec i ely, which was signi ican ly highe han ha o HMF (0.2 and 18.9%) and DMF (0.2 and 2.9%). Howe e , DMF was e ained signi ican ly in a lowe amoun han ha o HMF on 250m sie e. Flou e en ion on125m sie e a ied signi ican ly in he o de BMF (31.1%) < DMF (35.4%) < HMF (44.5%). Fo sie e size (90 and < 90m), lou pa icles a ied signi ican ly in he o de BMF (5.9 and 0%) < HMF (10.9, 25.4) < DMF (28.9, 32.6), espec i ely. The eason o ha ing di e en pa icle size dis ibu ions is pe haps due o he di e ence in milling p ocedu es among he h ee mills. The hamme mill c ushed he g ain epea edly un il i passed h ough he sie e ha was i ed inside he mill. Te g ain was g ound be ween wo s one-discs in he case o disc mill. The blade mill had o a y blades o g ind he g ain. 3.1.4 Damaged s a ch Table 5. Applica ion o so wa e in inje a quali y e alua ion Inje a To al numbe o eyes (Human Eye) To al Numbe o eyes pe squa e (So wa e) Eye dis ibu ion and size <1mm (%) 1-4mm (%) 4-7mm (%) 7-10mm (%) HMI 224±3.4 224±4.0 41.6±1.2 55.2±1.4 3.2±0.1 0±0.0 DMI 298±2.4 298±2.4 74.3±0.9 20.2±1.0 5.5±0.1 0±0.0 BMI 271±3.6 271±3.8 47.8±1.7 49.1±1.1 3.1±0.3 0±0.0 HMI, DMI, and BMI s and o inje a om hamme mill, inje a om disk mill and inje a om blade mill espec i ely. 4. Conclusions Di e ences in he mill ype used o g ind e g ain du ing inje a p epa a ion in luenced he pa icle size dis ibu ion and damaged s a ch le el o he e lou and hence he inal quali y o inje a. Al hough mill di e ences a ec he colo o he e lou , he inal colo o he inje a was no a ec ed. This may be a esul o he in ol emen o o he uni ope a ions ha a e manda o y in inje a making. The a ia ion in inje a senso ial quali y and s a ch diges ibili y we e due o he di e ences in milling ype and i s e ec on pa icle size dis ibu ion and he damaged s a ch le el o e lou . The use o DM gi es smalle lou pa icle size wi h a high le el o s a ch damage and leads o be e senso ial inje a quali y han ha o BM and HM. The use o BM leads o a la ge lou pa icle size, which could be esponsible o ha ing lowe RAG and RDS. Howe e , i is highly impo an o s udy he ela ionship be ween damaged s a ch and lou pa icle size on cooked lou . The in luence o di e en e cul i a s and mill ypes on inje a quali y needs o be s udied. The applica ion o so wa e-based inje a quali y e alua ion o de e mine he numbe o inje a eyes ga e e ec i e esul s, which hus can eplace human manual de e mina ion. De e mina ions o inje a eye size and dis ibu ion a e he addi ional ad an age o using so wa e-based inje a quali y e alua ion. Acknowledgemen The au ho s hank Deb eZei Ag icul u al Resea ch Cen e o he E hiopian Ins i u e o Ag icul u al Resea ch (EIAR) o p o iding e a ie y and Addis Ababa Uni e si y o suppo ing wi h acili ies in his esea ch wo k. The au ho s also hank he inancial suppo o he Minis e io de Economía y Compe i i idad and he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (AGL2015-63849-C2-2-R) and he Conseje ía de Educacion (Jun a de Cas illa y Leon)/FEDER (P ojec VA072P17). Ma ina Villanue a hanks he Jun a de Cas illa y Leon o he doc o a e g an . Re e ences Abebe, W., & Ronda, F. (2014).Rheological and ex u al p ope ies o e [E ag os is e (Zucc.) T o e ] g ain lou gels. Jou nal o Ce eal Science, 60(1), 122-130. Abebe, W., Colla , C., & Ronda, F. (2015). Impac o a ie y ype and pa icle size dis ibu ion on s a ch enzyma ic hyd olysis and unc ional p ope ies o e lou s. Ca bohyd a e polyme s, 115, 260-268. Abebe, Y., Bogale, A., Hambidge, K. M., S oecke , B. J., Bailey, K., & Gibson, R. S. (2007). 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