Poetry as a Chronicle of the First World War: Portrayal of Experiences from the Front Lines and from Home

Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Grado en Estudios Ingleses Poetry as a Chronicle of the First World War: Portrayal of Experiences from the Front Lines and from Home Iria Méndez López Tutor/Tutora: Laura Álvarez Trigo Departamento de Filología Inglesa Curso: 2023-2024 1 2 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines, through a detail analysis of their poems, the poetic works of Siegfried Sasson, Wilfred Owen, Rudyard Kipling and Margaret Postgate Cole. This study explores how these poets capture the brutal realities and emotional toll of the First World War. Sasson and Owen, both poet-soldiers, provide vivid accounts from the front lines, taking special interest on highlighting the brutality and futility of war. Meanwhile, Kipling and Cole offer the perspective of the home front, reflecting on social impacts and personal loss caused by the conflict. Additionally, the dissertation examines the poetic techniques and style choices employed by the poets to convey their message. This project emphasizes poetry´s capacity to serve as a historical record, capturing the experiences of a time period and providing insights into the human condition during the time. Ultimately the dissertation asserts the value of poetry as a means to chronicle and reflect upon historical events. Keywords: Poetry, Chronicle, World War I, RESÚMEN Esta tesis examina, mediante un análisis detallado de sus poemas, las obras de Siegfried Sasson, Wilfred Owen, Rudyard Kipling y Margaret Postgate Cole. Este estudio explora como estos poetas captan la brutal realidad y la carga emocional de la Primera Guerra Mundial. Sasson y Owen, ambos poetas y soldados, ofrecen relatos desde el frente, poniendo especial interés en destacar la brutalidad e inutilidad de la guerra. Por su parte, Kipling y Cole ofrecen la perspectiva del frente interno, reflexionando sobre las repercusiones sociales y las pérdidas humanas causadas por el conflicto. Además, la tesis examina las técnicas poéticas y de estilo empleadas por los poetas para transmitir su mensaje. Este proyecto hace hincapié en la capacidad de la poesía para servir de registro histórico, capturando las experiencias de un momento histórico y ofreciendo una visión de las condiciones humanas durante el mismo. Por último, la tesis afirma el valor de la poesía como medio de crónica y reflexión sobre los acontecimientos históricos. Palabras Clave: Poesía, Crónica, Primera Guerra Mundial, 3 4 Table of Contents 1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………….... 6 1.1 objectives and methodology ……………………………………………………....... 8 2. Theoretical framework …………………………………………………………….... 10 2.1 the context of the war ……………………………………………………………... 10 2.2 the uses of poetry ……………………………………………………………..….... 10 2.3 war poetry ……………………………………………………………….………... 11 2.3.1 about the chosen poets ………………………………...…………………... 13 2.3.2 case study poems ……………………………………………………..….... 15 3. Chapter 1: The Use of Poetry as a Narration of the Experience in the Front Line of the War……………………………………………………………………….. 17 3.1 Siegfried Sassoon’s Intense Reflection: The Realities of the War in “Attack” ……………………………………………………………………………………………….………… 17 3.2 Wilfred Owen’s Poetic Rebellion Against the Glorification of War …………..….. 22 4. Chapter 2: The Use of Poetry as a Narration of the Experiences of the War from the Homes of the Civilians ……………………………………………….. 26 4.1 Rudyard Kipling’s “My Boy Jack”: a Father’s Lament in the Midst of War ……………………………………………………………………….……. 26 4.2 Peace in Nature: Margaret Postgate Cole’s Poetic Protest Against War ……………………………………………………………………………….. 29 5. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………… 34 6. References ……………………………………………………………………………. 37 7. Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………... 42 7.1 Siegfried Sasson: “Attack” ………………………………………………………... 42 7.2 Wilfred Owen: “Dulce et Decorum Est” ………………………………………….. 43 7.3 Rudyard Kipling: “My Boy Jack” ………………………………………………… 44 7.4 Margaret Postgate Cole: “The Falling Leaves” …………………………………… 45 5 6 Introduction The subject of this research paper emerges from my own interest in both poetry and history. History has always been important, but what is even more important is the way we tell it. There are millions of books, novels, stories, articles about the different periods of world history. From the greatest things such as new discoveries to the worst of things such as wars. Poetry has recognized value for “improving literacy skills and language development, the worry is that the other potential benefits are overlooked” (Rumbold, 2016). One of the potentially beneficial cultural contributions of poetry would be using poetry as a means to learn about history. This study offers an analysis of the way in which poetry was used as a narrative means to tell the experiences of individuals during the First World War. I will be exploring two perspectives: that of the soldiers who were active soldiers in the war and that of the people who stayed at home. This grouping does not take into consideration their perspective on the war even though it will be discussed in each specific case as relevant for the analysis of the poems. I intend to compare both perspectives of the war expressed through poetry. In the first part I present a study based on poems authored by Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen, two renowned poets who were also active soldiers during the war. In the second part I use poems authored by Margaret Postgate Cole and Rudyard Kipling, two prominent poets offering the perspective of the civilian point of view. This analysis is important in order to understand how poetry can be a means to reflect history. Poetry has great significance in our existence, transcending words; “it is a form of expression that has the power to capture the essence of human experience” (Majewski, 2023). It is defined in the Encyclopaedia Britannica as “writing that formulates a concentrated imaginative awareness of experience in language chosen and arranged to create a specific emotional response through meaning, sound, and rhythm.” (Nemerov, 2014) It is reasonable to assert that poetry can be regarded as intense and passionate; but also, as liberating and peaceful. I have chosen to do this project seeing that poetry has been partially overlooked in the depiction of history despite its beauty and moving approach, seeking to show the potential of poetry as a means for storytelling. 7 But why did soldiers and civilians start writing during the war? Poetry helped authors tell their story, also according to Jay Winter “in Britain, France and Germany, many writers used verse to keep the voices of the fallen alive by speaking for them, to them, about them” (Winter, 2014, p. 204). Therefore, poetry could be “a locus for dealing with the absent dead” (Ribeiro, 2018, p. 111). Furthermore, one of the main benefits of poetry “is that it can serve as a biographical record, documenting experiences that may have been left out of more formal records like an autobiography or journal” (Chapman, 2014 p. 73). Poetry served to reveal the true sentiment of people. An example would be Ruth May Fox, “looking solely at her autobiography and diaries, one could think of Ruth as Cold and Detached… the place her heart is found, however is in her poetry” (Chapman, 2014 p. 80). Poetry has been understood to be therapeutic (Raab, 2021). It helps people engage deeply with themselves. Nowadays, there is something called Poetry Therapy, it is a method that consists of writing poetry in order to heal mentally. It has been used to treat those individuals that were experiencing emotional distress (Raab, 2021). Tempelton discusses Muriel Rukeyser´s book The Life of Poetry (1949) where Rukeyser states “poetry depends on the moving relations within itself. It is an art that lives in time, expressing and evoking the moving relation between the individual consciousness and the world” (Templeton, 2007). The poem is referred to as “a transfer of human energy” (Templeton, 2007). Soldiers active during the first world war would be subjected to extreme situations that caused suffering, writing poetry was probably a way to release themselves from all the emotions they carried during that time and to transfer their emotions to the readers. Additionally, Rukeyser explains consciousness as “the capacity to make change in existing conditions” (Templeton, 2007). Soldiers possibly believed that speaking up about their situation could make a difference. (Loez, 2014) Tim Dayton in a journal Article called “Poetry and the Wars” published in volume 31 of American Literary History (2019) depicts war poetry as a genre of literature that captures the experiences, emotions, and reflections of individuals affected by armed conflict. It often provides a poignant and personal perspective on the conflict and encompasses works by both soldiers and civilians, offering a diverse range of viewpoints on the impact of war. 8 1. Objectives and Methodology This project is primarily based on the reading and evaluation of pre-existing analyses of four carefully selected poems—all by different authors—written during World War I in England. In each case, the overview of previous analyses is complemented with a concluding evaluation that attempts to put all the considered research into conversation, both among them and with my own. The ultimate aim of the project is to see how poetry is used as a means of history narration by: - Providing a discussion for each of the selected poems. - Putting the poems and their interpretations into conversation among them. First, according to the classification I proposed (those who were soldiers during the war and those who stayed at home) and second, as a conclusion, discuss the differences between these two categories. This project is based on the analysis of poems by four authors. The first chapter focuses on the two poets that represent the soldiers that experienced the war from the front lines. Both are considered by most scholars “the best examples of the empathetic connectivity and therapeutic abilities of literature” (Samons, 2020). Firstly, Siegfried Sassoon, who has been described as the “paradigmatic ‘war-poet,’ with all the power (and limitation) the term implies” (Higbee, 2007). The poem chosen to represent his work is “Attack” (1918). Secondly, Wilfred Owen, who between Sassoon and himself, is considered by the critics as “the more significant” and his verse is “more often anthologized” (Samons, 2020) is the second representative figure studied in the chapter through his poem “Dulce et Decorum Est” (1920). The second chapter is based on the analysis of poems by civilians who lived the war from their homes. Firstly, Rudyard Kipling with his poem “My Boy Jack” (1916). Secondly, Margaret Postgate Cole with her poem, “The Falling Leaves” (1915), which according to the website Poetry Foundation, was one of the first poems about the war written by a woman. These poets and their poems have been selected on account of all of them being canonical and recognised, particularly with Sassoon and Owen being considered two of the most 15 able to write about the experiences. The poem written by Cole and its recognition is very important for the history of poet women, especially during the war. 3.2 Case Study Poems This section approaches the existing research and analysis on our selected poems, exploring what makes them distinctive. We break down the themes, styles, and contexts to better understand these works. By looking at different perspectives and interpretations, we'll see how these poems resonate with readers and scholars alike. “Pity and Indignation: The Processing of Trauma in the War Poetry of Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon” (2020) by Loren Samons, analyses the way in which Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon process war trauma. The study focuses on their personal experiences during World War I. By analysing their poems, the article shows how these poets portray the horrors of the war, as well as the psychological impact on the people who experienced it. Loren explains how Sasson and Owen deal with the realities of the war with their poetry. She argues that this provides a better understanding of their contribution to poetry. Elise Dalli and Dilek Bulut Sarikaya provide an analysis of the poetry of Wilfred Owen and Margaret Postgate Cole respectively by considering the time in which they wrote their poems “Dulce et Decorum Est” and “The Falling Leaves”. Maha Rehman does a similar analysis of the poem “Attack” by Siegfried Sasson in his poetry guide. Finally, in The Man Who Would be King, Jan Montefiore does an analysis of the poem “My Boy Jack” by Rudyard Kipling” Stephen Benz in the journal article “The Poet as Rhetor: A Reading of Wilfred Owen's “Dulce et Decorum Est” provides an analysis of Owen's poem based on its linguistic and rhetorical intricacies. The article discusses how Owen faced the challenging task of persuading an audience that held contrary beliefs about the nobility of war. By employing classical rhetorical strategies, he aimed to make his audience reconsider their acceptance of the glorified war, thereby making a shift in the discourse surrounding war. 16 Margaret Postgate Cole was one of the first women to write poetry about World War I. Céline Lingier produces an analysis of women writers during World War I; “The Forgotten Battle of the Home Front: Female Poetry of the First World War” (2018). In her dissertation she discusses how women like Cole “did not take the sacrifices for granted, but instead protested how young men were mutilated or killed at a young age”. Furthermore, she also briefly analyses Cole´s famous poem “The Falling Leaves”. 17 Chapter 1 The Use of Poetry as a Narration of the Experience in the Front Line of the War 1. Siegfried Sassoon’s Intense Reflection: The Realities of the War in “Attack” Siegfried Sassoon´s poetry was widely published and distributed during his lifetime (Samons, 2020). He is best known for his writings about the First World War, especially because he wrote about the horrors that soldiers went through during the conflict (Dalli, 2016). Every experience he experienced during the time he was serving his country strongly influenced his poetry, which led him to be one of the most significant war poets of all time (Dalli, 2016). His poems portray very vividly his experience in the war. What also sparks greater interest in his literary creation, is that his perspective on the conflict evolved, leading him to adopt an anti-war position (Dalli, 2016). His categorization as an anti-war poet was most clearly materialized in the form of an anti-war protest letter that caused him to be sent to a mental hospital. In the letter he declared that he would not fight anymore because of high powers not finishing a war they could end (Sassoon, 1917) The progression that Sassoon experienced during his time in the hospital while recovering from Shell shock is indicated through the voice of indignation in his poetry (Samons, 2020). Sassoon’s poetry is said to be aimed at times, usually the targets of his poems are not his fellow soldiers but the “ignorant civilians and military officials who direct the war instead of fighting themselves” (Samons, 2020). These negative thoughts of what we could perceive as resentment are what prevent Sassoon “from accessing the voice of pity” (Samons, 2020, p. 241). In order to approach the study of “Attack”, the chosen poem for the analysis of Sassoon's view as an active soldier, we need to take into consideration its publication date: 1918. This sets it apart from most of the poetry written at the time, which focused on 18 glorifying the war. “Attack” is one of the first examples that goes against that trend (Rehman, 2017). This descriptive poem portrays the negative perspective and realistically crude experience of the war, providing a detailed account of the experience of a group of soldiers during an attack (Ribeiro and Cooper, 2023). It tells the story of an attack seen from the front line of the trenches right before the soldiers face the enemies (Rehman, 2017). The main focus of the poem is to show the struggle of soldiers in the battlefront, as well as to represent how their lives don´t matter and they are aware of it. It is almost impossible to not be moved by this poem due to its vivid depiction of the situation that millions of soldiers lived and still live nowadays. The title of the poem is meaningful as it not only represents what the poem is describing but also could be referring to the feeling of the soldiers at war. As some scholars have argued, it could be alluding to the fact that war is considered a demonstration of power, something that is noble, but Sassoon only saw war as what it is, attacks (Rehman, 2017). Siegfried Sassoon's direct involvement in World War I impacts the authenticity and emotional depth of his poetry, creating a strong sense of empathy in readers. His vivid depictions of trench warfare, expressed from his personal experiences, give his poems a reality that fictional accounts often lack. This authenticity helps readers to connect more with the emotions faced by soldiers. According to Poetry Foundation, Sassoon's works such as "The General" (1917) and "Suicide in the Trenches," (1917) exemplify how his firsthand experiences translate into emotive poetry that resonates with the readers' sense of humanity The poem starts by describing the landscape: “[...] the ridge emerges massed and dun in the wild purple of the glow´ring sun” In these first two lines of the poem, the scenery is described as very peaceful and calming. It talks about the beauty of nature and the reader feels as if taken into the middle of the action, moved to a “shared emotional space” with the soldier (Kershaw, 2019, p. 36). The landscape is described as an earthy place that lays below a purple sunshine that gleams through the smoke of the hill (Rehman, 2017). An analysis by James Ribeiro and Isabella 19 Cooper adds a different perspective to the previous analysis. In lines 1-2, there is a description of nature that gets tainted by the smoke of warfare. They argue that the poem provides an opposition between the innocence of nature and the corruption of weapons (Ribeiro & Cooper, 2023). Ribeiro and Cooper also consider that the sunrise suggests impending danger, since the soldiers will become more visible with morning light. In the third and fourth line the imagery changes drastically (Rehman, 2017): “Smouldering through spouts of drifting smoke that shroud The menacing scarred slope; and, one by one,” Rehman proposes a landscape “of apocalyptic destruction, desolate with smoke and a sense of pending devastation.” (Rehman, 2017) In line 4, the landscape is personified, Sassoon uses adjectives such as “scarred”, meaning that the landscape is hurt and marked just like the soldiers are (2017). In lines 5-6, the tanks are moving forward, “creeping”. Instead of describing tanks as something big and powerful the use of the word “creep” makes them seem tired, as if they were having trouble getting to the battlefield, this is another clear example of the use of personification (Rehman, 2017). The fight begins in lines 7 and 8: “With bombs and guns and shovels and battle-gear, Men jostle and climb to, meet the bristling fire.” Sassoon describes the soldiers as being conquered by the weight of their own guns and war equipment walking towards their death (Rehman, 2017). Through vivid imagery, Sassoon describes what we see in the field. “Men… climb to meet the bristling fire” they are running towards their deaths (Rehman, 2017). With these lines, Sassoon makes sure to dispel any notion other than the fact that that is a place none would want to be in (Rehman, 2017). Furthermore, the poem highlights the first-hand experience by mentioning the soldiers’ gear, “a mainstay of the soldier’s experience unappreciated by those who have not served” (Kershaw, 2019, p. 37). James Ribeiro and Isabella Cooper in their analysis, explain how 20 Sassoon wanted to show the chaos of warfare in these lines. In their analysis, the word “bristling” evokes the hair of a wild animal (Ribeiro & Cooper, 2023), meaning that the fire the soldiers encounter in the war is wild and uncontrollable, it is a situation that only ends with death. In the following two verses, the scenery is left aside, and the soldiers are the ones depicted: “Lines of grey, muttering faces, masked with fear, They leave their trenches, going over the top.” Sassoon describes the soldiers as being masked in fear and having grey faces, which for Rehman signifies a lack of life (2017). Meanwhile, for James Ribeiro and Isabella Cooper, the “lines of grey, muttering faces'' gives the soldiers a sense of being anonymous and states their lack of identity, which only restates the fact that none cared about the people dying in the fight (Ribeiro & Cooper, 2023). These lines present a horrific scene. The soldiers leaving the trenches is something meaningful as it creates a sense of longing. With that line, the reader realises the soldiers’ sadness, as they leave the only safe place they had (Rehman, 2017). By openly portraying the fear in the soldiers Sassoon manages to strip the war of any heroism, it states that the war is scary and unnecessary (Rehman, 2017). Kershaw takes a step further in his analysis by also seeing the negative aspect of the trenches, which become “ordered lines of the plowed field and fence are scarred into the tissue of war’s landscape” (2019, p. 37), as if damaging the seemingly idyllic nature we started off with at the beginning of the poem. In lines 11-12, the feelings of the soldiers are depicted (Rehman, 2017): “While time ticks blank and busy on their wrists, And hope, with furtive eyes and grappling fists” It describes time as being “blank”, meaning that it did not matter to the soldiers as the battle did not end at a specific time (Rehman, 2017). Rehman also states that despite that horrific scene, there was still hope in the soldiers’ eyes, they still believed that they could escape the fight alive (2017). Rehman argues that the mention of time is an implication of 21 the sacrifice that the soldiers made in vain, as time was ticking, and it would still tick after their deaths (2017). On the contrary, James Ribeiro and Isabella Cooper believe that the mention of hope in the poem stresses the demoralisation of men, they think that the soldiers have become disillusioned with war and that hope has left them (Ribeiro & Cooper, 2023). I propose that these verses could also be referring to the soldiers’ hearts racing as they leave the trenches and approach the battlefield. The fact that they have to leave a much safer place to go into battle makes them nervous and afraid, accelerating their pulse. As they get closer to the battle, they realise that there is no hope left for them. According to Rehman, the final line symbolises a hopeless situation: “Flounders in mud. O Jesus, make it stop!” The soldiers have no other option but to pray that it all ends (Rehman, 2017). Ribeiro and Cooper agree that “the final line is a simple and agonised plea made by the speaker, who is either among the fighting soldiers or is speaking on their behalf” (Ribeiro & Cooper, 2023). While it is quite clear that the final line is a plea of desperation, it is also possible that the soldiers were not only asking for the war to stop but that in fact they wanted the fight or even their lives to be over. Additionally, a final observation worth noting is that the poem is 13 lines long, almost a sonnet, which is 14 lines. This could be done on purpose to represent the end of the lives of the soldiers. They will never get to see their lives fulfilled because most of them are going to be killed in battle. Hence, the poem also finishes before it is fulfilled, as do the soldiers’ lives. Overall, Siegfried Sassoon’s poem “Attack” serves as an interesting means of storytelling, providing a narrative of the painful experiences faced by soldiers during World War I. Through vivid imagery and emotive language, Sassoon brings the realities of the front line to life, making the reader feel the fear and hopelessness of the soldiers. His personal experiences in the war, gives his portrayal of the conflict authenticity, transforming his poetry into a historical account. By doing so, Sassoon not only communicates the truths of warfare 22 but also challenges the glorified narratives of war, offering a poignant perspective that resonates deeply with readers. 2. Wilfred Owen’s Poetic Rebellion Against the Glorification of War Wilfred Owen, among himself and Siegfried Sassoon, is often referred to as the “more significant” poet in British World War I poetry (Samons, 2020). His poetry seems to be more familiar among general readers than, for example, the poetry of Sassoon (Samons, 2020). Owen was killed in battle, but his poetry stayed as a reminder of his feelings about the war, hate towards the generals but praise for all of those who fought at the front (Trueman, 2015). As I mentioned before, during the recovery from shell shock, the progression of psychological trauma could be seen in Sassoon’s poetry through his voice of indignation, in the case of Owen, it can be seen through the voice of pity (Samons, 2020). According to Loren Samons, the fact that Owen has a greater appeal among the public is because of his ability “to convey his psychological healing and development through his poetry” (2020). At the beginning of the war, before he started serving, he visited wounded French soldiers at a hospital, and he not only wrote about the situation but also very graphically drew the wounds he saw there (Trueman, 2015). In 1915, he decided to enlist, his motivation to do so was mainly his fear of the English language disappearing if the Germans won the war (Trueman, 2015). During an attack in 1916, he was wounded, later diagnosed with shellshock and sent to Craiglockhart war hospital to recover (Trueman, 2015). Bearing witness to the trauma of the soldiers staying at Craiglockhart, he wrote “Dulce et Decorum est” in 1917 (Dalli, 2016). Among Owen´s work, “Dulce et decorum est” is different because it clearly shows the internal fight between the soldier-poet (Samons, 2020). It “is an anti-war poem that makes the reader face the petrifying harrowing truth of war with graphic imagery and blood-curdling nuances” (Dalli, 2016). Owen not only shows possible scenarios that could happen during a war, but his own experience. In this poem, he deals directly with the emotions of war 23 (Samons, 2020). The poem paints the horrors of the war and the dehumanization of soldiers, and it criticises the false idealization around the events of the war (Dalli, 2016). Since there was no draft for British soldiers during the war and enlisting was completely voluntary, the British war supporters published many propaganda poems to push the youth into signing up (Dalli, 2016). Owen personally despised these tactics and in “Dulce et Decorum Est” he criticizes the poets who glorify the war (Dalli, 2016). This poem was first written in a ballad form, a romantic poetic style (Dalli, 2016). By using it to depict a topic such as the horrors of the war, he accentuates the cadence of the narrative (Dalli, 2016). The poem fully shows the horror of the mustard gas by starting with the narrative of the events and then pulling back in the final stanza to give a better view of the occurrences (Dalli, 2016). The events detailed in the poem take place during a walk to an unidentified place, which is interrupted by a mustard gas attack (Dalli, 2016). The soldiers put on their masks but still slowly get consumed by the gas. The first stanza opens the poem with a voyage. It presents the trip of the soldiers moving further into France pursuing the German soldiers (Dalli, 2016). The soldiers are described as being tired “men marched asleep, many had lost their boots” (line 5), “drunk with fatigue” (line 7) and he uses adjectives such as “limped” to demonstrate the exhaustion (Dalli, 2016). The soldiers are, Stephen Benz argues, “too exhausted to feel relief or joy in the retreat” (2018, p. 4). The second stanza changes the tone of the poem (Dalli, 2016). It starts with an exclamation which gives the poem a more rapid pace. Suddenly, the soldiers become very busy putting on their helmets to protect themselves from the gas, however, one man does not get his helmet on in time and the speaker sees him “And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime” (line 12) (Dalli, 2016). Owen focuses on using specific words that describe the speed that the soldiers had, such as “quick”, “ecstasy of fumbling”, “just in time”. 24 In the third stanza, Owen focuses on himself. He takes the time to reflect on his own mind. He portrays how the images seen during the war live on in the minds of the soldiers (Dalli, 2016). In these two lines, “in all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning” (l. 15-16) the poem moves from the past event to ruminate on present emotions (Samons, 2020). Samons states that “the ability to reflect upon past trauma is beneficial not only to Owen, but also to the readers, who are able to detect psychological progress through the poetic shift” (2020). Owen focuses here on portraying a horrific image of the suffering of the victims of mustard gas (Dalli, 2016), he uses descriptive sentences such as, “froth-corrupted lungs” (l. 22), “incurable sores” (l. 24) and “the white eyes writhing in his face” (l. 19) (Dalli, 2016). The pace has slowed down in these last lines, creating a contrast between the background and the description of the mustard gas victim (Dalli, 2016). In this stanza, the poet also addresses the reader directly with three premises: “if you could pace” (l. 17), “if you could watch” (l. 19), and “if you could hear” (l. 21) (Samons, 2020). Through this device, he is trying to “bridge the gap between soldier and civilian, as well as poet and audience” (Samons, 2020). The poem ends with Owen directly addressing Jessie Pope, a journalist who wrote books encouraging people to fight for their country as if it was something to be proud of (Dalli, 2016). “My friend, you would not tell / … the old lie: Dulce et Decorum est / Pro Patria Mori”. The phrase in Latin is from Horace and it means “it is sweet and right to die for your country” (Dalli, 2016). “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen portrays the dark realities of World War I. Contrary to the people of his time, he criticises the war and discusses its toll on soldiers. It is thanks to the fact that he was opposed to war propaganda and that his poetry is a critique of the glorification of the war that his poetry resonates with the readers. Owen´s poetry is a good remainder of the cost and senselessness of the conflict. 31 Following the interpretation of the leaves being the bodies of the soldiers, I would contend that in the fifth line “but thickly, silent”, the bodies falling thickly and silently, represent the number of soldiers that are dying and the fact that they are all dying in silence. Those in power during an armed conflict are often hardly concerned about how many soldiers are gone; their deaths will pass silently through history. In the sixth line, the poem describes the soldiers “like snowflakes wiping out the noon”. It puts the image of winter into our minds (Walker, 2016). The afternoon is supposed to be the warmest time of the day, but here the snow starts to fall. In this metaphor the warm day turns into winter with snow falling, but instead of snow what is falling, is the cold bodies of the dead soldiers (Walker, 2016). This same metaphor appears again in the last line. The fact that the snow is falling silently could be appealing to peace (Walker, 2016). There is a dual meaning in the metaphor, for everybody that falls, someone´s struggle is over, so it makes it seem as if the fields filled with bodies were calm (Walker, 2016). The poem also has implicit criticism of the meaninglessness of the war through the metaphor of the falling of leaves and snowflakes, these are compared to the soldiers that are dying because of the war instead of because of old age or sickness (Sarikaya, 2023). In Sarikaya´s analysis, the white snowflakes that disappear when they hit the ground represent the “death of young soldiers whose short-lived life on earth is no longer than a snowflake that melts away once it falls to the ground” (Sarikaya, 2023). Meanwhile, the thick brown leaves laying on the ground represent the soldiers wearing their uniforms who are being forgotten (Sarikaya, 2023). The analysis provided by Lingier states that in lines 10-12: “Slain by no wind of age or pestilence, But in their beauty strewed Like snowflakes falling on the Flemish clay” The soldiers are dying in “the prime of their lives”. This metaphor serves as a means to point out the unfairness of war, but it does so without directly mentioning death (Lingier, 2018, p. 34). 32 Then, in the eight line, the poem refers to a “gallant multitude”. According to Walker, this line “ties in a very sad theme” (Walker, 2016). It is connecting the poem to the excitement people had for the war, which since the war started, that feeling “wandered slowly thence” was the last positive thing felt by them (Walker, 2016). Finally, the last line in the poem indicates a location (Walker, 2016). It refers to the “Flemish clay” (Walker, 2016). “Flemish” is usually used to refer to the people in Flanders (Belgium), there is no location called “Flanders Fields” but it is a name that was popularised by the poem In Flanders Fields (1915) by John McCrae. The location usually refers to battles in Passchendaele or Ypres (Walker, 2016). Additionally, Sarikaya makes another analysis of the snowflakes, given that the idea is repeated in the last line of the poem. Snowflakes seem to be indistinguishable, but in reality, they are completely different from one another (Sarikaya, 2023). Technically soldiers are a group of people with the same ideologies, but Cole appeals to the reader to recognize individually each soldier that has a distinct identity (Sarikaya, 2023). Cole attempts to convey an image of nature to show that the “unreasonableness of war cannot be defensible by any cause or ideology” (Sarikaya, 2023). She does not talk about the brutality of war directly but does so through natural images like falling leaves or snowflakes (Sarikaya, 2023). Overall, Margaret Postgate Cole’s “The Falling Leaves” exemplifies how poetry can reflect and critique historical events, particularly the horrors of war. By using natural imagery to symbolise the fallen soldiers, Cole poignantly captures the senseless loss of life during World War I. Her poem is a protest against the war and its devastating impact. Through this protest she challenges the idealisation of the war and highlights the death of innocent people. This makes her work a great historical record. Despite coming from different backgrounds, Cole and Kipling represent their perspective on the impacts of World War I. In “My Boy Jack” Kipling not only shows his patriotism, but he also uses a tragic dialogue between a mother and a voice to portray the helplessness of those who lost someone to the war. In this work, Kipling reflects a personal and nationalistic anguish while slightly showing his sentiments of pride and guilt. 33 In contrast, Cole, being a socialist and pacifist, uses “The Falling Leaves” as a portrayal of the meaningless loss of lives by applying a sorrowful imagery of leaves falling silently representing the soldiers dying in battle. Her work shows a profound disillusionment with the values of her time and works as an anti-war statement from the perspective of a woman. She perfectly captures the quiet tragedy that a war is. Both poets use metaphors of nature: Cole with the falling leaves and snowflakes and Kipling with the receding tide and blowing wind. They employ these to explore the themes of loss, remembering and the impact of war. While Cole´s poem is a subtle protest against the destruction that the conflict brings, Kipling´s poem is a melancholic acknowledgment of sacrifice. Both poems are a depiction of the emotions felt by those who experienced the war, as well as a portrayal of the use of poetry as a means to reflect history. 34 Conclusion In order to provide a better understanding of the poems examined in the two analysis chapters, and as a form of bringing everything together, this concluding section begins with a comparison of the poems from the two established categories: those by soldiers who fought in the war, and those by the civilians who stayed at home. In this way, the differences between both perspectives in their production of poetry as a reflection of history becomes more evident. First, the poem “Attack” and “The Falling Leaves”. And second, the poem “Dulce et Decorum Est” and “My Boy Jack”. Comparing Sassoon's “Attack” and Cole´s “The Falling Leaves”, we can see that both poems use realistic imagery and personal reflection. These two poets use nature as a central metaphor and to explore the theme of the human cost of war. Sassoon´s direct style expresses the chaos and trauma on the battlefield, while Cole´s reflective tone highlights the disappointment and sadness she felt, caused by knowing about all the men lost in battle. Together, these two poems provide a moving understanding of World War I. By contrasting Sassoon´s intense experiences with Cole´s mournful reflections we have a better understanding of the war's impact on people’s lives. Both poets make the reader confront the realities of the conflict and think about the implications of human suffering. Their works are proof of the power of poetry in showing the complex and painful experience of war. To continue, Owen´s “Dulce et Decorum Est” is a rebellion against the glorification of war, it is a critique of the romanticised and nationalist vision of World War I. Through his depictions of the battlefield, Owen represents the brutality experienced by soldiers. He helps the readers see his perspective of the conflict by showing the readers the psychological trauma of war. His imagery and address to the reader show the toll of war and challenge that belief that encouraged men to enlist. Similarly, “My Boy Jack” by Rudyard Kipling offers an account of a personal loss during the warThrough the voice of a grieving parent, he shows the sense of loss and guilt felt by the people who encouraged their loved ones to fight. The poem highlights the 35 emotions of parents who lost their sons to the war, and it also highlights the glorified images of war. This poem reminds readers about the impact of war on families. Together, these two poems are an example of the human experience of war. While Owen's poetry confronts the horrors of war in the battlefield, Kipling addresses the grief and patriotism of the people that died. Both poets challenge the romanticised vision of war by highlighting one of its main consequences: death. With their contribution, they make sure that the people involved in the conflict are not forgotten and they offer an understanding of the impact of war on individual lives. Besides these crossed comparisons, as seen in the analysis chapters, Sassoon´s and Owen´s descriptions of the front lines, where they show the brutality and senselessness of the conflict, shows that poetry was used as a therapeutic means by many, helping them to process and portray the traumatic realities of the war. Their poetry is the opposite to the early romanticism of war poetry and changes the purpose of war poetry. Sassoon´s angry and satirical tone and Owen´s emphasis on “the pity of war” portray grief and disappointment in a way that touches the readers. Additionally, Kipling´s and Cole´s poems show the impact of war on those who stayed at home. Kipling´s personal loss and patriotism calls attention to the nationalistic view and the cost of war. Cole´s anti-war poem provides a female perspective sometimes overlooked in war literature. Their works provide information about the effects of the war on society, making sure the emotional and psychological effect on families and communities is included along with the effect on soldiers. Overall, the exploration of poetry as a chronicle of the First World War shows its impact on individual and collective experiences. By analysing the poetry of Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen, poets who served during the war, and the poems of civilians Rudyard Kipling and Margaret Postgate Cole, this research has proven the divided perspectives of the experiences from the battlefield and from home. Poetry´s role in narrating the First World War is indispensable. It serves to express the complexities of war and its effects and, most importantly, it transforms the individual suffering into a collective grief. 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