Keeping secrets and mapping frontiers government and image in the Spanish Monarchy

JUANELO TURRIANO LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ENGINEERING D augh sman Enginee s Se ing he Spanish Mona chy in he Six een h o Eigh een h Cen u ies Alicia Cáma a Muñoz (ed.) JUANELO TURRIANO LECTURES ON THE HISTORY OF ENGINEERING D augh sman Enginee s Se ing he Spanish Mona chy in he Six een h o Eigh een h Cen u ies Alicia Cáma a Muñoz (ed.)      ! " h p://dimh.hypo heses.o g/ DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Published in he amewo k o R&D+I p ojec HAR 2012-31117. El dibujan e ingenie o al se icio de la mona quía hispánica. Siglos XVI-XVIII (DIMH) [d augh sman enginee s se ing he Spanish mona chy in he six een h o eigh een h cen u ies] Funded by he Spanish Minis y o he Economy and Compe i i eness Head esea che , Alicia Cáma a Muñoz 2016 Design, modelling and p oduc ion: Ediciones del Umb al © o he edi ion, Fundación Juanelo Tu iano © o he ex s, hei au ho s © o pho og aphs and d awings, hei au ho s ISBN: 978-84-942695-8-5 O iginal i le: El dibujan e ingenie o al se icio de la mona quía hispánica. Siglos XVI-XVIII © Fundación Juanelo Tu iano, 2016 The Fundación Juanelo Tu iano has made e e y e o possible o ind ou who he owne s o he copy igh s a e o all he images ha appea he e and o ind ou wha ep oduc ion pe mi s a e equi ed. I he e ha e been any unin en ional omissions, he owne s o he igh s o hei ep esen a i es may w i e o Fundación Juanelo Tu iano. www.juanelo u iano.com FUNDACIÓN JUANELO TURRIANO TRUSTEES PRESIDENT Vic o iano Muñoz Ca a VICE PRESIDENT Ped o Na ascués Palacio SECRETARY José Ma ía Goicolea Ruigómez MEMBERS José Cala e a Ruiz Da id Fe nández-O dóñez He nández José An onio González Ca ión Fe nando Sáenz Rid uejo José Manuel Sánchez Ron HONORARY PRESIDENT F ancisco Vigue as González FOREWORD F om he ime o he Renaissance when enginee s began o be spoken o un il he specializa ion o he b anches o enginee ing which ook place in he 18 h cen u y, his o y has old us a lo abou he uses hese p o essionals made o d awing. Some agmen s o his his o y a e ela ed in hese pages, which a e he esul o a esea ch p ojec ha seemed o be necessa y because d awing was in ol ed in all he s udies ca ied ou on he his o y o enginee ing in he Mode n Age. Resea ch had o u n i s spo ligh on hese images, which is why we assembled an in e disciplina y eam o de elop he p ojec El dibujan e ingenie o al se icio de la mona quía hispánica. Siglos XVI-XVIII [d augh sman enginee s se ing he Spanish mona chy in he six een h o eigh een h cen u ies] (HAR2012-31117), inanced by he Minis y o Economy and Compe i i eness. This book is he esul o he p ojec . The collec ion Juanelo Tu iano Lec u es on he his o y o enginee ing is he ideal ehicle o pub- lishing he esul s o his esea ch, p e iously in he o iginal language and now in English. ABSTRACT This chap e add esses he ela ionships be ween on ie , d awing and sec ecy in Spain’s Habsbu g mona chy in he six een h and se en een h cen u ies. Those ela ionships we e he ou come o he c i e ia legi imising expansion as well as o he luc ua ing p io i ies a ound de ence by land o by sea and hence a ound he ole o bas ioned o i ica ion. Such s uc u es c ys allised he cons uc ion o mili a y, legal and symbolic on ie s un il ha concei was o saken in wen ie h cen u y hinking, his o iog aphy and image y. The poli ical dimension o space which, as B audel no ed, was he p ima y challenge acing an expansion-minded mona chy, can only be econs uc ed om a global pe spec i e. To b oach he on ie in he Habsbu g cou and kingdoms is o b oach powe as a dialec- ical in e play o in e es s, esou ces and alues. Thus iewed, he on ie is a duc ile, luid concei which, in i s s a k con as o he s ony immobili y o o i ica ions, ques- ions he applicabili y o anach onis ic no ions such as «s a egy» and iden i ies he need o e isi oday’s c i e ia a ound so e eign y and «p opaganda». Powe mus be iewed in keeping wi h he alues o a poli ical socie y adically di e en om ou own in e e y e- spec , beginning wi h ce emonial image y ha ul ima ely a ec ed he po ayal o on- ie s and o i ica ions. Se agains cou ly he o ic, he sec ecy ha sh ouded mili a y enginee s’ d awings bea s wi ness bo h o a echnique o exe cising powe in compe i ion wi h o he s and o a new app oach o eali y. KEYWORDS F on ie , d awing, sec ecy, o i ica ions, Spanish mona chy, image, cou , enginee s, House o Habsbu g, Py enees. 143 6 Keeping Sec e s and Mapping F on ie s: Go e nmen and Image in he Spanish Mona chy1 CARLOS JOSÉ HERNANDO SÁNCHEZ2 Uni e sidad de Valladolid T ansla ion: MARGARET CLARK «I SHALL PASS FORTS AND CROSS FRONTIERS» In his «Spi i ual Can icle», which he began o w i e in 1578, S John o he C oss a es s o he awa eness o e i o ial bounds ha cha ac e ised his age, al e na ely e oking na- u e’s and humani y’s wo ks: Along sea and s and shall I go / No lowe s shall I pluck / no beas s shall I ea / and I shall pass o s and c oss on ie s. The ene gy in he e bs «go», «pass» and «c oss» links he spa ial symbolism o «moun ains and s ands» o he « o s and on ie s» in he same e se. The soul seeks a eali y ha exis s beyond body and ma e , al hough as in any ini ia ion oyage, c ossing a bounda y in ol es mo ing in o he mys e y- i en unknown. The poe explains ha he calls he «de ils» « o s, be- cause hey s i e o s and in he way o he spi i ual oad». And he says ha he soul will «c oss he on ie s», which he de ines as « he na u al esis ance and ebellion o he lesh agains he spi i ...»3. This pe spec i e o a b oade ho izon supe seded an ea lie analogy in which he soul dwel in a cas le. Tha image had been mode nised by E asmus who con ended ha he de il «unde mining [...] s eale h on us unawa e» and Ped o Mexia who compa ed « he wea e and s uc u e o he human body» o a « ansposi ion o likeness o he wo ld wide» in which «man’s head [is] supe io o he es [...] like a o ess in a ci y»4. The associa ion o sec ecy, d awing o design and o ess ep esen ed powe in a new dimension ha could no be igno ed e en in spi i ual li e a u e. The me apho o he soldie in spi i ual ba le (adop ed by S Igna ius and o he au- ho s based on P uden ius’s Psychomachia) would be used, o ins ance, by Po uguese w i e F ancisco de Holanda o con e o ess designing in o a eligious mission5. S Te esa o A ila placed he soul’s habi a in a mo e con en ional «in e io cas le» (wi h di- amond walls clad wi h pala ial magni icence acco ding o widesp ead allego ical adi- ion6). John o he C oss’s o and on ie enla ged on he me apho s commonly ound in books o chi al y7(which none heless con ained desc ip ions o mili a y enginee ing, as in An onio de To quemada’s Oli an e de Lau a published in 15648) and ea lie con- en ions such as Benedic ine monk Gonzalo de A edondo’s 1528 «imp egnable cas le» (Cas illo inexpugnable9). S John’s nude con empo a y images depic ed he immediacy o he poli ical and a chi ec u al eali ies p e ailing in he eign o Philip II, he builde king in en upon enclosing spaces in a wo ld whose des iny he belie ed had been com- mended o him by he C ea o . In keeping wi h ha ision, sha ed by mos o his subjec s, wa a e was e si ied, among o he s by Cap ain F ancisco de Aldana. Be o e dying in ba - le alongside King Sebas ian o Po ugal in emo e No h A ican Alcaza qui i , he w o e a poem dedica ed o he Spanish mona ch ha desc ibed an o e a ching heo y o he de ence o he peninsula on ie s. Unde his p emise, he six ac o s ha would a o d esis ance agains any a med wa io included soldie s and hei expe ienced minds, a s ong o ess ci y wi h moa and a e se, and a p o ec ed si e whe e na u e i sel would do ba le10. A mona chy which, like he Ch is ian’s soul, was unde siege e ec ed new o esses o de end i s inne mos and ou e mos on ie s. The Ea h hus inca na ed was assigned a p o iden ial mission, al hough he cons an elling o na u al and human ba ie s ende ed domina ion as uns able as a i e ha ou inely o e lows i s banks. S John o he C oss’s mys ical challenge o conque space was sympa he ic wi h he scien i ic expe imen a ion conduc ed by ca og aphe s and d augh smen seeped in em- 144 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES blema ic cul u e11. They bo h sublima ed he chi al ous zeal exp essed in he maxim composed by Milanese humanis and physician Luigi Ma liano o young Cha les I on he occasion o a mee ing o he O de o he Golden Fleece a B ussels in 1516. His Plus oul e was soon e oneously La- inised as Plus ul a and ansla ed in o Ge man as Noch wei e 12. In a second ead- ing, ha maxim was iden i ied wi h he ex- pansion o he mona chy du ing he empe o ’s eign and wi h he image o he globe ha had al eady been adop ed as one o he impe ial symbols13. A medal s uck a e he annexa ion o Po ugal in 1580 depic ed an unb idled ho se galloping ac oss a globe wi h ca e ully embossed me idians unde he legend, Non s ici o bis, mean o symbolise he a ainmen o such ambi ious goals. Tha po ayal o mo ion ep esen ed he union o space and ime which, as B audel14 explained, was add essed o g ea e e ec by he Spanish mona chy han by i s con ende s. Endless mo ion seemed o embody wha D ake’s buccanee s called he King o Spain’s and his na ion’s «insa iable ambi ion», when in 1586 hey ound ha p o oca i e image in he Go e no o San o Domingo’s palace15. One o D ake’s men copied i in a d awing ha also ep oduced he P uden King’s i s de ice: Nec spe nec me , whose mo al meaning, «nei he ou o hope no ou o ea » could be in e p e ed as a e e ence o he de ensi e needs gene a ed by enla gemen policies. None heless, ha meaning paled in compa ison o he excess inhe en in he image s olen by he Eng- lish p i a ee s. The d awing, in which he emblem was o e laid on he Spanish coa o a ms in a map o he capi al o La Española du ing he English a ack, was in ended as poli ical denuncia ion. While his was a celeb a o y symbol, o he d awings d a ed du ing D ake’s same expedi ion depic ed he s u dy coas al de ence sys em e ec ed in he Span- ish Indies. In con as o he dynamic impe us o he eques ian emblem, he s aid im- mobili y o he o esses spied upon ep esen ed a compendium o mili a y a and hence he o emos inca na ion o spa ial measu emen , which was insepa able om he de- pic ion o space on pape , can as o o he media. Be o e geome y was ce i ude and poli ics dogma, when spa ial measu emen was a challenge and powe es ed on anscenden al u h, me ely imagining he bounds o a e i o y, e en o deny hem, was an a owal o s eng h and o ganisa ion. Tha was why maps we e d awn in conjunc ion wi h he designs o o esses. In heo y and in p ac ice (wi h he unce ain ies and con adic ions inhe en in depic ion), s ongholds we e si ed in alleys, on moun ain ops, along i e s and in meadows, o cus ody mo e p ecise al- hough ulne able bounda ies, jus as he body p o ec ed he soul agains i s enemies in S John’s mys ical ision. The poli ical pe sona in adi ional socie y, sco n ully e med he ancien égime in a ogan bou geois pa lance, was always on he ale , in ensi ying GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 145 FIG. 1 NON SVFFICIT ORBIS. Philip II medal, ca 1580. Numisma ic Po uguese Museum, Lisbon. his gua d o de end posi ions cons an ly challenged by o he poli ical en i ies ac oss a bo de concei ed, d awn and buil on land ha g adually became landscape16. The symbiosis be ween e i o ial bounds and cons uc ion was so igh ha , once command o e he wo ld had been consumma ed, he bo de con inued o be associa ed wi h he image o a cas le o o ess: a li e a y de ice used o exp ess he isola ion o con empo a y humani y, dep i ed o he sys em o alues ha aised s ongholds on land and in he soul. Tha would explain he desola ion o he dese o dei a a i so obsessi ely sc u inised by Dino Buzza i’s o ice in 1940 om a useless o ess, on «un a o di on ie a mo a […] che non da pensie o…»17. Buzza i’s o ess was p eceded 5 yea s ea lie by Ka ka’s pos humous cas le, «whose insecu e, i egula , b oken ba lemen s bi in o he blue sky and seemed o ha e been designed by a ca eless o cowa dly child»; an exis en ial laby in h, a con using, Medie alised cons uc ion s ill seeped in eligious sym- bolism, whe e he su eyo disco e ed he u ili y o his ade in a wo ld whe e all sense o mensu a ion had been los 18. Ka ka’s ision, in u n, was coun e ed by he humanis ic me apho in ano he pos humous and un inished wo k, Sain -Exupé y’s Ci adelle pub- lished in 1948 and likewise se in he soli ude o he dese . He e, howe e , soli a y space was in oked in opposi ion o he spi i ual home ound by building, alluding o ce ain ies iden i ied o cen u ies wi h he Augus inian Ci y o God bu since los 19. 146 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES FIG. 2 Eng a ing by Bap is a Boazio in 1588 depic ing D ake’s assaul on San o Domingo and he NEC SPE NEC METU emblem, aken om a d awing made by one o D ake’s men in 1586. Na ional Ma i ime Museum, G eenwich, London. The ailu e o mode n o i ica ions in he wo ld wa s and he mass des uc ion o ci ies, d agged ou due o he d as ic shi ing o bounda ies in Eu ope, also p omp ed new philosophical e lec ion. In 1951 Heidegge a emp ed in his Being and Time o de- e mine he ela ionship be ween being and space h ough he idea o habi a ion, delim- i ed by he G eek concei s pé as and ó ismos, o de ine he wo sides o he bo de as he end and beginning o eali y, in e ing ha he e is a wi hin and a wi hou ha likewise need o be measu ed20. The Eu opean con ulsions ha induced such musings made he bo de a his o iog aphic objec , om Lucien Feb e wi h his pionee ing wo ks on F anco Condado and he Rhine21 o Ca l Schmi wi h his s udy on he powe o he land and he sea in he ail blazed in empi e building. Bo de s we e hus concei ed as a nomos, unde s ood o be a ju isdic ional, poli ical and mo al limi de ined by mensu a ion, which by ha ime had hype ophied unde he h us o echnology and aded om hough 22. Whils he wen ie h cen u y in e es in e i o ial limi s was d i en by in ensi ied na- ionalism in he wake o he his o ical geog aphy o he Annales and he new Ge man science o geopoli ics23, as we en e a new cen u y an appa en ly con a y si ua ion has inspi ed enewed en husiasm o he his o y o bounda ies and he social a ia ions on ha heme24. The c isis o he Eu opean na ion-s a e jus i ies he pu sui o e idence o he inconsis ency o na ional eali ies o me ly ega ded as inal e able, gi en he p e- sumed po osi y o bo de s and con ines. Some his o ians, wi h sel -a ibu ed di ine pow- e s (especially in ce ain egions o Spain) aim o c ea e his o y by denial, be ayal o concealmen , while eal his o y, wedded o geog aphy, owe s o e he ho izon in he in- escapable silhoue e o moun ain anges. The Py enees cons i u e a pa adigma ic example. The objec o luc ua ing in e es unde lain by na ional eali ies delimi ed by na u al bounda ies25, in he wen ie h cen u y hese moun ains we e a ibu ed a numbe o poli ical-li e a y in e p e a ions ha aimed o quell oman ic an asies26, s ill e oked as la e as 1959, in a me aphysical ein, by im- ages such as René Mag i e’s Le Cha eau des Py enees. A plas ic endi ion o he pla i ude «cas les in Spain/cas les in he ai », his pain ing also elici s he o ess as an abs ac idea (using a cons uc ion wi h a suspicious likeness o he Medie al pas iche a Ca cas- sonne) associa ed wi h a symbolic bounda y ha , like mode n humans’ ce ain ies, ades while challenging he mos obus ea u es o land and sea. I s i onic ligh , in open con- adic ion o a chi ec u e’s my hical i mi as27, is eminiscen o he ci y in A is ophanes’s The Bi ds, Calde ón’s Cas illo de Lindab idis, Swi ’s Lapu a o he deli ious u opian Fly- ing Ci y imagined in 1928 by Gueo gui K u iko , apo heosis o communis de acina ion. The di e si y o eadings and messages o wha appea s o he ald he con inen al li e a y i ound in Sa amago’s The s one a o e lays he complexi y o Py enees space, de ended in so-called mode n imes wi h he mos ad anced mili a y and ca og aphic esou ces in he laby in hine geology o moun ain passes and in o i ied oo hills, om Salsas o Jaca, Pamplona and Fuen e abía. The designs d a ed by Tibu zio Spannochi o Philip II e lec ed he need o d awings o build bounda ies28. E en as la e as 1700, a e he a emp o supp ess he poli ical s i e ha a ose a ound he change om he Habsbu g o he Bou bon dynas y, he o mula ion o which is a - ibu ed o Ambassado Cas elldos ius o Louis XIV himsel , he Py enees bo de egained i s s a us as he i s line o de ence. Decades p io o he cons uc ion o he GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 147 huge San Fe nando o a Figue as, ha s a us was e lec ed in a play en i led Las Amazonas de España, w i en in 1720 by José de Cañiza es o be s aged in Philip V’s cou wi h music by Giaccomo Faco. The women wa io s (asso- cia ed wi h bo de s since classical G eek imes) encoun e ed by Han- nibal when he c ossed he Py enees (acco ding o Plu a ch) symbolised suppo o Isabel de Fa nesio’s poli ical ambi ions, while in oking he mili a y signi icance o a moun- ainous on ie . Tha ision was associa ed wi h enginee ing design in he o m o a compass and a sphe e depic ed amongs he books in he Amazon Queen’s cabine as an a ibu e o majes y iden i ied wi h geome y- and cons uc ion- media ed de ence o peninsula space29. The sphe e alluded o an an- cien symbol o so e eign y mod- e nised by uni e sali y30, a new concei spawned by ca og aphic p og ess and mi o ed in he poli - ical cosmology po ayed in se e al se ies o oyal apes ies31. The compass, in u n, along wi h he angle squa e and o he objec s, was iden i ied wi h bo h a chi ec u e32 and he symbolic undamen als o he es publica as a whole. As Albe i no ed, a chi ec- u e se ed as an example o he capaci y o spi i ualise na u e h ough ules whose a- ionale hinged on ime33. Tha , oge he wi h space, was he p ima y challenge in he pu sui o e e ni y in p e-mode n cons uc ions, o i ica ions in pa icula 34. The angle squa e and he compass also embodied a iew o Mensu a ion35 ein o ced by allego ical adi ion ha linked he philosophy o a chi ec u e o space in gene al36. In 1599 he ma iage o scien i ic knowledge and mili a y ac ion was pic u ed on he co e o a book en i led Milicia y desc ipción de las Indias au ho ed by Cap ain Be na do de Va gas Machuca, in which he au ho was shown holding a compass in his igh hand, poised on a globe, while g asping a swo d wi h his le , all unde he cap ion «Wi h a compass and a swo d / mo e and mo e and mo e and mo e»37. Sho ly be o e, one o he imp esas deployed o Philip II’s une al i es in Naples Ca hed al consis ed in a compass d awing a ci cle unde he cap ion CIRCVIT IMMOTVS. The idea ha inspi ed he geome ic symbol was ha «se bene il Re e a s a o il più della sua i a, e mo con la p esenza nella 148 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES FIG. 3 RENÉ MAGRITTE. Le châ eau des Py énees, 1959: Is ael Mu- seum, Je usalem. Spagna; ha e a egli nondimeno coll’al o e gene oso pensie o aggi a o u o il mondo; e con l’in i a po enza ci conda o con l’Impe o suo un compiu o gi o della Te a»38. Mobili y and s illness (wi h hei co olla ies, expansion and de ence) he eby me ged in an image o poli ical pe ec ion. Lines d awn on pape ep esen ed di isions be ween kingdoms when, in he absence o a na u al bounda y such as he Py enees, his o y de ined limi s along plains wi h i e s as he only seams. Tha was wha se he s age o o i ica ions and consequen ly o hei depic ion. Tha was he case o he Po uguese bounda y, he leas na u al o all and none heless one o he mos pe sis en , despi e he 1580 annexa ion ha d o e new expansi e ambi ions symbolised by he emblema ic unaway ho se. Ve y soon, d awings we e made o ci ies on he di iding line o de e mine he condi ion o hei Medie al walls and he need o mode nisa ion. A book by Dua e de A mas p o ides in aluable wi ness o how he on ie was concei ed in 1511. When secession began wi h he Po - uguese e ol unde he Duke o B aganza, he 1642 copy o ha book desc ibed he de ensi e con inui y o a on ha would be he si e o u he a emp s in he decades ha ollowed39. The exchange o expe ience among enginee s and a chi ec s on bo h sides o his a i icial bounda y we e a es ed o by he wo ks o F ancisco de Holanda40, which culmina ed in he cons uc ions au ho ed by Filippo Te zi and o he majo ac o s in he 1580 conques o Lusi ania41. O he mo e sub le and emo e on ie s lay hidden in ci ies ans o med in he six- een h cen u y by demog aphic and a chi ec u al g ow h. When Philip II commissioned An on Van de Wyngae de make a eco d o his Spanish kingdoms in images, he d augh sman’s gaze linge ed in he ci ies. Like he w i e s who, ue o Pausanias, we e c ea ing a new cho og aphic adi ion, Wyngae de le an accu a e desc ip ion o Spain’s majo u ban se ings, bo owing om he d awing echniques inhe i ed om his Flemish mas e s. The a is ook o he coun yside o ind he ideal pe spec i es, ex ac ed he g andeu o he ho izon in hills and coas s and p ecisely po ayed ci ies enclosed in walls gene ally mo e e ec i e as iscal and symbolic bounds han as de ensi e s uc u es. The excep ion was o be ound in coas al ci ies like Ba celona, whe e new sec ions o wall e- in o ced wi h bas ions had been buil 42. The e olu ion o he use o d awings and ch onicles in shaping he land in o a poli ical body, epi omised by he bo de , d ew om a di e se pe cep ion o in o ma ion and image43. Due o he su i al o he b oade meaning o he Medie al on ie , wi h i s widesp ead his o ical and li e a y e e be a ions in Spanish socie y44, he mode n on ie , like he ea ly bas ioned o i ica ions along i , was a ansi ional cons uc . The idea o he on ie (ne e ully consumma ed) abo e and beyond local pa onage-based ela ions was consolida ed ac oss a complex ju isdic ional, mili a y and diploma ic web45 eminis- cen o Impe ial Roman limes, ma ked by he Spanish c own’s ceaseless cons uc ion and mensu a ion46. Con ines and encla es o Medie al o igin co-exis ed wi h his new geome ised space as a esul o he e o mula ion o he e i o ial basis o powe 47. E en ha geome isa ion, howe e , was ui o poli ical s uggle in- and ou side he mona chy ha led o di e en s a egies ha we e bo h ime- ( u he o luc ua ions in he c own’s esou ces, which de e mined he al e na ion be ween expansion and de ence in succes- si e eigns) and space-dependen . In ha ba le he expansi e p essu e b ough o bea GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 149 by ce ain p o incial eli es was coun e ed by he p uden de ensi e es ain o o he o ces bo h a cou and in he e i o ies48. In a simila ein, he mona chy’s p io i ies shi ed om he Medi e anean49 o he A lan ic, whils i s O oman enemy, o ei ing he logis ic ad an age a o ded by i s al- liance wi h F ance since 1526, di e ed i s powe away om ha in e io sea o expand eas wa d o Asian geog aphies. In spi e o i s conside able ad ances in enginee ing, he Spanish mona chy ne e unde ook p ojec s compa able o he la ge O oman canals, ocusing a he on de ence in s a ic enclosu es. The Tu ks and he Spania ds none he- less sha ed a con inen al iew o powe ha led hem o see na al ou es as a p olon- ga ion o hei inland coun e pa s. The o me we e ega ded as no less i al o communica ion be ween hei domains, o e and abo e he need o choose be ween ship and o ess cons uc ion which was an amoun o op ing be ween dynamic de- ence a sea and s a ic de ence on land. In 1640 Saa ed a Faja do summa ised he need o econcile he wo mechanisms in his «imp esa» 83, which depic ed Medie al owe in a mode n o ess su ounded by he sea unde he cap ion «I am assailed and de ended»50. The mona chy’s uni e sali y also es ed on he claim o he igh o exclusi e na i- ga ion, which sp ead pas he ini ial hegemonic ambi ions o e he wes e n Medi e - anean ( he «Spanish Sea» in O oman ex s) o include a Spanish Ocean in he A lan ic and e en a Hispanis Ma e Paci icum. The o me was based on con o e sial papal con- cessions (i onically called «Adam’s will», a ph ase adi ionally a ibu ed o F ancis I o F ance51), while he la e was ound on maps d awn as la e as he second hal o he se en een h cen u y. Reali y, howe e , g adually ou paced names. The g owing de- pendence o na al a on echnology52 and mili a y a chi ec u e condi ioned he mo- bilisa ion o economic, echnical and human esou ces. Tha in ensi ied he con adic ion be ween expansion and de ence, mi o ed by he e olu ion o o i ica- ions: om he ea lies bas ion-based s uc u es buil by he Ca holic Mona chs, h ough hei ulle de ini ion unde he Empe o 53 and expansion and heo e ical de- elopmen unde Philip II54 o hei ouble- augh conse a ion in he se en een h 150 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES FIG. 4 DIEGO DE SAAVEDRA FA- JARDO. Idea de un p íncipe polí ico c is iano ep esen ada en cien emp e- sas. Milán, 1642. «I am assailed and de ended», Imp esa 83. cen u y55. This p ocess led o he consolida ion o he pe cep ion o he e i o ies as o esses de ended by he walls o hei moun ains and coas s in conjunc ion wi h he bas ions a ound hei ci ies56. The mona chy as a whole could be compa ed o a huge o ess wi h i s bo de s as i s ou e walls. U ban cen es such as Milan we e de ined, in u n, as o ess ci ies whe e con i- nen al oads con e ged, gua an eeing he mobili y o a mies be ween sou he n and no he n Eu ope57. A he same ime, p ojec s o bas ioned ci ies con inued o be planned o p o ec ma i ime on ie s and ensu e he exis ence o a ne wo k o po s i al o he majo coas al ou es. Hence he Spanish ga isons a Toscana58 and in no h- e n A ica o encla es such as Felipeia in B azil, ounded a he end o Philip II’s eign59. Galleys and galleons i ed wi h inc easingly e ec i e a ille y60 o med he backbone o a na al machine y ha , in i s s uggle agains dis ance, unsuccess ully p oposed he use o p opelle s in addi ion o human and wind powe o dispense wi h sails61. These essels could be ega ded as loa ing o esses and he lee s as mobile ci ies62. In his memo andum on he c ea ion o a huge oyal lib a y add essed o he king a he be- ginning o Philip II’s eign, Juan Páez de Cas o alluded o he u ili y o «ha ing a med and p o isioned and mobile ci ies able o ca y you undamen als whe e e deemed sui able»63. Vessels and o esses we e he answe o geopoli ical needs based on he de ence o ma i ime co ido s (depending on he coas s and he winds, such as he one ha connec ed Ba celona o Genoa, Naples and Pale mo in he Medi e anean64, he Indies Rou e in he A lan ic and i s p olonga ion in he Paci ic wi h he Manila galleon65) o land ou es (such as he amous Spanish Road be ween no he n I aly and he Ne he lands66) o gua an ee in e - e i o ial communica ion. The layou and e o- lu ion o hese co ido s, he c own’s mili a y and economic a e ies, de e mined he mona chy’s gene al plan o ac ion and hence he p oduc ion o d awings and designs, such as o o esses in he S ai o Magellan in ended o con ol na iga ion be ween he A lan ic and Paci ic Oceans67. Unsu p isingly, om he Age o Disco e y he sea was used as a me apho o he cou , a chi es o books ( he cus odians o he sec e s o powe ), while ca og aphe s and enginee s ende ed e e mo e accu a e ou lines o hose disco e ies in all manne o d awings, beginning wi h maps. To cap u e a iew o land and sea on a ew inches o pape , sugges he p esence o ligh , ai and wa e wi h b ush and pen, un one’s gaze ac oss coas lines spa e ed wi h spo s o colou and small gli e ing pennan s, s udy he wind ose as i i we e a compass apped in an angle o a piece o wo ld, so close and ye so a away... such we e he mi acles o ca og aphy explo ed a leas om he imes o P olemaic Alexand ia. Bu nei he he G eek and Roman ecumene no he na owe spa ial ho izon emb aced in he Middle Ages had e e , as a as we know, eached he i uosi y and concep ual weal h o he maps d awn in he so-called mode n age68. T easu e holds o cons an ly eno a ed knowledge able o c ush au ho i a ian p emises wi h he me hodical applica ion o empi ical analysis; wo ks o a ha con- eyed he aes he ic h us o la e Go hic; he g adual asse ion o classical mo i s and ul ima ely he p e alence o he mos e ined manne is language culmina ing in he desc ip i e apo heosis iden i ied wi h Ba oque s yle; maps wi h hei d awings o o esses and on ie s... all encompassed a wo ld i e wi h na u al and poli ical ba ie s GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 151 we e in oduced in he chambe s ese ed o so e eigns and hei ad ise s be o e appea - ing (as ho izon, ba le o o ess) on he walls o he ce emonial ooms wi h which hey sha ed he poli ical scena io. Ce emonies ep esen ed he powe o consensus in mo ion. Consequen ly, like he science o o i ica ion, he science o e ique e was es ic ed knowledge only g adually dissemina ed. Bo h comp ised ese ed knowledge, he con e se o p opaganda96, o hey o med pa o he sec e s o powe , e en when in ended o a es o i s g andeu by embodying he capaci y o o ganise space bo h in i s inne mos dep hs and i s e- mo es bounds. The ecep ion and in e p e a ion o ca og aphe s’ and enginee s’ d aw- ings pa alleled he de elopmen o ce emonies a ound which palace li e was s uc u ed in keeping wi h p ac ice codi ied on he g ounds o o he d awings ha de ined he hi- e a chies in cou ly space97. Bo de s also acqui ed a ce emonial dimension, p o iding he se ing o oyal encoun e s and ma imonial alliances along adi ional bounda ies such as he Ri e Bidasoa. As p epa a o y d awings and celeb a o y pain ings show, he 158 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES FIG. 11 JUAN DE’ MEDICI. Plano del cu so del Río Bidasoa a su paso po Beho ia. España, Min- is e io de Educación, Cul u a y Depo e. A chi o Gene al de Simancas, MPD 16, 127. FIG. 12 PIETER VAN DER MEULEN. In e cambio de p incesas en 1615 en el Bidasoa, (C own He i age) Enca nación Monas e y, Mad id. oyal a el called o by such e en s a o ded an oppo uni y o inspec he o i ica ions in he su ounds and es ablish dispu ed bounda ies wi h he aid o de ices deployed o he occasion (commissioned om mili a y enginee s such as Juan de’ Medici in 1615). The opog aphic accu acy o such illus a ions, which complemen ed na a i es, calls up he pano amic echnique o mili a y and ca og aphic d awing. Subo dina e, how- e e , o he hea ics o dynas ic balance, hey cunningly es ablished isual symme ies by concealing e i o ial i al ies e iden in he p elimina y nego ia ions and he depic- ion o a mies in ba le o ma ion behind he cou ly en ou age. The ac ha some o he pain ings ep esen ing hese scenes we e hung alongside he maps, ba les and iew o ci ies ha ado ned he New Hall in Mad id’s cas le a es ed o he ce emonial ele- ance a o ded depic ions o he on ie 98. I espec i e o diploma ic e en s, howe e , he command o space and ime was a concei sha ed by he cou ly and mili a y di- mensions, which on occasion used he same symbols, such as he angle squa e and he compass, o exp ess he impo ance o mensu a ion and wi h i he a chi ec u al na u e o powe 99. Ca og aphy and design endowed d awings wi h a dynamic h us whe e science and a 100, space and ime con e ged, ex ending he use o pe spec i e o mili a y and hence poli ical ac i i y as a whole101, while applying he p og ess in op ics o which Golden Age li e a u e bo e wi ness102. The isual in eg a ion o knowledge, whose highes achie emen is iden i ied wi h se en een h cen u y Du ch a , was also p esen in he d awings o bo de s and ci ies au ho ed by he Spanish mona chy’s mili a y enginee s. As hei o e iews and g ound plans, while seeped in he same isual cul u e, lacked he aes he ic conno a ions ha cha ac e ised deco a i e o celeb a o y ep esen a ions o he land, hey we e ee o deploy he capaci y o cap u e eali y. Rega ded as mino wo ks in he con en ional hie a chy o gen es, hey we e pi o al o an a is ic and po- li ical as well as a scien i ic i ine a y. Viewing hem as hey we e seen by he king and minis e s o gene als o whom hey we e in ended is an amoun o unde s anding ha hey we e as subo dina e o powe as hey we e ee o ep esen a ional codes. Thei in- e p e a ion is compa able o an ekph as ic exe cise. They a emp ed o emula e ha he o ic de ice, bu no in compe i ion wi h poe s as pain e s o s o ies, bu wi h his o- ians, while lacking he la e ’s penchan o pe suasion, a leas in sec e maps and pe - spec i es. These depic ions immedia ely ans e ed wha he d augh sman saw o he p ince’s qua e s, enabling him o «see wi h his eyes» wha was beyond he line o sigh . This absen ee iewing was pa e ned on go e nmen al p ocedu es, in which he mona - chy’s powe was channelled h ough ice oys and go e no s103. The c own was s uc- u ed a ound p o incial cou s, bu also h ough a sys em o symbolic pic u es and illus a ions which in he case o oyal po ai s we e a o ded majes ic ibu e104. Re- e sing i s ini ial ole as a es ic ed esou ce, mili a y and hence poli ical d awing, along wi h o he go e nmen al echniques, e up ed on o he cou ly scena io in a mona chy ha iden i ied wi h isual ep esen a ion105. None heless, he plain, appa en ly unado ned images ha eme ged om he chain o isual p oduc ion and consump ion ha an om bo de s o palace was no be e o aes he ic ac o s. As in ce emony and he cul u e and spa ial dimension o powe as a whole, he pic o ial adi ions o Flande s and I aly con e ged in hese d awings, condi- GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 159 ioned by a as e sha ed by he cou and he e i o ies. «A less a » in appea ance only, e e y millime e o hese po ayals o eali y we e bound by he laws o pe spec i e and geome y. In such d awings o s a e he colou ha i i ied coun yside and buildings, he aming ha w es ed hem om na u e, he pen s oke ha de ined and ca ego ised hei elemen s, we e indeb ed o a b oade cogni i e ange ha exceeded me e ac ical u ili y. Enginee s’ d awings, ui o ha a is ic expe imen a ion, se ed bo h o u nish «u ban po ai s» o he pu poses o wa a e106 and o celeb a e powe h ough a new o m o poli ical image y ha was ansla ed o eng a ings o ca og aphic pain ing, as well as o he escoes ound in la ge lib a ies and palaces o he p in s and pain ings o bou geois in e io s po ayed in he se en een h cen u y by Du ch pain e s such as Ve - mee . In he i een hund eds, ci y iews and maps, p eceded by eudal ho izons p esen in he hi een hund eds in I alian spaces such as epublican Siena o he lo dly Emilian cas le a To echia a (ca 1460), ado ned he walls o he Fa nese Palace a Cap a ola, he Vecchio Palace a Flo ence, he Va ican lib a y, he cou ya d in Ál a o de Bazán’s palace a Viso del Ma qués and he Hall o Ba les a El Esco ial, o name a ew o he be e known enues in I aly and Spain107. Tha ga e ise o a new gen e o ado ning pala ial walls ha supplemen ed allego ical images. Lands and o esses, ende ed wi h new echniques, ul ima ely p oli e a ed in he a iews in can ases o ba les, syn hesising his o ical pain ing and geog aphic image. One o he mos p ominen examples lies in he can ases in he Hall o Realms, whe e opog aphic accu acy was a sign o au hen ici y in ended o ex ol he Conde Duque de Oli a es’s enla gemen policies and epu a ion. These pain ings a e an ode o he cul o obse a ion o eali y subjec o he ule ’s pe spec i e. His o y was played ou in speci ic geog aphic space o e lec he ce emonial and legal consumma ion o su ende h ough he igu es po ayed in he o eg ound. Excep ionally, in Maíno’s The eco e y o Bahía 160 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES FIG. 13 DIEGO VELÁZQUEZ. The su ende o B eda (de ail), 1634-1635. P ado Museum, Mad id. de Todos los San os, he poli ical and ce emonial image o he ic o ious gene al o e ing he de ea ed a my a apes y wi h he oyal e igy, was se in he middle g ound. Time and space con e ged in he Hall o Realms unde he king’s uni ying gaze, in which e e y- day ule was ans e ed o he p ima y si e o cou ly ep esen a ion by means o isual images o ex s in d awings, pano amas o na a i es i e wi h o esses and on ie s. In con as o he sec ecy in which he d awings ha ma ked ou lands and ba les we e cloaked, his display o eali y, his embodimen o he idea o he legi imacy o powe , was openly exhibi ed in cou ly en i ons. None heless, all hese pic u es sha ed he need o place he mona chy’s law in high elie . The a iews in Velazquez’s The su ende o B eda and o he ba le ield pain ings we e no me e s age p ops bu agmen s o a wo ld whose domina ion depended on he abili y o be ep esen ed, seen and unde s ood. These ende ings o dis an ho izons con- olled by a ne wo k o o i ica ions we e he ou come o ansla ing enginee s’ d awings om pape o can as, al hough a imes indi ec ly, wi h eng a ings as in e media ies. The eloquence o he o eg ound scenes in hese pain ings, whe e his o y and poli ics p e ailed, was ein o ced by he desc ip i e igou o backg ounds ha showed he ue ex en o he kingdoms whose he aldic image ado ned he aul ed ceiling in his hall. His o y ook shape in he ampli ude o space and, as in some Du ch pain ings, emblem- a ic scenes we e jux aposed o desc ip i e o ca og aphic illus a ions. The wo we e uni ed by his o y in which na u e, humanised by wa , was a ealm o a ional echnical con ol whe e ep esen a ion was jus i ied by he i ues embodied in he a i udes o he ic o ious gene als. These pain ings aimed o be an objec i e eco d o e en s and o con ey an idea. S anding be o e he h one wi h i s s eps and canopy, o an ins an he iewe sha ed he an age o he so e eign o whom hey we e in ended. Pain ings o bas ions a es ed GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 161 FIG. 14 FRAY JUAN BAUTISTA MAÍNO. The eco e y o Bahía de Todos los San os (de ail), 1634-1635. P ado Museum, Mad id. o he climax o echnical as well as poli ical design; pain ed maps desc ibed and eco ded e en s, con e ing eali ies in o no a ions, whe eas in enginee s’ d awings no a ions oc- cupied agmen s o e i o y, albei o ans o m hem in keeping wi h he same idea ha guided he iewe ’s gaze in he Hall o Realms108. This di e ed subs an ially om he al- lego ical he o ic ha would la e be deployed a Ve sailles, whe e on ie s and o esses occupied he a iews in only a ew la e -day deco a i e panels on he Ambassado s’ S ai case109. In he Spanish cou d awing was p ojec ed on o eali y o s ep h ough he looking glass o he poli ical p udence wi h which powe aimed o egula e i s ans o - ma i e capaci y by choosing which pa o a design would be buil . In his ligh , Las Meni- nas, he amily o Philip IV’s dynas ic mani es o, embodied he doc ine o in eg a ing powe and image, melding majes y, ision and depic ion in a pic o ial c ys allisa ion o he idea o go e nmen as design, emo ed om on ie s and ba le ields o pala ial seclusion. Tha inne e ea , closed o he cou ie s who gazed a depic ions o ba le ields and lands on can as o eng a ed maps o isualise he mona chy’s as expanse, was he do- main o sec ecy, o he ue exe cise o powe , he cus oms o ice o d awings whe e on- ie as abs ac ion could ma e ialise and i s o esses bodied o h. Like cou ly ce emony, his space also had an i ine a y ha an o he mona ch’s own s udy om he qua e s in Mad id’s Alcáza o Cas le whe e he Council o Wa (c ea ed as a b anch o he Council o S a e in 1526 in cha ge o mili a y a ai s in he h ee c ucial domains: he de ences o Cas ile, he a ille y and bo de line o i ica ions110) held i s mee ings. Compa ed o he con olled dissemina ion o escoes, can ases and eng a ings, he ex eme ese e wi h which d awings we e deal was indica i e o hei impo ance. A d awing was mo e han a de e ed o de o s ill mo ion: i was a mili a y and poli ical manoeu e. Whe e images a e ac s a he han celeb a ions, go e ning is gazing, designing and building. In and h ough d awing, powe s a ed o become e ec i e as image-based ule. Keple e- so ed o he image o he magis a e and he council o desc ibe he sense o sigh , e- ga ded as ep esen a ion, as in pain ing111. Saa ed a Faja do also, in his Imp esa 56 (which combines compass, w i ing and sec ecy) eso ed o he image o he pain e and he a - chi ec o ex ol he ole o he sec e a y, gua dian o oyal eco ds: «The Council pu s o - wa d he idea o a ac o y. The sec e a y d aws he g ound plan. And i i is lawed, he building e ec ed o e i will also be lawed. To exp ess ha idea in his imp esa, his pen is also a compass, o no only mus he w i e, bu he mus also measu e and adjus eso- lu ions, synch onise occasion and iming so ha building is unde aken nei he oo ea ly no oo la e...»112. The ex ensi e w i ings on he sec e a y a es o his poli ical ole113. Ruling was a way o seeing ( a he away and deepe wi hin han o he s) and o pain ing, in which eali y had i s o be d awn o be app op ia ed. Fo esigh in ol ed mo e han o ganising de ence; i also en ailed ini ia ing a design o a conques . I o i ica ion was an ac o e i o ial app op ia ion which, like ounding ci ies, implemen ed a legal i le o so e eign y, e e y pic u e o a ci y o a on ie was an open doo in he walls o ac ual o po en ial enemies. Hence he alue acco ded s olen pic u es, clandes ine desc ip ions and hei isual depic ions, d awn in he shadows o spon anei y o om memo y. E en when delinea ed wi h no pe spec i e and in child-like mode, by p isone s o ins ance, hey we e use ul sou ces o in o ma ion abou ho izons o he wise inaccessible114. 162 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Fo oday’s in o ma ion-obsessed men ali y, sec ecy is a concei e en blu ie han on ie , while cons i u ing i s inescapable e e se. Beginning in he six een h cen u y, howe e , many au ho s, such as Bo e o, desc ibed sec ecy as an impe a i e o he exe cise o powe 115. In his P íncipe Pe ec o published in 1662, Jesui And és Mendo eso ed o he me apho o he eyes, iden i ied wi h p udence, o con end: «be he who ules an A gos om whom no hing is concealed […] and when he wi h his powe emb aces he ou co ne s o he wo ld, like ou Spanish mona ch, be he he oculus mundi. All should he see wi h he eyes o unde s anding»116. Sec ecy became one o he pilla s o poli ical science, insepa able om p udence and su eillance. The image o he igilan p ince, like A gos, was consequen ly in oked by Saa ed a Faja do as a scep e wi h eyes in his imp esa 55 («His P ae ide e p o ide»), and by Soló zano Pe ei a, in emblem LXVI («Legum munia, bium moenia»), wi h i s ci y decked wi h he eyes o he law (and hence o powe ), and especially in LIV («Adminis i p incipum») whe e he king is de- pic ed wea ing a obe ado ned wi h emb oide ed eyes. The me apho was also used by Cesa e Ripa o ep esen spies, wi h a lan e n (ligh in he da k) and a dog ( igilance)117. All hese elemen s o med pa o e e mo e complex decision-making ha was changing he exe cise o powe . Toge he wi h he ise o science o numbe and he a o c yp og aphy118, he de el- opmen o a chi es helped shape a iew o con iden ial in o ma ion in which d awings o sensi i e poin s and ou es we e a c ucial elemen in a complex sys em o espionage ha also ound i s way in o li e a u e119. Beginning in he i een h cen u y, sec e ca - og aphy was c ucial o compe ing wi h Po ugal o expansion120. Agains ha backd op, GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 163 FIG. 15 CESARE RIPA. Iconología. «Spia». Venice, 1645. C is o o o Tomasini. FIG. 16 JUAN DE SOLÓRZANO PEREIRA. Emblema a cen um egio poli ica. «Emblema LIV». Mad id, 1653. Hie onymus Mün ze ’s oyage ac oss Spain in 1494 and Ma in Benheim’s121 design o he globe illus a e wo ea ly episodes o he pu sui o in o ma ion by he majo poli ical powe s and hei g owing dependence on echnology. The zealous cus ody o he Royal Census in he House o T ade a Se ille symbolises he ace o ep esen ing space as well as he ongoing imp o emen s in echnique122 ha made sec e s age a a dizzying pace. Designs o o i ica ions me much he same a e, o hey we e soon ende ed useless by he ci cula ion o knowledge ha led o he publica ion o he ea lies ea ises in he six een h cen u y. Espionage ocusing on sec e de ices and machines was enla ged o include maps, as shown by he dealings conduc ed in Po ugal by Gio an Ba is a Gesio, Philip II’s Neapoli an ca og aphe in cha ge o ex ao dina ily ambi ious meas- u ing and d awing p ojec s in a wo ld ha appea ed o be oo small o he mona chy123. F ench espionage in Spain124, he objec o he g ea es his o iog aphic a en ion, along 164 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES FIG. 17 ALBERT DÜRER, Melancholía I, 1514. S aa liche Kun- s halle Ka l- s uhe. wi h spying in he Medi e anean a ea125, was o pa icula signi icance in he six een h- and se en een h-cen u y en husiasm o s udies on espionage126. Fo i ica ion d awing played a c ucial ole in his scena io and on occasion was disguised as a ondness o classical a o conceal i s ac ual objec i es. This The p ecision o de ensi e de ail in F ancisco de Holanda’s d awing o San ’Elmo Cas le a Naples on he occasion o a oy- age o I aly in 1539 and 1540 unde he o de s o John III o Po ugal o depic ancien monumen s alongside new o i ica ions e eals mo e han academic pu pose127. In one o his mos amous eng a ings, an allego ical ision o melancholy whose in- e p e a ion is sh ouded in mys e y e en oday, Dü e depic ed he symbolic a ibu es o cons uc ion, iden i ied wi h hough and geome ic ac i i y. The winged emale igu e ha embodies he condi ion si s alongside an un inished building, su ounded by meas- u ing ins umen s. The sea is shown a a dis ance as a bounda y o be c ossed. The igu e GOVERNMENT AND IMAGE IN THE SPANISH MONARCHY 165 FIG. 18 HANS HOLBEIN THE YOUNGER. Jean de Din e ille and Geo ges de Sel e (The Ambassado s), 1533. London, Na ional Galle y. es s a compass agains a boa d on which she is no d awing; a he , he head is aised and he a i ude pensi e. A huge key hangs om he wais , used o open and close he ches whe e she keeps he men al sec e s128. The combina ion o sec ecy, line d awing and ma hema ics s eng hened he mas e builde ’s in ellec ual pe sonali y. The e o e, Dü e ’s pensi e angel is a emale d augh sman who cus odies impene able ideas so ul- ne able ha hey need o be hidden. The museum o ins umen s and images o ma he- ma ical knowledge in whose mids she si s, as i amid he wood ca ings in a s udiolo, would la e be copied in o he depic ions o mensu a ion and d awing in a wo ld in which he poli ical dimension was becoming e e mo e explici . They also appea ed in he no less well known can as The Ambassado s pain ed by Hans Holbein he Younge in 1533, whe e he globe bea s lines ma king Magellan’s ou e and a ma hema ical and poli ical on ie iden i ied wi h he di ision de ined in he T ea y o To desillas acknowledged by nei he he F ench no he English mona ch. Wi h he many laye s o meaning ha make i one o he bes isual synopses o he poli ical cul u e o i s day, he pain ing can be in e p e ed as a eapp aisal o diplomacy ha s essed he powe o ma hema ics and ca og aphy in he compe i ion o he domina ion o a wo ld ha had begun o be global. In hei silen dialogue, howe e , symbolised by elemen s such as he dis o ed skull129, hese F ench ambassado s o Hen y VIII’s cou also exude a need o sec ecy, inhe en in he ambi ion o design he wo ld and in he powe o he image as a ool o go e nmen , a concei whose implica ions had been ully g asped by he mona chy agains which hey we e pi ed. 166 DRAUGHTSMAN ENGINEERS SERVING THE SPANISH MONARCHY IN THE SIXTEENTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES NOTES 1. This s udy o ms pa o esea ch p ojec HAR2012-37560-C02-02 unded by he Spanish Minis y o he Economy. 2. Tenu ed p o esso o Mode n His o y. Depa men o Mode n, Con empo a y and Ame ican His o y, Jou nalism, Audio- isual Communica ion and Ad e ising, Facul y o Libe al A s. Uni e si y o Valladolid. Pza. del Campus s/n, 47011-Val- ladolid. ca [email protected] a.es 3. SAN JUAN DE LA CRUZ, 1957, pp. 683 and 715-716. [English ansla ion, D. Lewis: h p://www.ccel.o g/ccel/john_c oss/can icle. x , 20160416]. Signi ican ly, S John eso ed o he image o he a elle who « akes new oads, unknown and un ied», o explain o he e ses o his Noche Oscu a:ibid., p. 630. [English ansla ion, E.A. Pee s: h p://www.ccel.o g/ccel/john_c oss/ da k_nigh . iii.x i.h ml, 20160416]. 4. ROTTERDAM, 1998, pp. 48-49. 5. HOLANDA, 1984, p. 16. 6. See RICARD, 1965; EGIDO, 1982; GÓMEZ SOLÍS, 1990. Compa e o BLANCO, 1996. 7. See BOGNOLO, 1996 and 2000; DUCE GARCÍA, 2005. 8. See DUCE GARCÍA, 2001. 9. ARREDONDO, 1528. Compa e o SEARY, 1996. 10. ALDANA, 2000, p. 405. 11. See MANGANI, 1998. 12. See BATAILLON, 1960; ROSENTHAL, 1971 and 1973; WALTER, 1995; GONZALO SÁNCHEZ-MOLERO, 2000. 13. See POLLEROSS, 1993. 14. See BRAUDEL, 1949. 15. See PARKER, 1998, pp. 36-37. 16. See MADERUELO, 2005. 17. BUZZATI, 2005, pp. 278-279. 18. See SICARI, 2006. 19. See IOGNA-PRAT, 2016. 20. HEIDEGGER, 1994. 21. FEBVRE, 1912, 1928 and 1935. 22. SCHMITT, 1979 and 2007. 23. See SCHLÖGEL, 2007. 24. See TOUBERT, 1992. On he Mode n Age, o which he e is ex ensi e li e a u e, see: NORDMAN, 1998; DELSALLE and FERRER, 2000; FASANO GUARINI and VOLPINI, 2008; BERTRAND and PLANAS, 2011. On o i ica ion on he on ie in gene al, see: SODINI, 2001. 25. See SAHLINS, 1989. 26. In Ramón de Bas e a’s poe y, o ins ance, and his Escuela Romana del Pi ineo, o E nes o Jiménez Caballe o and his ision o he Py enees as a his o ic ba ie o celeb a e he end o he Spanish Ci il Wa : BASTERRA, 2001; JIMÉNEZ CABALLERO, 1939. 27. See AZARA, 2005. 28. See CÁMARA MUÑOZ, 1991. 29. See LÓPEZ ALEMANY and VAREY, 2006, pp. 15-22. 30. See SLOTERDIJK, 2004 and 2007. 31. See CHECA and GARCÍA, 2011. 32. See PEIL, 1999; BÖKER, 1999. Compa e o GORDON, 1987, pp. 231-252. 33. See ANGELINI, 2007. 34. See HARRIES, 1992. 35. Cesa e Ripa’s 1593 Iconologia po ayed «Misu a» (mensu a ion) as a «donna di g a e aspe o» who held a ule in he igh hand, ep esen ing he Roman oo , and in he le an angle squa e and a compass, o «La Misu a è ciò che col peso, con la capaci à, con lunghezza, al eza & animo si e mina & inisce», and on he g ounds o he ins umen s, she is associa ed wi h geome y (RIPA, 1992, pp. 289-291). The igu e bea s a s iking simila i y o Ripa’s «Theo ia», shown as a young woman gazing upwa d, on he head a compass wi h he ips poin ed owa d he sky (ibid., pp. 530-531). The allego y inhe en in O dine D i o, e Gius o can also be se in he same concep ual and symbolic ealm (ibid., pp. 328-329). The compass, like he angle squa e and o he measu ing ins umen s in he same seman ic sphe e, we e associa ed wi h di e en b anches o knowledge and he a s, po ayed as s a es o mind o men al acul ies. See CORRAIN, 2010. Compa e o PIERGUIDI, 2008. 36. See CHECA, 1986. 37. 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