Falconry in America – A pre-Hispanic sport?

9783529 014901 ISBN 978-3-529-01490-1 Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale Karl-Heinz Gersmann ∙ Oliver Grimm (eds.) Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism Karl-Heinz Gersmann ∙ Oliver Grimm (eds.) Falconry, the art of hunting with birds (Frederick II) and a living human heritage (UNESCO), has left many traces, from western Europe and northern Africa to Japan. The oldest ascertained testimonies belong to the first millennium BCE. The present book, a cooperation between falconers and scientists from different branches, addresses falconry and bird symbolism on diverse continents and in diverse settings. 1 1 1 1 1 1 Advanced studies on the archaeology and history of hunting edited by the ZBSA Advanced studies on the archaeology and history of hunting edited by the ZBSA Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale Advanced studies on the archaeology and history of hunting, vol. 1.1–1.4 Edited by the ZBSA/Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology in the Foundation of the Schleswig-Holstein State Museums, Schloss Gottorf, Schleswig (northern Germany) Raptor and human – falconry and bird symbolism throughout the millennia on a global scale 1 4 Edited by Karl-Heinz Gersmann and Oliver Grimm Publication in considerable extension of the workshop at the Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology (ZBSA) in Schleswig, March 5th to 7th 2014 Technical Editor: Isabel Sonnenschein Layout, typesetting and image editing: Matthias Bolte, Jürgen Schüller Print and distribution: Wachholtz Verlag – Murmann Publishers, Kiel/Hamburg 2018 https://www.wachholtz-verlag.de/raptor-and-human.html I S SN 2511-8285 ISBN 978-3-529-01490-1 Bibliographical data of the German National Library. The German National Library catalogues this publication in the German National Bibliography; detailed bibliographical information is available online under <http://dnb.d-nb.de>. All rights reserved, including the reprint of extracts, in particular for duplication, the insertion into and processing in electronic systems and photomechanical reproduction and translation. © 2018 Centre for Baltic and Scandinavian Archaeology (ZBSA) in the Foundation of the Schleswig-Holstein State Museums, Schloss Gottorf, Schleswig, Germany. The editors have made every effort to identify all copyright owners. In the case that copyrights have not been cleared, please contact the editors or the publishing house. Cover picture: Skilled eagle master. Western Mongolia, August 2011 (photo used with the permission of Dr. Takuya Soma). Top to the left: Seal of the Danish king Knud IV (late 11th century). Redrawing. Taken from M. Andersen/G. Tegnér, Middelalderlige seglstamper i Norden (Roskilde 2002) 129. Falconry definition Falconry is defined as the taking of quarry in its natural state and habitat by means of trained birds of prey (according to the International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey [IAF] = www.iaf.org). The global perspective of the book. Orange: Eurasian steppe (presumed area of origin of falconry); green: the areas considered in the book (map Jürgen Schüller, ZBSA). 5.000 km Base Map: ESRI data set 9.3/ ZBSA Göbel 2014 Base Map:ESRI Data 9.3/ ZBSA Göbel 2014 3.000 km UNESCO recognition of falconry as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (cf. Hewicker in this book, Fig. 6). Frederick II of Hohenstaufen with a bird of prey. Miniature in his falconry book (folio 1v, Codex Pal. lat. 1071, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg/Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana). Redrawing. After: Hunting in Northern Europe (Neumünster 2013) 344 fig. 1. Frederick II of Hohenstaufen was an early global actor in the 13th century, bringing together falconers and falconry traditions from far and wide. Deutscher Falkenorden (DFO)(Cultural Division, CIC/Headquarters, and CIC/German Delegation) The Archives of Falconry (Boise, Idaho, USA) Emirates Falconers‘ Club Hagedoorn Stichting (Netherlands) Book sponsors Association Nationale des Fauconniers et Autoursiers (France) European Foundation for Falconry and Conservation The Falconry Heritage Trust (Wales) International Association for Falconry and Conservation of Birds of Prey Nederlands Valkeniersverbond Adriaan Mollen North American Falconers’ Association The Peregrine Fund (USA) Marshall GPS Japanese Falconiformes Center Club Mariae Burgundiae (Belgium) Orden Deutscher Falkoniere XI Chapter 10 – Raptors and falconry in premodern Europe: overall studies . . . . . . . . 1193 José Manuel Fradejas Rueda Falconry on the Iberian Peninsula – its history and literature ..........................1195 Algirdas Girininkas and Linas Daugnora Premodern hunting with birds of prey in the historical Lithuanian lands: entertainment, politics or economic necessity?.......................................1215 Liina Maldre, Teresa Tomek and Jüri Peets Birds of prey from Vendel Age ship burials of Salme (c. 750 AD) and in Estonian archaeological material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1229 Andrei V. Zinoviev Early falconry in Russia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251 Baudouin Van den Abeele Medieval Latin and vernacular treatises on falconry (11th–16th c.): tradition, contents, and historical interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271 Chapter 11 – Raptors and falconry in premodern Europe: specific studies .......1291 Babette Ludowici Chamber grave 41 from the Bockshornschanze near Quedlinburg (central Germany): evidence of the practice of falconry by women from the middle of the 1st century?.........1293 Ralf Bleile Falconry among the Slavs of the Elbe?..............................................1303 Wolf-Rüdiger Teegen The skeletons of a peregrine and a sparrowhawk and the spatial distribution of birds of prey in the Slavonic fortification of Starigard/Oldenburg (Schleswig-Holstein, northern Germany, 7th–13th centuries) ..............................................1371 Zbigniew M. Bochenski, Teresa Tomek, Krzysztof Wertz and Michał Wojenka Falconry in Poland from a zooarchaeological perspective..............................1399 Virgílio Lopes Hunting scene with hawk from Mértola in Portugal (6th/7th centuries AD) ...............1411 Cliff A. Jost A depiction of a falconer on a disc brooch of the 7th century from the cemetery of Münstermaifeld, District of Mayen-Koblenz, south-western Germany................1421 Katharina Chrubasik The tomb of the Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło (1386–1434) and its possible connection with falconry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427 XII Andreas Dobler The Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel and falconry in the 18th century. Depictions of a hunt with falcons in the Schloss Fasanerie museum near Fulda, Hesse (Germany)........1439 Book 4 Martina Giese The “De arte venandi cum avibus” of Emperor Frederick II ...........................1459 Martina Giese Evidence of falconry on the European continent and in England, with an emphasis on the 5th to 9th centuries: historiography, hagiography, and letters ......................1471 Agnieszka Samsonowicz Falconry in the history of hunting in the Poland of the Piasts and the Jagiellons (10th–16th centuries)............. ................................................1491 Sabine Obermaier Falconry in the medieval German Tristan romances ..................................1507 Baudouin Van den Abeele Falconry in Old French literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519 Ingrid A. R. De Smet Princess of the North: perceptions of the gyrfalcon in 16th-century western Europe .......1543 Péter Kasza Falconry literature in Hungary in an international perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1571 Robert Nedoma Germanic personal names before AD 1000 and their elements referring to birds of prey. With an emphasis upon the runic inscription in the eastern Swedish Vallentuna-Rickeby burial ................................................1583 Jürgen Udolph Falconry and bird catching in Germanic and Slavonic place, field and family names .......1603 Chapter 12 – Raptors and falconry in premodern times in areas outside Europe..1629 Karin Reiter Falconry in the Ancient Orient? I. A contribution to the history of falconry .............1631 Karin Reiter Falconry in the Ancient Orient? II. The Sources .....................................1643 XIII Karin Reiter Falconry in Ugarit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1659 Susanne Görke and Ekin Kozal Birds of prey in pre-Hittite and Hittite Anatolia (c. 1970–1180 BCE): textual evidence and image representation ..........................................1667 Paul A. Yule Archaeology of the Arabian Peninsula in the late pre-Islamic and early Islamic periods (1st millennium CE): background sketch for early falconry.............................1691 Anna Akasoy Falconry in Arabic literature: from its beginnings to the mid- 9th century ................1769 Touraj Daryaee and Soodabeh Malekzadeh Falcons and falconry in pre-modern Persia..........................................1793 Ulrich Schapka The Persian names of birds of prey and trained raptors in their historical development.....1809 Leor Jacobi ‘This Horse is a Bird Specialist’: Falconry intrudes upon the Palestinian Mishnah in Sasanian Babylonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831 Leslie Wallace The early history of falconry in China (2nd to 5th centuries AD) and the question of its origins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................................................1847 Fangyi Cheng From entertainment to political life – royal falconry in China between the 6th and 14th centuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865 Fangyi Cheng and Leopold Eisenlohr Ancient Chinese falconry terminology .............................................1883 Ho-tae Jeon Falconry in ancient Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1891 Takayo Kaku Ancient Japanese falconry from an archaeological point of view with a focus on the early period (5th to 7th centuries AD) ...............................................1919 Yasuko Nihonmatsu Japanese books on falconry from the 13th to the 17th centuries ..........................1937 José Manuel Fradejas Rueda Falconry in America – A pre-Hispanic sport? .......................................1947 1947 Falconry in America – A pre-Hispanic sport? By José Manuel Fradejas Rueda Keywords: Pre-Hispanic, pre-Columbian, America, Mesoamerica, Mexicans, Aztecs, falconry, discovery chronicles, semantic change, Spanish language, Mixtec codex Abstract: It has long been believed that falconry was known to pre-Columbian people, especially the Aztecs. This, however, is the result of a misinterpretation of the Hispanic Discovery Chronicles and of an image from a Mixtec codex. A review of the Spanish chronicles will prove that the misunderstanding is attributable to a semantic change taking place during the 16th century: volería, which originally referred to any group of birds, becomes a synonym of cetrería ‘ falconry’. It will also be shown that the human figure holding a bird of prey in the Codex Zouche-Nuttall is not a representation of falconry, and can be explained as a symbolic offering to a new Mixtec ruler. The conclusion is that falconry was introduced in America by the Spanish conquistadores and that the first falconer was enrolled in Columbus’ Second Voyage (1493–1496), while the first falconers to set foot on the American continent were members of Hernán Cortés’ army. In the mid-19th century, Dutch professors H. Schlegel and A. H. Verster van WulverhorSt (1844, 68) maintained that falconry originated in Asia and from there spread to America, becoming a common practice among the indigenous central American tribes. 1 In 1978, the British author P. Glasier wrote that: at the beginning of the sixteenth century, Cortés, the Spanish conquistador, arrived in Mexico, where he found that the Aztec king, Montezuma, maintained an establishment of trained birds of prey used for hunting (glaSier 1978, 14). José reyzábal (1987) based his paper on the history of falconry on this assertion – Falconry is known to be a common practice in America. When Hernán Cortés conquers Mexico and defeats the Aztec ruler Moctezuma, he discovers that Moctezuma has birds of prey trained for hunting, which is undeniable proof that falconry was not unknown on the American continent (reyzábal 1987, 28) – and even presented a distribution map of falconry (Fig. 1). 1 This paper is a re-written and updated version of a previous one published in Spanish under the title of ‘La cetrería en América: ¿prehispánica o colombina?’, Actas del Congreso Internacional V Centenario de la Muerte del Almirante: Valladolid 15 a 19 de mayo de 2006 (Valladolid 2006) 277–288, and it is part of the research project Archivo Iberoamericano de Cetrería <www.aic.uva.es> (HUM2006-0932/FILO and FFI2010–15128) funded by Government of the Kingdom of Spain. 1948 I basically agree with the map in the sense that falconry, as we know it today, most probably originated in the Eurasian Steppe area and spread to the east and west throughout Eurasia (cf. grimm/gerS- mann in this book, Summary). I do not accept Schlegel-Velster van Wulverhorst’s theory, mapped by Reyzábal, that falconry arrived in America via the Pacific Ocean. Nor do I believe it justifiable to state that the Aztecs and other pre-Columbian peoples practised falconry.2 The belief that the Aztecs or any other indigenous people practised falconry is based on a selfserving interpretation of several chroniclers and on the erroneous interpretation of the true meaning of various words used in the chronicles. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (1478–1557), a historian and writer who participated in the colonization of the Caribbean (1514–1524), wrote a lengthy chronicle titled Historia general y natural de las Indias (‘General and Natural History of the Indies’) in which he tells of finding a sort of mews and of questioning those of his comrades who were better versed in falconry than he. In his chronicle, he states: “In all the years that I spent in the Indies, never again did I hear that the Indians hunted with birds” (Fernández de oviedo 1992, p. III.81). Had Fernández de Oviedo’s words been taken into account, there should have been no attempts to assert or try to prove that pre-Columbian peoples practised falconry passionately or even knew anything about the sport. Even more telling is Bernardino de Sahagún’s (1500?–1590) total absence of information regarding the sport. In his Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (‘General History of the Affairs of New Spain’), this Spanish missionary, who arrived in New Spain3 in 1529, speaks at length of falcons, 2 Since the arrival of the Spaniards in Mesoamerica, Mexican (mexicano, mexicana) was used as a demonym and glossonym to designate the people of the Mexico Valley and their language, and the first testimonies are dated to the period 1525– 1550. Later, after the independence of Mexico (1810–1821), Mexican (mexicano) refers to an inhabitant of the country while Aztec is the term for the indigenous people that founded the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan (león-Portillo 2000). 3 The Viceroyalty of New Spain, 1531–1821, covered the areas of what is now Mexico, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and the states of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Fig. 1. The spread of falconry from the Eurasian Steppe to America (map J. Schüller, ZBSA, after Reyzábal 1987, 27). 1949 hawks and sparrowhawks, and even declares that there are no gyrfalcons (Sahagún 1990, 814–815) yet says nothing about the Indians’ being familiar with falconry. Despite Fernández de Oviedo’s statements and Sahagún’s total silence, it is still believed that the indigenous peoples of America, especially those of Mesoamerica,4 were familiar with falconry before the arrival of the conquistadores (‘conquerors’). Let us review what other witnesses to the discovery and conquest of New Spain have to say regarding the subject. In his Cartas de relación (‘Letters and Dispatches of Cortés’)5, Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) informs us that There is a street where they sell game and birds of every species found in this land: chickens, partridges and quails, wild ducks, flycatchers, widgeons, turtledoves, pigeons, cane birds, parrots, eagles and eagle owls, falcons, sparrowhawks and kestrels, and they sell the skins of some of these birds of prey with their feathers, heads, and claws (cortéS 1986, 103), and he describes Montezuma’s aviary in great detail: He also had another house, only a little less magnificent than this, where there was a very beautiful garden with balconies over it; and the facings and flagstones were of jasper and very well made. In this house there were rooms enough for two great princes with all their household. There were also ten pools in which were kept all the many and varied kinds of water birds found in these parts, all of them domesticated. For the sea birds there were pools of salt water, and for river fowl, of fresh water, which was emptied from time to time for cleaning and filling again from the aqueducts. Each species of bird was fed with the food which it eats when wild, so that those which eat fish were given fish, and those which eat worms, worms, and those which eat maize or smaller grain were likewise given those things. And I assure Your Highness that the birds which eat only fish were given 250 pounds each day which were taken from the salt lake. There were three hundred men in charge of these birds who knew no other trade, as there were others who were skilled only in healing sick birds. Above these pools were corridors and balconies, all very finely made, where Mutezuma came to amuse himself by watching them (cortéS 1986, 109–110). Another section was especially devoted to the birds of prey: He had another very beautiful house, with a large patio, laid with pretty tiles in the manner of a chessboard. There were rooms nine feet high and as large as six paces square. The roof of each of these houses is half covered with tiles while the other half is covered by well-made latticework. In each of these rooms there was kept a bird of prey of every sort that is found in Spain, from the kestrel to the eagle, and many others which have never been seen there. There were large numbers of each of these birds, and in the covered part of each of the rooms was a stick like a perch, and another outside beneath the latticework, and they were on one during the night or when it rained and on the other during the day when the sun was out. All these birds were given chickens to eat and no other food (cortéS 1986, 110). 4 Mesoamerica encompasses the southern area of the former New Spain. 5 The Cartas de relación are five letters addressed to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, also known as Charles I, king of Spain (1500–1558), in which Cortés tells his story from the moment he arrived on the Mexican mainland in 1519 to the expedition to Las Hibueras (Honduras) in 1525. 1950 He mentions this aviary again – “Mutezuma had kept in [some of these houses] every species of bird found in these parts” (cortéS 1986, 223) – when he discovers there has been an attempt to set it on fire. Nothing in Cortés’ writings can possibly lead us to believe that Montezuma or any other Aztec nobleman had the faintest idea what falconry was. Yet it must be assumed that Cortés was familiar with this sport because, during the expedition to Las Hibueras, Bernal Díaz del Castillo6 (1492–1581) notes that Cortés was accompanied by “two falconers, named Perales and Garci Caro” (díaz del caStillo 2011, 840). From Díaz del Castillo’s descriptions and accounts it is also very difficult to conclude that the Aztecs were familiar with falconry. According to his reports, Moctezuma even expressed disbelief when he first heard of these techniques until he saw that the Spaniards could actually train a sparrowhawk to hunt: One day, as many of us officers and soldiers were with Moctezuma, a hawk pounced upon a quail, which, with others, and numbers of pigeons, was kept by his Indian steward, whose business it was to see that our quarters were always clean and tidy. This hawk succeeded in seizing its prey, and flew off with it. As we were all looking on, one of our men, Francisco de Azevedo, cried out, ‘O! what a fine bird! How beautifully it flies away with its prey!’ We were all of the same opinion, and remarked, that this country altogether abounded with birds that might be trained for hawking (aves de caza de volatería). Moctezuma, observing how lively we were discoursing together, was curious to know what it was, and inquired the reason of his page Orteguilla, who told him we were admiring the hawk which had pounced upon the quail, and added, that if we had such a bird in our power, we could teach it to fly from the hand, and attack a bird of any size and kill it. Then, returned Moctezuma, I will have this same hawk caught, and we shall see whether they can teach it all they say. Upon which, we all took our caps off and thanked him for his kindness. Moctezuma then sent for his birdcatchers (cazadores de volatería), and commanded them to bring him the hawk above mentioned. These immediately set to work, and before noon, they actually caught the bird, and presented it to Azevedo, who immediately recognized, by the plumage, that it was the identical one we had seen. We saw many similar instances, and even stronger proofs of the punctuality with which this monarch’s orders were fulfilled. Even now, in his confinement, his subjects not only continued to bring him tribute from the most distant parts of New Spain, but they likewise obeyed his commands implicitly, and stood in such great awe of him, that even the birds which flew in the skies above were brought down for him if he expressed a wish that way (díaz del caStillo 2011, 366–367). Francisco López de Gómara (1511–1566?) relates the same anecdote, though in somewhat abridged form, in his Historia General de las Indias (‘General History of the Indies’). Although this chronicler, who spent part of his life in Seville, never himself set foot in America, he had direct access to Hernán Cortés (as his chaplain) and to other conquistadores. A difficult enterprise it is to catch a lion because it is dangerous prey and those who attempt it have few weapons and protection, although skill is worth more than strength; but it is much harder to catch birds which fly in the air, as Montezuma’s hunters do; they possess such art and 6 Bernal Díez del Castillo, a foot soldier in Cortés’ expeditions, was later named governor of Guatemala. His memoir is titled Verdadera historia de la conquista de Nueva España (‘The True History of the Conquest of New Spain’). 1951 skill that they can catch any bird no matter how wild and flight-ready it may be, when he so orders. It happened one day that the Spaniards who guarded Montezuma saw a sparrowhawk in a hallway and one of them said: “Oh! What a good sparrow hawk! Who would have it!” Then Montezuma called some servants, who were said to be great hunters, and he dispatched them to catch the sparrowhawk and bring it to him. They went off and willingly and skilfully brought it back and Montezuma gave it to the Spaniards. Although this may be hard to believe, it has been widely reported by word of mouth and in writing. It would be madness for a king like Montezuma to issue this order and foolishness for the others to obey if they did not have the ability or knowledge to carry it out; he did to show off his greatness and arrogance. The hunters brought another wild sparrowhawk and swore it was the same one. If that is true, as is confirmed, then I praise the person who accomplished the task rather than the one who issued it.7 And Toribio de Benavente (also known as fray Toribio de Motolinía, 1490?–1569), one of the first twelve Franciscan missionaries to arrive in New Spain in 1524, lived in Mexico City for some time and tells us of his experiences in Historia de los Indios de Nueva España (‘History of the Indians of New Spain’): In this town, Montezuma had all kinds of animals, beasts and reptiles, birds of all species, waterfowl that lived on fish, and even birds that fed on flies, and for all of them he had people who looked after them and attended to their keeping, because Montezuma felt such curiosity for them that he had birds caught and brought to him when he saw them flying in the air and took pleasure in them. A Spaniard who is a trustworthy witness, being one day in the presence of Montezuma, saw that he had taken a fancy to a sparrowhawk that flew by – or perhaps it was to show off his power before the Spaniards – he ordered his men to catch it and the diligence of those who went after the sparrowhawk was so great that they brought that wild sparrowhawk in their hands (benavente 1970, 298). It cannot be deduced from these texts that the Aztecs were familiar with falconry simply because they were skilful hunters who could catch live birds. The basis for the assertion that the Aztecs were accomplished falconers is to be found in Francisco lóPez de gómara’s Historia general de las Indias (‘General History of the Indies’): When [Montezuma] went hunting, carried on a stretcher on men’s shoulders, he took with him eight or ten Spaniards who guarded him, and 3,000 Mexicans, among them lords, knights, servants, and hunters, who he had with him in great numbers, some for deer stalking [montear], other were beaters [ojeos], and others for altanería [erroneously interpreted as ‘falconry’].8 The presence of the word altanería in this brief passage leads Javier ceballoS aranda (2002, 76) in his book about falconry to interpret the word as a cognitive or full synonym of cetrería ‘falconry’. In consequence, he draws the conclusion that “the ruler [i.e. Montezuma] (after being captured by Cortés) moved immense teams to practise falconry alongside other forms of hunting”. And he backs up this supposition by comparing it to another quotation from the same text in which the word altanería appears again: 7 The quotation is taken from Corpus diacrónico del español, an online database of the Real Academia Española <http://www.rae.es>. 8 Same as footnote no. 7. 1952 The main pastime of these outings was caza de altanería [once again erroneously interpreted as ‘falconry’], with herons, kites, ravens, magpies, and other birds, strong and weak, great and small, with eagles and vultures and other birds of prey which flew up to the clouds, and some of these killed hares, wolves and, as some people say, even deer (fol. 50v). In light of these two interpretations of altanería in López de Gómara’s chronicle, Montezuma did indeed seem to be a passionate follower of the caza de altanería. The term altanería (if it does indeed mean ‘falconry’ here) used by the chronicler seemingly leaves no room for doubt. And while it is true that, according to the Diccionario de la lengua castellana por la Real Academia Española (DRAE)9, altanería, defined as ‘hunting with falcons and other high-flying birds of prey’, is the fourth and therefore the least frequent meaning of the word. This very same conclusion can be drawn from Francisco Cervantes de Salazar’s (1514–1575) Crónica de la Nueva España (‘Chronicle of New Spain’).10 Dated in 1560, it would not only seem to tell us that the Aztecs kept birds of prey for hunting – There was another house near this one, likewise equipped and with very beautiful rooms. This was also called an aviary, not because there were more birds in this one than in the other, but because they were bigger, nobler and of a different species, because they were birds of prey [de rapiña] with which one could go hunting. Skilled men looked after them with such minute care that was impossible to exceed (cervanteS de Salazar 1978, p. I:318). – but also that Emperor Montezuma went more frequently to this house […] than to the others because it was more akin to royalty to own these birds. He would stop by there, asking the wardens and those who were responsible for the birds many questions, many secrets that he wanted to know about the arte de la cetrería [art of falconry] and he certainly had the right to, because today the greatest number of birds and best ones anywhere in the world are to be found here (cervanteS de Salazar 1978, p. I:318). The problem is that Cervantes de Salazar bases his chronicle on López de Gómara’s work. Since López de Gómara, Hernán Cortés’ chaplain, never set foot in the New World, his main source of information was undoubtedly Cortés’ own Cartas de relación. For this reason, the three texts should be considered as one. How then do we explain Cortés’ and Díaz del Castillo’s absolute silence regarding falconry as opposed to the assertions made by López de Gómara and Cervantes de Salazar? I believe the explanation lies in the different meanings of the word volatería in Díaz de Castillo’s Historia verdadera. All the editions of the DRAE, from the first11 up to the latest (DLE 2014), concur in the first and 9 El Diccionario de la lengua castellana por la Real Academia Española (DRAE), now Diccionario de la Lengua Española (DLE; http://dle.rae.es) is the authoritative dictionary for the Spanish Language. The first edition was published in 1780, and nowadays it is the collaborative work of the Spanish Royal Academy (RAE) and the 21 academies of the Spanish language from Latin America, Phillipines and the United States. 10 Francisco Cervantes de Salazar (1514–1575) is a Spanish Humanist who by 1550 had sailed to New Spain, where he lived until his death. He had a successful academic career as professor and chancellor of the Royal University of Mexico, the first university founded in North America (1551). 11 The first edition of the “official” Diccionario de la lengua castellana (see note 6) was published by the Real Academia Española between 1726 and 1739 and is commonly known as Diccionario de autoRidades because it exemplifies every meaning with a quote from the most authoritative writers (for the falconry terminology in this dictionary see FradejaS rueda 1992a).