James Wadsworth’s The English Spanish Pilgrim: An anti-Catholic attack on Jesuits

1 FACULTAD de FILOSOFÍA Y LETRAS DEPARTAMENTO de FILOLOGÍA INGLESA Grado en Estudios Ingleses TRABAJO DE FIN DE GRADO James Wadsworth’s The English Spanish Pilgrim: An anti-Catholic attack on Jesuits Verónica Fernández Alonso Tutora: Ana Sáez Hidalgo 2020-2021 2 3 Abstract From the sixteenth century onwards, anti-Catholicism was at the heart of the tensions between Spain and England. With the foundation of the Company of Jesus in 1534, anti-Catholic criticism focused on the Jesuits since they were the main representatives of Catholicism. The following dissertation assesses how James Wadsworth contributed to anti-Catholicism with his pamphlet The English Spanish Pilgrime, or, A New Discoverie of Spanish Popery and Jesuitical Stratagems (1629). To achieve this purpose, it examines the author’s portrayal of the Jesuits in connection with the arguments commonly used by other anti-Catholic authors, and with the vocabulary or expressions accompanying these arguments. This graduate dissertation proves that it is a Jesuitical criticism heaped with negative connotations that influence the reader's perception about the Jesuits. Key Words James Wadsworth, anti-Catholicism, anti-Jesuitism, Jesuit criticism, English Colleges, pamphlets. Resumen Desde el siglo dieciséis en adelante, el discurso anticatólico ha estado en el centro de las tensiones entre España e Inglaterra. Con la fundación de la Compañía de Jesús en 1534, la crítica anticatólica se centró en los jesuitas por ser los principales representantes del catolicismo. El presente Trabajo de Fin de Grado analiza el modo en que James Wadsworth contribuyó al discurso anticatólico con su panfleto The English Spanish Pilgrime, o A New Discoverie of Spanish Papery and Jesuitical Stratagems (1629). Para lograr este propósito, se examina la descripción que el autor realiza de los jesuitas, relacionándolos con los argumentos comúnmente utilizados por otros autores anticatólicos, y el vocabulario o expresiones que acompañan a estos argumentos. Este trabajo, pues, demuestra que se trata de una crítica jesuítica cargada de connotaciones negativas que influyen en la percepción que el lector tiene sobre los jesuitas. Palabras clave James Wadsworth, anticatolicismo, anti-jesuitismo, crítica jesuita, Colegios ingleses, panfletos. 4 5 Table of contents 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6 2. Religious confrontation: Catholicism, Protestantism and anti-Catholicism ... 7 3. The Company of Jesus ....................................................................................... 10 4. The role of the pamphlet in anti-Catholicism .................................................. 11 5. James Wadsworth, between Catholicism and Protestantism ......................... 13 6. Jesuitical criticism in The English Spanish Pilgrim ......................................... 15 6.1. Structure ....................................................................................................... 15 6.2. Arguments set out for anti-Jesuit criticism .................................................. 17 6.2.1. Hierarchy and education ........................................................................... 17 6.2.2. Personal enrichment ................................................................................. 22 6.2.3. Seducers .................................................................................................... 24 6.2.4. Deceitful, dissimulating and unreliable .................................................... 25 6.2.5. Idolatry ..................................................................................................... 27 6.3. Narrative technique and vocabulary ............................................................. 28 7. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 31 8. Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 32 6 1. Introduction From the beginning of the sixteenth century, the religious tensions in Europe between Catholicism and Protestantism resulting from Henry VIII’s schism coincided with the spread of Martin Luther’s ideas about the Reformation of the Church in Germany. However, the English Reformation followed another course, alternating between Catholic and Protestant principles in accordance with the political necessities of Henry VIII. The publications carried out by both sides arose as a powerful weapon in the religious confrontation. Thus, literature became essential in the dissemination of critical ideas and debates against the opposite religion. These publications ranged from official texts published by the government to pamphlets and unofficial texts. From 1445, and thanks to the printing press, these publications had a wider dissemination, becoming more accessible to a varied audience of all social classes. Anti-Catholicism was strongly connected with Spain, since it was the main representative of Catholicism, and the first European Catholic power. For this reason, anti-Catholicism was often related with Spain, but also with the Jesuits, since they had been the main representatives of the Catholic faith with the foundation of the Company of Jesus in 1540. Consequently, Jesuit criticism has been an essential part of anti- Catholicism. As we shall see throughout the following pages, anti-Catholicism was a propagandistic movement spread during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, which not unfrequently overlapped with what has been later known as “Black Legend,” a negative image of Spain. The aim of this graduate dissertation is to analyse James Wadsworth’s anti-Catholic criticism through his pamphlet, The English Spanish Pilgrime, or, A New Discoverie of Spanish Popery and Jesuitical Stratagems (1629), and in particular the author’s portrayal of the Jesuits. To achieve this purpose, in the pages that follow, it will be analysed the arguments that Wadsworth employed to create this type of criticism, which have been already employed through history by other anti-Catholic authors. In addition, this study examines the vocabulary of these arguments and its negative connotations. Although the pamphlet presents elements of the anti-Spanish discourse as well, this 7 graduate dissertation will focus on anti-Catholic discourse, more specifically on the anti-Jesuitical, due to practical constraints. 2. Religious confrontation: Catholicism, Protestantism and anti-Catholicism At the beginning of the sixteenth century, there was a general atmosphere of religious tensions throughout Europe.1 Martin Luther’s ideas about the reform of the Church in Germany were already in England. In 1521, Henry VIII wrote the Assertio Septem Sacramentorum in response to Luther's treaty De Captivate Babylonica (1520), in which he defended papal supremacy, the indissolubility of marriage and condemned the schism. In 1529, moved by his desire to annul his marriage with Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII appealed to the Church of Rome, but it was denied. After his disagreements with the Church of Rome, Henry VIII took advantage of the anti-clerical sentiment that was present in a great sector of the English society thanks to Luther’s thoughts and began schism from Rome. From then on, Henry VIII rejected papal authority and moved towards the reformation of the Church of England. In 1534, he became the head of the Anglican Church after he signed the Act of Supremacy. The progressive deterioration of the Catholic Church at spiritual and institutional level since the Middle Ages and the growing number of critical voices demanding a profound reform of the Church were decisive factors in the disintegration of Catholicism in England before the Reformation and the religious confrontation between Catholicism and Protestantism. The circumstances that led to the collapse of the papal power and Catholic unity point to a series of factors and causes that, together with Luther's intervention, may explain the success of the Protestant Reformation. The first factor was the corruption and the vices of the ecclesiastical community, although Rome was aware of this moral and spiritual weakness. The second factor was the growing estrangement between the English monarch and the papal hierarchy, and the implantation of a national church in England, which marked a turning point in the European history. Therefore, the need to justify the separation from the Church of Rome arises, together with the anti-Catholicism as a mechanism to control a nation with a Catholic past. 1 The historical background is based on Álvarez Recio (2006) and Maltby (1982). 8 Notwithstanding, in order to understand why anti-Catholicism was established in such a deep way in England, we must understand the events that took after the death of Henry VIII. From 1547 till 1553, England continued to be Protestant with Eduard VI, but in 1553 Mary Tudor ascended to the throne. Mary Tudor was a fervent Catholic who decided to re-establish Catholicism in England, but she remained on the throne just a few years until her death in 1558. Finally, in 1558 Elizabeth I assumed the throne and restored Protestantism in England. Those constant changes of monarch and religion gave rise to religious instability, coinciding with the concern of the nation for the lack of a male heir and an imminent change of dynasty after Elizabeth’s death. After her death in 1603 without a successor to the throne, James I inherited it and in 1604 he signed the peace with Spain. In 1605, he started the negotiations to marry his son Charles (later Charles I) with Infanta Maria Anna of Spain (the daughter of Philip III of Spain). As a result, England was expected to begin a policy of tolerance towards the Catholics until the Parliament approved the Oath of Allegiance in 1606, in the aftermath of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605.2 The Oath of Allegiance was an act that required that all English subjects must be denied the Pope's authority over the English Monarch. In the practice, James proved to be lenient and tolerant with Catholicism, but the Gunpowder Plot caused a revival of anti-Catholic sentiments. The evidence presented by authors such as William S. Maltby or Leticia Álvarez Recio, suggests that anti-Catholic literature was fundamental to revive those anti-Catholic sentiments. The literature of this period substitutes the theological controversy and doctrinal elements of previous years with descriptions of the Catholic cruelty, to favour a collective action of rejection. Thomas Ridgedell (2017) maintains that evidence seems to suggest that this Catholic cruelty was focused in particular on the religious Company of Jesus, due to the role of the Jesuits in the English mission and tensions between Catholic clerics and laymen rejected by other Catholic collectives. Those tensions gave rise to the Archpriest Controversy, a dispute that took place after the Pope Clement VIII appointed an archpriest to oversee the missionary priests of the Roman Catholic Church in England between 1598 and 1602. England decided to support the "appellants" or 2 The Gunpowder Plot, known also as the Jesuit Treason, was a failed attempt to assassinate James I and restore Catholicism in England, carried out by a group of English Catholics. 9 opponents of this measure alleging "a serious ideological breach between the Jesuit faction and the Appellants" (Ridgedell 561). As a consequence of the substitution of theological controversy and doctrinal elements with the descriptions of the Catholic cruelty, the Inquisition became the object of anti- Catholic criticism, together with the Company. The Inquisition was the institution in charge of suppressing heresy within the Catholic Church. The Spanish Inquisition was one of its main representatives and an international symbol of the Catholic faith, since it was the one spread throughout Europe and the New World with the support of the Hispanic Monarchy. In addition, it played an important role in the fight against Protestantism when Philip II of Spain and Mary Tudor married. This institution employed miscellaneous methods to combat heresy,3 which gave rise to the production of relevant anti-Catholic literature focused on Catholic cruelty. The first one, Actes and Monuments of these Latter and Perillous Days, Touching Matters of the Church (1563), popularly known as the Book of Martyrs, was written by the Protestant historian John Foxe. He gave a detailed account of the tortures that English Protestant martyrs suffered under the control of the Catholic Church from the fourteenth century until the reign of Mary Tudor. Several researchers such as John E. Drabble (1982) or David Loades (1999) have assessed the efficacy of Foxe’s work in the reconstruction of England's national history. In the same vein, William Haller points out that thanks to this work the English population developed a disproportionate aversion to the Church of Rome, but also that they were able to embrace a powerful sentiment of national identity. The Spanish literature of that period did not contribute to mitigate that representation of the Catholic cruelty with La Brevísima Relación de la Destrucción de las Indias (1552). Through this work, Bartolomé de las Casas attempted to fight for the rights of the native population, but he provided such a detailed account of the atrocities committed in the New World by the Spanish colonizers, in order to convert native people to Catholicism, that it ended up being an anti-Catholic key work. Furthermore, John Patrick Thaddeus Barrington holds that just a few analysts tried to provide an accurate study of the arguments employed in anti-Catholic literature, suggesting that this lack of studies may be related to historians' understanding of anti-Catholicism as "a set of prejudices with little intellectual content" (3). A similar perspective had been adopted by John Miller 3 The information about the Inquisition has been extracted from Reginaldus Gonsalvius Montanus (1567). 16 preliminary material, it can be seen that he asks Earl of Pembroke to protect his work from the adversaries, as it contains the truth of the English Jesuits, Fryers, Monks and other seminar Priests, but also the truth about the English fugitives under “the King of Spain's Dominions”. The evidence here seems to suggest the intention of the work, warning the reader about the "rude lines" he will be able to read below. After the preliminary material, the overall structure of the pamphlet takes the form of eight chapters as follows: I. His father’s studies in Protestant institutions before he moved to Spain and how he became Catholic, including the techniques employed by the Jesuits to convert his mother until she also moved to Spain. II. Their journey to Spain where he spent eight years in Madrid and Seville before he moved to St. Omer. III. The educational system of St. Omer; a further description of the internal functioning and the discipline imposed by the Jesuits. IV. His journey to Spain when he left St. Omer. V. The hardships he suffered when he was sold as a slave. VI. His last period in Spain when he recovered his freedom, and the death of his father. VII. A detailed denounce of the injustices committed in the Colleges or Monasteries of the Jesuits, along with information about the English fugitives under the King of Spain; their pension, their financial situation, or how they committed treason against their country and their religion. VIII. In the final chapter he gives an explanation of why he left the service of his Catholic Majesty and returned to England. 17 The author follows a chronological first-person narration. The space in which the work takes place is divided into three main sceneries: Spain, France (St. Omer) and England. Spain represents a period of transition, France represents a period of education and England represents his home. As this dissertation analyses Jesuit criticism in Wadsworth’s work, the data in this graduate dissertation is drawn from three main chapters: I, III, and VII. 6.2. Arguments set out for anti-Jesuit criticism 6.2.1. Hierarchy and education The first argument of the criticism carried out by Wadsworth is the hierarchy of the Jesuit College at St. Omer. He divides the Jesuits into three groups according to the power or responsibility of each member within the institution: “the Machiavellians”, “the envious”, and “the simple ones”. The first group, “the Machiavellians”, is guided by a series of commandments that represent the Machiavellian behaviour which can be summarized as "all for me, and nothing for thee” (Wadsworth 30). He includes Joseph Creswell in this group, who was Robert Parsons’s successor as rector of the English College in Rome, but also a key figure in the Spanish Court. The Real Academia de la Historia, places Creswell within the group of advisers of Philip III, taking part in international problems such as the succession of Elizabeth I. According to the Real Academia de la Historia, he had an "offensive and not defensive attitude" (unnumbered) in matters of State. Historically, the term “Machiavellian” derives from Niccolò Machiavelli’s work The Prince (1532), which established the idea of what is a “Machiavellian” character. In addition, we should bear in mind that some members of the Catholic Church, such as the Cardinal Reginald Pole in his Apologia ad Carolum Quintum (1539) considered The Prince (1532) a malignant satire “written by the finger of Satan” (Chadwick, unnumbered). Daniel N. Jones states that “the gist of his advice for maintaining political control is captured in the phrase the end justifies the means" (93). According to Machiavelli, a ruler should be open to each and every of the effective tactics, including 18 manipulation strategies such as flattery or lying. Commenting on the Machiavellian character, Richard Christie (2013) describes it as the one who “views and manipulates others for his own purposes” (1). In a considerable amount of literature, including Shakespeare's plays, the term has been employed to describe characters who display an amoral behaviour in favour of their political interests. The study carried out by Eduardo Olid Guerrero in 2013, suggests that the use of this terminology already predisposes the reader, glimpsing the anti-Catholic behaviour of the first group of Jesuits. Wadsworth describes this group as the ones in charge of matters of State related to the Pope and the Catholic Majesty, and affirms that most of them are atheists or very bad Christians but remain being Jesuits due to their political interests (29), which makes them perfectly suitable for the role of the “Machiavellian”. In my opinion, this is the reason why Wadsworth mentioned Creswell on several occasions, because he was a famous Jesuit already in the political sphere, so Creswell then becomes an accurate example of a Jesuit with political ambitions. In 2013, Román Álvarez Rodríguez published a paper in which he demonstrates that in literature there are numerous associations of Jesuits with the character of Machiavelli. For example, the poet John Donne in Ignatius his Conclave (1611) performed a dialogue between Ignacio de Loyola and Machiavelli in which they exchange a series of arguments in the presence of Lucifer to demonstrate who leads the stand as "an agent evil on earth" (qtd. in Adams 241). The term “Machiavellian” is not only employed to designate the Jesuits throughout the pamphlet, but also to refer to Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, the Count of Gondomar. He was ambassador of Spain in England between 1613 and 1622, and had a prominent role in maintaining the peace between England and Spain during the reign of James I of England, leading the Catholic faction in the English Court. According to Fernando Bartolomé Benito in his work Don Diego de Sarmiento de Acuña, conde de Gondomar: El Maquiavelo español (2004), the Count of Gondomar was historically known as the "Spanish Machiavelli", which is a significant outcome since with the term “Machiavellians”, Wadsworth establishes a close relationship within the Jesuits and a historical figure that was already recognised as “Machiavellian”. In the case that the negative connotations of the use of this term were not enough, the author even adds 19 “wickedness” to the term, which is a characteristic already implicit in the concept of “Machiavellian”. But the most striking result to emerge from the analysis is that in the third chapter Wadsworth associates Father Baldwin, the rector of the College in 1622, with Gondomar, who released Baldwin from the Tower of London, where he was imprisoned for seven years on charges of suspicion of high treason. Thanks to the intercession of Gondomar, he was released and became the first English Rector of St. Omer (Wadsworth 27). Taken together, these results suggest that the author employed this term in order to associate the “Machiavellian” character with the most powerful Jesuits inside the College, the Count of Gondomar and the “Machiavellian” origins of the College. Finally, the last way in which he employs the term is when he refers to Gondomar's nephew. Wadsworth calls him this way, instead of with his real name, to associate him with an act of cowardice against the Rochellers (Wadsworth 8). His nephew was a Jesuit, so it is evident that the aim of Wadsworth is to blacken the name of the Jesuits by means of his nephew, but also associate the "Machiavellian" character of Gondomar with the "Machiavallian" character of the Jesuits. The second group of Jesuits identified by Wadsworth is “the envious”, whose members are described as those “who preach, confess, and teach youth, and envy each other for the number of their schoolers and ghostly children” (Wadsworth 30). We have to bear in mind that envy was considered a capital sin within the Catholic Church, and is directly related with the description of the third group. Finally, the third group is classified as “the simple ones”, which he accused of enriching themselves at the expense of other Jesuits (the argument of personal enrichment will be analysed in section 6.2.2.). The envy that the second group handles, is carried out by the third group, enriching themselves at the expense of other Jesuits. There seems to be another type of classification according to the duty that the Jesuits performed in the College. The first group is composed by those who hold a higher position such as the Rector whom he compares with a Vice-God, the Vice-Rector who holds the position of minister, and finally the “Praefects” or “ouer-seers”. By naming them in that way, the author seeks to produce an antonomasia with the intention of placing them in the most important areas: religion, politics and security. The second 20 group is composed by the masters of poetry, syntax, grammar, figures, and print-house. According to the author they were respected by their own students due to their teaching labour, and it is true that he does not employ any negative or pejorative terminology to describe them. As Robert Schwickerath argues in his analysis of the Jesuit education (1903), the educational labour of the Jesuits was debated in England, Germany, France and the United States (4), but it was effective despite the methods employed in the Colleges. Much of the knowledge that was preserved until the nineteenth century was thanks to the meticulous study that was carried out in these Colleges, especially in the areas of knowledge previously mentioned (ch. XIII). It is important to bear in mind that for Wadsworth it would be more effective to carry out a criticism against the methods employed than a criticism against the knowledge imparted, since it was the tendency which carried out other educational institutions such as the Sorbonne. In the anonymous pamphlet The Legend of the Jesuites (1623), the author relates how the Sorbonne University considered those Colleges as potential competitors due to the free education they offered to the upper social classes. This free education was one of the key elements that compose anti-Catholicism, due to the fact that the best way to discredit that free education was arguing that they just want those students because of their noble blood, the connection with the social classes of the high spheres and even their inheritance. One of the aspects that Wadsworth criticises of the education in St. Omer is the use of Latin, or the punishment when students speak in English, since Protestants avoided the use of Latin, especially in religious contexts. According to Claire Cross (2000), in 1549 the main objective of Thomas Cranmer and the Parliament of England was to substitute the Latin by the vernacular language so that the use of Latin was not interpreted as pro- Catholic. Schwickerath (1903) demonstrates that this argument is related to anti- Catholicism since the use of Latin in the Law Code was indispensable for England, while the use of Latin in the Catholic Colleges was an argument for the criticism. Despite the evidence that the linguistic argument is part of anti-Catholicism, Schwickerath supports the criticism to the educational methods employing the terminology: authority, punishment or discipline, which are exactly the same terms that Wadsworth employs. This terminology is exemplified in the work with Father Thunder who “exercises many of his claps upon their breeches” (Wadsworth 14) or with the discipline which is “rather barbarous tan civil” (Wadsworth 12), but it is not the only 21 example that the author provides. For example, he narrates the physical abuses against a student in which they employ the “disciplines”. The author defines this instrument as a “stucke with wyery prickes” (21), and indicates that their intention when they employ this instrument of penance was to make him turn Jesuit. Some of the words which the author employs when he describes the educational method of the Jesuits are: tricks, promises, captive, incitement, snares, barbarous precedents, punish, etc. The present examples are significant to conclude that his description of the educational method implies abuse of power by the Jesuits. Christopher Carlsmith (2002) highlights the educational influence of confession, together with the study of Latin, in the study he carried out of the Jesuit education in Italy between 1540 and 1600. Indeed, another aspect that Wadsworth criticises of the education in St. Omer is the confession technique. Actually, the intention of Wadsworth could be to make a reference to the Inquisitional technique in this context: “As for the Interrogatory and confession of their ghostly Fathers, I referre you to Peter de molin, which is intituled Novaute du papisme, where you may at large read those abhominable abuses committed in their Interrogatories” (Wasdworth 20). Wadsworth compares the confession with an interrogatory, the main technique employed by the Inquisition, according to Reginaldus Gonsalvius Montanus in his book Inquisitionis Hispanicae Artes: The Arts of the Spanish Inquisition (1567). At the same time, Wadsworth makes reference to the “abhominable abuses” (21) committed in the interrogatories, which coincide with the descriptions that Montanus gave of an Inquisitorial interrogatory. Other techniques, such as tortures, became more famous thorough history, but in most of the interrogatories these were not necessary. Prisoners confessed without being tortured due to the fear. Finally, the third group of the second classification that Wadsworth establishes is dedicated to the lay brothers who carried out the most humble and manual services. Wadsworth suggests that the Jesuits consider them second-class members with the sentence "the disrespect they giue them themselves" (Wadsworth 14). Taken together, these classifications support the notion of a clear internal hierarchy within the Jesuits that could be interpreted as a reference to the internal breach within the Catholic Church 22 between the Jesuit and the Appellants,14 but in case this correlation was not clear, the author states that “Iesuites endeauour to demollish all Orders and places of eminency aboue them” (Wadsworth 32). The evidence obtained from this classification suggests that Wadsworth’s strongest argument employed in the criticism is the internal hierarchy within the Company. 6.2.2. Personal enrichment In the previous section of the dissertation we already mentioned that one of the arguments which Wadsworth employs is that the Jesuits were looking for personal enrichment with their behaviour. In anti-Catholic literature the most representative author that wrote about this issue was Walter Lynne. In his pamphlet, The Beginning and Endyng of all Popery, or Popishe Kyngedome (1548),15 he projected the traditional image of a corrupted cleric pursuing the personal enrichment. This projection can be seen in the next example: “when they smelled ryches, and daylye coueted more and more, then was goddes worde laide aside” (Unnumbered). The first texts against the enrichment and power of the ecclesiastical hierarchy appeared in the fourteenth century. Marsilius of Padua in his work The Defender of Peace (1324), already advocated the necessity to return to evangelical poverty.16 It seems curious that in section 6.2.1., Wadsworth classifies the third group of Jesuits as the ones who enrich themselves at the expense of others, since they represent the group with less power within the College. The aim of this argument is to manipulate the reader's perception. If they enrich themselves at the expense of their peers, they would do it at the expense of their students. This characteristic takes us directly to the classification of the students and the real reasons why they are selected, according to Wadsworth: their noble blood, since they will receive a greater wealth. 14The information regarding the Appellants has been extracted from Bossy (1975). 15 This pamphlet is based on the German translation Vaticinia from Joachim of Fiore (1130-1201). He was a theologian and biblical commentator whose ideas had a great influence in diverse religious communities almost until the nineteenth century. The information regarding Joachim of Fiore has been extracted from Reeves (1998). 16 The information regarding Walter Lynne has been extracted from Spiers (1974). 23 Let vs now descend to the Students: their chiefest quality is noble blood for the most part, to make such a Proselite the Fathers compasse sea and land, perswading them that such a calling addes to their Nobility. Of others lesse eminent by birth, it is required they should at least equall, if not transcend in eminency of parts & wits, which in time would purchase better portions then men more nobly descended would haue affoorded from inheritance. (Wadsworth 14) The case of Mr. Inglefield is the most representative example of the interest that the Jesuits had in a student just because of his wealth. The author makes the following statement: "their intent was to make him one of their owne order, and so get his meanes away from him" (Wadsworth 50), and explains the meticulous plan they carry out to achieve their purpose. This plan consists of not leaving him alone, persuade him every day to take the habits, and force him to lead a life of meditation. As I explained in Wadsworth’s biography, he worked as a spy for England’s Government. In chapter number seven, he provides a detailed and elaborate compilation of all "English Fugitiues vnder the King of Spaine his Dominions and else where, with a Catalog of the Colledges and Monasteries belonging to our English Iesuites, Monkes, and Seminary Priests beyond the Seas "(Wadsworth 62). At a time in which Catholics were persecuted in Europe, the English Catholic Church decided to found several colleges in Europe to cover the necessity of spreading God’s faith through the world, to transmit the Catholic faith to their students, but also to serve as a shelter for the fugitives from England. It is clear that Wadsworth’s intention was to reveal all the knowledge he had about the English colleges and monasteries for persecution purposes. He talks about the College of Douay, a Scottish Seminary, the College at Valladolid, the College at Seville, the Residence at Madrid, the Residence at Sanlúcar, the Residence at Lisbon, the College at Salamanca, the College of Rome or the College of Brussels. In his comments about these institutions, the argument of enrichment is connected to Jesuits’ corruption, giving examples such as the founder of the Scottish Seminary: Colonel Simple, who betrayed a town in Holland and received 250,000 crows for his betrayal (25). To support the argument of personal enrichment, the author employs the term “pension” up to twenty-one times to talk about the money that the English fugitives receive from the Spanish Crown for betraying England, portraying the corrupted character of those protected by the Company. In addition, in some of the examples he illustrates how the Jesuits keep the pensions of the fugitives. In relation to 24 the corruption of the Church of Rome, one of the most representative examples could be the Jesuit Hill, who donated his wealth obtained from piracy to the Pope when he became Jesuit in order to obtain the forgiveness of his sins (57). Taken together these results, it is evident the criticism of personal enrichment as well as the corruption within the Company. 6.2.3. Seducers Almost every study that has been written on Jesuits points that this image of "seducers" can be understood in two different ways in anti-Catholic literature. According to Eric Nelson in “The Jesuit Legend: Superstition and Myth-Making” (2002), the first interpretation is the strategy of seduction as a method to attract people to Catholicism. For example, Wadsworth appeals to this one when he explains the conversion of his mother who “was at length seduced by one Kelly a Iesuite” (Wadsworth 5) or when he narrates how the Jesuits tried to convert a student: “went about to seduce to them one Mr. Henry Challoner, sonne to Sir Thomas Challoner, late Tutor to Prince Henry” (Wadsworth 51). The second interpretation deals with the seduction of women from the Court, although Nelson explains that this interpretation is part of the “myth-making” that surrounds the figure of the Jesuits. The main connection between the Company and the nobility was women from the Court, but the nature of their relationship was not based on seduction, it was a matter of power and politics. Despite this clarification, in Protestant literature, women are represented as victims of the Jesuits persuasion, as happens in the anonymous text The Downfall of the Jesuits (1623). The Jesuits were spiritual advisers of those women from the Court, whereas those women were the protectors and benefactors of the Company. However, Wadsworth did not employ this argument of seduction since he was a student so he did not have contact with women from the Court or the Jesuits who were in contact with those women. At the beginning, Wadsworth employs just the term seduction, but gradually, he employs synonyms such as “allure”, “entice”, or “persuade”. 25 Finally, the author provides us with an example of homosexual seduction together with the narration of an encounter he has with a monk on his way to Madrid: "on the way the Fryer well obseruing the comelynesse and ingenious lookes grew forthwith inamoured with him, insomuch that he desired to be his bed fellow, and in condition thereof he promised him a nights lodging with his sister" (Wadsworth 52). According to Andreu Navarra Ordoño in his work El anticlericalismo. ¿Una singularidad de la cultura española? (2013), the Spanish bibliographer, scholar and writer Bartolomé José Gallardo includes the term “sodomy” in his critical-burlesque dictionary as one of the main criticisms against the Jesuits in the previous three centuries. To support the argument of sodomy together with the seduction, the author employs vocabulary such as “unnatural desires”, “abused” or “enticement”. Moreover, Sebastián Cabrera Padilla explains in his study Discursos de la sodomía en la guerra hispanomapuche: Entre prácticas e identidades nefandas en los siglos XVI y XVII (2020), that the term sodomy was a narrative resource employed in the evangelization of the native population. That seems to be the case of Jesuits such as Luis de Valdivia and Diego de Rosales, who employed the term sodomy in the biblical accounts of "Sodom and Gomorrah" to persuade the native population to abandon their "vices" (Cabrera Padilla 15). By contrast, in my opinion, anti-Catholic authors like Wadsworth misrepresented the use of the term “sodomy” in order to make the reader believe that the Jesuits are the ones who commit sodomy. 6.2.4. Deceitful, dissimulating and unreliable In the work, Wadsworth employs the term “spy” several times to associate the Jesuits to this role. Throughout history, some of the characteristics attributed to the figure of the spy were deceitful, dissimulating or unreliable, turning this character into a figure that the reader cannot trust. In the following example of the description of Father Fitz Herbert, who was “the Rector, who had beene before a pensiuner, and spye to the King of Spaine in France” (Wadsworth 69), Wadsworth associates the Rector with those negative characteristics implicit in the character of the spy, to discredit the image of a Catholic representative. 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