Dictionaries in Spanish and English from 1554 to 1740: Their Structure and Development

VERTERE MONOGRÁFICOS DE LA REVISTA HERMENEUS Núm. 12 - 2010 Dictionaries in Spanish and English from 1554 to 1740: Their Structure and Development HEBERTO H. FERNÁNDEZ U. HEBERTO H. FERNÁNDEZ URDANETA DICTIONARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FROM 1554 TO 1740: Their Structure and Development VERTERE MONOGRÁFICOS DE LA REVISTA HERM ¯ ENEUS NÚMERO 12 - 2010 © H E R M ¯ E N E U S. Revista de investigación de traducción e interpretación VERTERE. Monográficos de la Revista Herm¯ eneus DISBABELIA. Colección Herm¯ eneus de traducciones ignotas Facultad de Traducción e Interpretación Campus Universitario Duques de Soria, s/n 42004 Soria (España/Spain) Tel: + 34 975 129 174 Fax: + 34 975 129 101 Correo-e: [email protected] hermeneus[email protected] Direcciones de Internet: http://www.uva.es/hermeneus/ http://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/HS SUSCRIPCIÓN, PEDIDOS y DISTRIBUCIÓN: Pórtico Librerías, S.A. P.O.Box 503 50081 Zaragoza (España) Tel: +34-976-557039/350303/357007 Fax: +34-976-353226 (España) E-mail: [email protected] EDITA: Excma. Diputación Provincial de Soria ISBN: 84-96695-45-X ILUSTRACIÓN PORTADA: Imprenta Provincial PORTADA: Imprenta Provincial MAQUETA E IMPRIME: Imprenta Provincial de Soria DEPÓSITO LEGAL: SO-31/10 4 5 DIRECTOR: Juan Miguel Zarandona Fernández (Universidad de Valladolid) SECRETARIA: Cristina Adrada Rafael (Universidad de Valladolid) COMITÉ DE REDACCIÓN: Sabine Albrecht (Friedrich-Schiller Universität Jena) Vivina Almeida Carreira (Instituto Politécnico de Coimbra) Susana Álvarez Álvarez (Universidad de Valladolid) Rocio Anguiano Pérez (Universidad de Valladolid) Verónica Arnaiz Urquiza (Universidad de Valladolid) Larry Belcher (Universidad de Valladolid) Carmen Cuéllar Lázaro (Universidad de Valladolid) Elena di Giovanni (Università di Macerata) Rosario de Felipe Boto (Universidad de Valladolid) Marie Hélène García (Université d’Artois) Susana Gómez Martínez (Universidad de Valladolid) José María Marbán Prieto (Universidad de Valladolid) COMITÉ CIENTÍFICO: Alberto ÁLVAREZ LUGRÍS (Universidade de Vigo) Román ÁLVAREZ (Universidad de Salamanca) Stefano ARDUINI (Università di Urbino) Toshiaki ARIMOTO (U. Chukyo de Nagoya) Mona BAKER (Universidad de Manchester) Michel BALLARD (Universidad de Artois) Xaverio BALLESTER (Universitat de València) Christian BALLIU (ISTI-Bruxelles) Georges BASTIN (Université de Montréal) Lieve BEHIELS (Lessius Hogeschool-Antwerpen) Daniel BLAMPAIN (ISTI - Bruxelles) Denitza BOGOMILOVA ATANASSOVA (Parlamento Europeo) Freddy BOSWELL (Summer Institute of Linguistics-Dallas) Hassen BOUSSANA Universidad Mentouire-Constantine, Argelia) José María BRAVO GOZALO (Universidad de Valladolid) Antonio BUENO GARCÍA (Universidad de Valladolid) 6 Teresa CABRÉ (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) Jordi CASTELLANOS (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) Carlos CASTILHO PAIS (Universidade Aberta-Lisboa) Pilar CELMA (Universidad de Valladolid) María Àngela CERDÀ I SURROCA (Universitat de Barcelona) José Antonio CORDÓN (Universidad de Salamanca) Jean DELISLE (Université d’Ottawa) Oscar DIAZ FOUCES (Universidade de Vigo) María del Pino DEL ROSARIO (Greensboro College - NC) Deborah DIETRICK (Universidad de Valladolid) Álvaro ECHEVERRI, (Université de Montréal) Luis EGUREN GUTIÉRREZ (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid) Martín FERNÁNDEZ ANTOLÍN (U. Europea Miguel de Cervantes) Purificación FERNÁNDEZ NISTAL (Universidad de Valladolid) Yves GAMBIER (Turun Yliopisto/Universidad de Turku) Javier GARCÍA GIL (Universidad de Valladolid) Mariano GARCÍA-LANDA (Intérprete Independiente) Joaquín GARCÍA-MEDALL (Universidad de Valladolid) Valentín GARCÍA YEBRA (Real Academia Española) Susana GIL-ALBARELLOS (Universidad de Valladolid) Daniel GOUADEC (Universidad de Rennes) Pierre-Paul GRÉGORIO (Universidad Jean Monet de Saint Étienne) Theo HERMANS (University College London) César HERNÁNDEZ ALONSO (Universidad de Valladolid) Carlos HERRERO QUIRÓS (Universidad de Valladolid) Juliane HOUSE (Universidad de Hamburgo) Miguel IBÁÑEZ RODRÍGUEZ (Universidad de Valladolid) Elke KRÜGER (Universidad de Leipzig) Juan José LANERO (Universidad de León) Daniel LÉVˆ EQUE (Université Catholique d’Angers) Ramón LÓPEZ ORTEGA (Universidad de Extremadura) Anne MALENA (University of Alberta - Edmonton) Hugo MARQUANT (Institut Libre Marie Haps - Bruxelles) Roberto MAYORAL (Universidad de Granada) TABLE OF CONTENTS PÁGINAS Preface............................................................................................................................................................................................... 17 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................. 19 1) General Survey of Dictionary Research........................................................................................................... 23 1.1) Lexicography and metalexicography ............................................................................................................ 23 1.2) Component parts of reference work............................................................................................................... 26 2) Literature Review .............................................................................................................................................................. 39 2.1) The works of Roger J. Steiner on Spanish and English bilingual lexicography............... 39 2.2) other literature............................................................................................................................................................. 44 3) Statement of the Problem............................................................................................................................................. 51 4) Historical Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 59 4.1) Elio Antonio de Nebrija (1441-1522) and the birth of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography............................................................................................................................................. 59 4.2) Relations between Spain and England in the sixteenth century.................................................. 65 5) Works from the Sixteenth Century...................................................................................................................... 71 5.1) The Book of English and Spanish (1554?)................................................................................................ 71 5.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 71 5.1.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 73 5.1.3 Macro- and microstructures....................................................................................................................... 75 5.1.4 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 84 5.2) The Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554)................................................ 85 5.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 85 5.2.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 86 5.2.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 87 5.2.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 87 5.2.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 87 5.2.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 92 5.2.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 94 5.3) John Thorius’ The Spanish Grammer […] With a Dictionarie adioyned vnto it (1590) 95 5.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 95 5.3.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 99 5.3.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 100 5.3.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 100 5.3.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 100 5.3.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 105 5.3.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 106 HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 13 PÁGINAS 5.4) Richard Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica. Containing a Grammar; with a Dictionarie in Spanish, English, and Latine (1591) ....................................................................................................... 107 5.4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 107 5.4.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 113 5.4.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 121 5.4.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 121 5.4.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 122 5.4.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 125 5.4.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 129 5.5) William Stepney’s The Spanish Schoole-master. Containing Seven Dialogues […] and a Vocabularie (1591, 1619, 1620)...................................................................................................... 130 5.5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 130 5.5.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 134 5.5.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 139 5.5.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 139 5.5.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 140 5.5.4 The editions of 1619 and 1620 ................................................................................................................ 149 5.5.4.1 Megastructure................................................................................................................................... 150 5.5.4.1.1 outside matter............................................................................................................. 150 5.5.4.1.2 Macro- and microstructures............................................................................... 151 5.5.5 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 153 5.5.6 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 155 5.6) John Minsheu’s A Dictionarie in Spanish and English (1599, 1623)...................................... 156 5.6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 156 5.6.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 158 5.6.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 168 5.6.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 168 5.6.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 170 5.6.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 179 5.6.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 185 6) Works from the Seventeenth Century................................................................................................................ 187 6.1) Lewis owen’s The Key of the Spanish Tongue (1605, 1606?)..................................................... 187 6.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 187 6.1.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 188 6.1.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 193 6.1.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 193 6.1.3.2 Macro- and microstructure....................................................................................................... 194 6.1.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 204 6.1.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 206 6.2) John Minsheu’s Guide into the Tongues (1617, 1625, 1626, 1627) and A Most Copious Spanish Dictionarie (1617).................................................................................................................................. 206 6.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 206 DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 14 PÁGINAS 6.2.1.1 The “Catalogve and true note of the Names of such Persons which […] haue receaued the Etymologicall Dictionarie of XI. Languages”................... 208 6.2.1.2 The prospectus................................................................................................................................. 212 6.2.2 The Guide into the Tongues (1617)....................................................................................................... 213 6.2.2.1 Sources.................................................................................................................................................. 213 6.2.2.2 Megastructure................................................................................................................................... 219 6.2.2.2.1 outside matter............................................................................................................. 219 6.2.2.2.2 Macro- and microstructures............................................................................... 220 6.2.3 The Most Copious Spanish Dictionarie, with Latine and English.................................... 224 6.2.3.1 Sources.................................................................................................................................................. 224 6.2.3.2 Megastructure................................................................................................................................... 227 6.2.3.2.1 outside matter............................................................................................................. 227 6.2.3.2.2 Macro- and microstructures............................................................................... 227 6.2.4 The second edition of the Guide into the Tongues, with reprints (1625, 1626, 1627) 233 6.2.4.1 The prospectus................................................................................................................................. 233 6.2.4.2 Megastructure................................................................................................................................... 236 6.2.4.2.1 outside matter............................................................................................................. 236 6.2.4.2.2 Macro- and microstructures............................................................................... 236 6.2.5 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 239 6.2.5.1 The Guide into the Tongues..................................................................................................... 239 6.2.5.2 The Most Copious Spanish Dictionary, with Latine and English................... 244 6.2.5.3 Mynshevs Amends and Avgmentation of His Guide into the Tongues.......... 246 6.2.6 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 246 7) Works from the Eighteenth Century................................................................................................................... 249 7.1) Captain John Stevens’ A New Spanish and English Dictionary (1706-05, 1726)............ 249 7.1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 249 7.1.1.1 The proposals for printing........................................................................................................ 252 7.1.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 255 7.1.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 265 7.1.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 265 7.1.3.2 Macro- and microtructures....................................................................................................... 266 7.1.4 The second edition of 1726........................................................................................................................ 276 7.1.4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 276 7.1.4.2 Megastructure................................................................................................................................... 277 7.1.4.2.1 outside matter............................................................................................................. 277 7.1.4.2.2 Macro- and microstructures............................................................................... 277 7.1.5 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 280 7.1.5.1 The edition of 1706-05............................................................................................................... 280 7.1.5.2 The edition of 1726....................................................................................................................... 285 7.1.6 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 288 7.2) Félix Antonio de Alvarado’s Spanish and English Dialogues. With […] the Construction of the Universe, and the Principal Terms of the Arts and Sciences (1718, 1719)........... 288 7.2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 288 7.2.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 290 HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 15 PÁGINAS 7.2.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 299 7.2.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 299 7.2.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 301 7.2.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 307 7.2.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 310 7.3) Captain John Stevens’ New Spanish Grammar […] To Which Is Added, a Vocabulary of the Most Necessary Words (1725, 1739)............................................................................................... 311 7.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 311 7.3.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 311 7.3.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 313 7.3.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 313 7.3.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 314 7.3.4 The second edition of 1739........................................................................................................................ 320 7.3.4.1 Megastructure................................................................................................................................... 320 7.3.4.1.1 outside matter............................................................................................................. 320 7.3.4.1.2 Macro- and microstructures............................................................................... 321 7.3.5 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 322 7.3.6 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 324 7.4) Pedro Pineda’s New Dictionary, Spanish and English and English and Spanish (1740) 325 7.4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................... 325 7.4.2 Sources..................................................................................................................................................................... 326 7.4.3 Megastructure...................................................................................................................................................... 327 7.4.3.1 outside matter.................................................................................................................................. 327 7.4.3.2 Macro- and microstructures..................................................................................................... 331 7.4.4 Analysis of the front matter....................................................................................................................... 342 7.4.5 Concluding remarks........................................................................................................................................ 348 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................................................... 351 1) Evolution of the outside matter.............................................................................................................................. 355 2) Topics in the front matter........................................................................................................................................... 359 3) Panorama of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography................................................................... 363 Bibliography................................................................................................................................................................................. 367 Primary sources (Dictionaries, grammars and vocabularies).................................................................... 367 Secondary sources (Electronic resources, monographs and papers).................................................... 377 DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 16 PRÓLoGo Diccionarios clásicos para la traducción español e inglés La necesidad de contar con, y por lo tanto confeccionarla, una herramienta lexicográfica tan útil como el diccionario bilingüe, esa fiel vieja amiga del traductor, en cualquiera que sea la combinación de lenguas, cuenta con una venerable tradición histórica de la que no siempre los estudiosos y los profesionales de la traducción contemporáneos son conscientes del todo. Por ello nos resulta tan grato dar la bienvenida, con ocasión de la publicación del número duodécimo de la colección de monográficos Vertere en torno a la traducción y la Traductología, al trabajo concienzudo, exhaustivo, erudito y sistemático, que todas estas cosas buenas se han defendido y ensalzado del mismo con anterioridad, cuando todavía era tesis doctoral y no libro monográfico, por ejemplo, del profesor venezolano-canadiense Heberto Fernández Urdaneta. A él le corresponde el mérito de la autoría que nos ocupa de Dictionaries in Spanish and English from 1554 to 1740: Their Structure and Development, venido del Nuevo Mundo a fecundar el Antiguo con la fuerza de su entusiasmo investigador, sus múltiples datos terminológicos y su pensamiento estructurado. Con este volumen, la colección Vertere, tan íntimamente asociada a la revista Herm¯eneus de Traducción e Interpretación, no sólo se va aproximando a su mayoría de edad, sino que se arriesga por primera vez a publicar en una lengua que no ha sido hasta el momento la suya más propia, es decir, la española, para aventurarse en las profundas aguas, aunque plácidas, de la de Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron o Achebe. La ocasión y la sólida propuesta de investigación presentada lo hacían sumamente aconsejable a la par que conveniente. El proyecto Herm¯eneus, la trinidad acompasada de Herm¯eneus – Vertere – Disbabelia, nació siempre con gran vocación multilingüe, aunque ésta no se había todavía manifestado de forma decidida en estos los monográficos del mismo publicados. Ya era momento de hacerlo y bien hecho está. Por otra parte, para muchos de nosotros, este libro presenta un objeto de estudio e interés satisfactorio en sumo extremo. Gracias al autor que lo ha hecho posible. JUAN MIGUEL zARANDoNA HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 17 PREFACE Classical Dictionaries for Spanish and English Translation The need to have, and of course compose, a lexicographical tool as useful as a bilingual dictionary, which is a translator’s faithful companion in any combination of languages, is a venerable tradition that students and professionals of contemporary translation are not always aware of. It is, therefore, a pleasure to celebrate the publication of the twelfth in the collection of monographs Vertere, centered on translation and translation studies. We would also like to take this opportunity to welcome the Venezuelan-Canadian professor Heberto Fernández Urdaneta and his conscientious, comprehensive, erudite, and systematic work. This work was praised when it was a doctoral dissertation and not yet a monograph. It is entitled Dictionaries in Spanish and English from 1554 to 1740: Their Structure and Development, a study that has arrived from the new world to refresh the old with the force of the author’s enthusiastic research and structured thought, as well as the multitude of terminological data. The Vertere collection, which is so closely related to the journal Herm¯eneus de Traducción e Interpretación, is not only approaching its maturity but also taking the risk of publishing in a language other than Spanish for the first time. With this volume we venture forth into the deep but profound waters of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, and Achebe. The occasion and the solid research proposal made it both advisable and convenient. The Herm¯eneus project, the triad of Herm¯eneus, Vertere, and Disbabelia, sprang from multilingual roots, although it had not yet clearly reached its potential in published monographs. The moment has arrived. In addition, the field of study introduced by this book is of the highest interest for many of us. Thanks go out to the author for making it all possible. JUAN MIGUEL zARANDoNA Translated by Larry Belcher DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 18 Introduction Historically, the forces giving rise to lexicographic activity are related to several fields of endeavor, such as politics, commerce, education, and translation. Spanish and English bilingual lexicography, in particular, is part of the history of teaching Spanish in England, a practice that started in Tudor times. The Renaissance brought about the decline of Latin and the gradual rise of vernaculars. The increasing interest in the study of vernacular languages themselves promoted the compilation of dictionaries in modern languages that appeared with dialogues, grammars, model letters, and religious texts. Traditionally, the two most important methods of compilation in lexicography are the alphabetical and the topical. A varied terminology has been applied to both types of lexicographical products; in this study, however, dictionary will be used as a general term to refer to both types of reference works, following Hartmann and James (1998, 41). Moreover, speaking of Spanish and English lexicography will refer to bilingual works that may have a Spanish- English part and/or an English-Spanish part. During the second half of the twentieth century, a series of studies was published that signaled the emergence of metalexicography; lexicography developed from the craft of compiling reference books to include a new branch, namely, the scholarly field of the theory of lexicography. In 1970, professor Roger J. Steiner published his seminal book on the history of the Spanish and English lexicography from 1590 to 1800. Steiner’s study deals with the dictionaries by Richard Percyvall (1591), John Minsheu (1599, 1623), John Stevens (1706-05, 1726), Pedro Pineda (1740), Hippolyto San Joseph Giral del Pino (1763), Giuseppe Baretti (1778 et seq.), and Thomas Connelly and Thomas Higgins (1798-97). He also briefly discusses the dictionary by John Thorius (1590), the first edition of the vocabulary by William Stepney (1591), and the Spanish-Latin-English dictionary that Minsheu added to his 1617 polyglot dictionary. The emphasis is on the alphabetical tradition, where Steiner establishes a recension or lineage of works, each of which contains material from the preceding one, starting with Percyvall (1591) and ending with Connelly and Higgins (1798-97). At the time Steiner published his book, two anonymous compilations (1554) which were unknown to him had just been recorded by Roberts (1970) and are nowadays considered the earliest specimens of Spanish and English lexicography. Historical overviews published after 1970 have followed Steiner’s and some case studies have supplemented aspects not studied by him. The original purpose of our study was to concentrate on the content of prefatory texts of early Spanish and English dictionaries to explore the subjects lexicographers HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 19 discussed and to see if they explained their practice, something which has previously been virtually unnoticed. As our documentation and research progressed, it became clear that there are inaccuracies and contradicting facts about the early dictionaries, including discrepancies concerning editions, number of entries, content of the word list, and their interdependency. It also became obvious that scholars concentrate primarily on alphabetical dictionaries and very little research has been devoted to the topical tradition. Furthermore, the overall structure and organization of works has not been taken into consideration nor has it been the object of exegesis. Finally, preliminary analysis and comparison of dictionaries revealed that some of Steiner’s conclusions need revision; these aspects are discussed in the body of this book. As a result, the original purpose of our research changed and led to a more general question: what can the structure of the early alphabetical and topical Spanish and English dictionaries and their outside matter texts tell us about the principles of compilation lexicographers followed and about the purpose of their works? It was, therefore, necessary to widen the scope of our comparative and historical study to include topical and alphabetical dictionaries Steiner studied briefly or not at all. The diachronic frame of the study covers from the two anonymous compilations of 1554 up to the 1740 dictionary by Pedro Pineda. In fact, our corpus comprises every major or minor Spanish and English bilingual dictionary produced between 1554 and 1740, alphabetically or topically arranged. We study only general dictionaries and exclude specialized and abridged ones. Works studied in detail for the first time here are the anonymous Book of English and Spanish (1554?) and the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554), the short dictionary by Lewis owen (1605), the second and third editions of William Stepney’s vocabulary (1619, 1620), the two editions of Felix de Alvarado’s nomenclator (1718, 1719), and the two editions of John Stevens’ vocabulary (1725 and 1739). As a rule, no multilingual works are included, with the exception of Minsheu’s 1617 polyglot dictionary, the Guide into the Tongues, and its binding companion, the Most Copious Spanish Dictionarie, with Latine and English (and Sometimes Other Languages). These works are included because a discussion of them leads to a better and fuller understanding of Minsheu’s lexicographical practice and because they influenced subsequent bilingual dictionaries. The potential relationships between the 1617 twopart volume by Minsheu, subsequent editions of the polyglot dictionary only (1625, 1626 and 1627), and the Stevens dictionary of 1706-05 are also discussed here for the first time. We also provide a fuller analysis than Steiner’s of the 1590 Thorius dictionary, the 1591 edition of Stepney’s vocabulary, and Minsheu’s Most Copious Spanish Dictionarie of 1617. The method is inductive, starting with an analysis of each work in the corpus and then comparing it to preceding works in order to arrive at a structural typology DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 20 of Spanish and English dictionaries from 1554 to 1740 and a classification of subjects discussed therein. Sections dealing with each particular work are organized as follows: discussion begins with introductory remarks on the author’s life and work as well as the genesis and compilation of the topical or alphabetical dictionary in question. It should be mentioned that three rare items (two “prospectuses” and one set of “proposals”) pertaining, respectively, to the printing of the two editions of Minsheu’s polyglot dictionary (1617 and 1625) and the first edition of Stevens’ dictionary (1706) are studied here for the first time. Following the exploration of sources, the megastructure of the work is presented and the outside matter texts are inventoried. Then, the macro- and microstructures are studied and compared to those of previous works. To make a comparison of the dictionaries possible, samples from the beginning, middle, and final parts of the dictionary were taken. These samples also allow us to verify the prevailing ideas about a particular work. Short alphabetical dictionaries (e.g., Thorius and owen) and vocabularies (e.g., Stepney and Stevens) are studied in their entirety, but it was necessary to take a sample from Alvarado’s larger nomenclator. When little or no research exists on a particular work, a description is made based on aspects such as alphabetization, capitalization, use of articles, pronunciation (accents), and the microstructural data. The study of the front and/or back matter texts comes last and provides a comparison of the subjects in the front matter of a particular dictionary with those in the others. This makes it possible to clarify the interrelationships between the dictionaries, as well as the evolution of the organization and principles of compilation. The analysis of the front matter show how the work was conceived and organized according to a particular point of view. Concluding remarks finish the discussion of each work. This book is divided into seven chapters. In the first one, the development of lexicography and the emergence of the new field of the theory of lexicography (or metalexicography) are presented, followed by a discussion of such fundamental concepts as megastructure, macrostructure, microstructure, and outside matter and its subdivisions. These concepts make a uniform description of the constituent parts of reference works possible. Chapter two presents the literature review, where the first half is devoted to the works of Roger Steiner and the second to other literature in the field, including bibliographies, electronic resources, and important scholarly publications. The statement of the problem as outlined above is presented in the third chapter, which includes the rationale, corpus, and objectives. The content of chapter four is historical: the role and influence of Antonio de Nebrija’s works on modern lexicography and on Spanish and English lexicography in particular are explained. This is followed by an overview of the sociopolitical factors that led to the publication of the first dictionaries linking Spanish and English during the second half of the sixteenth century. Chapters five, six and seven deal with the corpus HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 21 proper; dictionaries have been classified first according to the century when they were published and then in order of publication of their first edition. Thus, the two anonymous dictionaries of the mid-sixteenth century, together with those by John Thorius, Richard Percyvall, William Stepney and John Minsheu are discussed in chapter five (works from the sixteenth century); the short dictionary by Lewis owen and the polyglots by Minsheu are studied in chapter six (works from the seventeenth century). Finally, the dictionary by John Stevens, the topical dictionaries by Félix de Alvarado and Stevens himself, and the dictionary by Pedro Pineda are examined in chapter seven (works from the eighteenth century). In the section devoted to the general conclusion, the historical circumstances that led to the beginning of Spanish and English lexicography are summarized. A typology of Spanish and English integrated books based on their core structure and peripheral texts is presented. The evolution of each type of structure is traced following the basic distinction between topical and alphabetic dictionaries. The structural evolution of the outside matter is followed by a classification of the subjects discussed by lexicographers in the prefatory texts. The chart at the end of this section presents a comprehensive and updated panorama of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. The bibliography is divided into two sections: the first part lists the dictionaries and the second books, articles, conference papers, and electronic resources on Spanish and English lexicography and related subjects. Finally, a few notes on the text. This is a revised and augmented edition of the dissertation submitted to the Département de linguistique et de traduction of the Université de Montréal in April 2007. Extensive examples have been provided to illustrate in the best possible manner the relevant features of alphabetical dictionaries and topical ones. Examples and quotations have been reproduced retaining their punctuation and original spelling with the following exceptions: long s(, ) has been changed into short s, and into ss. Boldface is used in examples to highlight features and square brackets to indicate ellipsis. Unless otherwise indicated, when lists of entries are given to compare two or more word lists, entries are listed following the order of the most recent word list, which as a rule is the one being discussed and placed first from the right margin of the page. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 22 Rey-Debove provide two perspectives from which the structure of dictionaries can be studied. In the Western lexicographical tradition, an alphabetical organization of the macrostructure is by far the most widespread. There are, however, other ways of ordering headwords: for example, topically, etymologically, or by frequency. The two most important traditions or methods of compilation are the alphabetical and the topical (or thematic). (3) Problems arise in naming the resulting lexicographical products. Terms such as dictionary, vocabulary, glossary, etc. are historically fuzzy, as shown by the fact that a work may be called a “dictionary” but be topically arranged, as in the case of John Withals’ A Shorte Dictionary for Yonge Begynners (1553). Murray (1993, 106-7) gives the following summary of the situation. It is long but worth quoting here: The early vocabularies and dictionaries had many names, often quaint and striking; thus one of c1420 is entitled the Nominale, or Name-book; mention has already been made of the Medulla Grammatices, or Marrow of Grammar, the Ortus Vocabulorum, or Garden of Words, the Promptorium Parvulorum, and the Catholicon Anglicum; later we find the Manipulus Vocabulorum, or Handful of Vocables, the Alvearie or Beehive, the Abecedarium, the Bibliotheca, or Library, the Thesaurus, or Treasury of Words – what old English times would have called the Wor-hord, the World of Words, the Table Alphabetical, the English Expositor, the Ductor in Linguas, or Guide to the Tongues, the Glossographia, the New World of Words, the Etymologicum, the Gazophylacium; and it would have been impossible to predict in the year 1538, when Sir Thomas Elyot published his ‘Dictionary,’ that this name would supplant all the others, and even take the place of the older and better-descended word Vocabulary; much less that Dictionary should become so much a name to conjure with, as to be applied to works which are not word-books at all, but reference-books on all manner of subjects, as Chronology, Geography, Music, Commerce, Manufactures, Chemistry, or National Biography, arranged in Alphabetical or ‘Dictionary order.’ The very phrase, ‘Dictionary order,’ would in the first half of the sixteenth century have been unmeaning, for all dictionaries were not yet alphabetical. McArthur (1986a, 78-9) provides a good overview of this variety of names: In the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance periods titles for wordbooks proliferated as men sought to get the right coverall term or stimulating metaphor for what they were doing: abecedarium – an abecedary or absee, an ABC(4) HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 29 (3) Following Hüllen (1999, 13), in this study the terms topical and thematic are used as synonyms. (4) As in Richard Huloet’s Abecedarium Anglico-Latinum (1552). alvearium – an alveary (a bee-hive or honey-store)(5) dictionarius or dictionarium – a dictionary, a book of dictiones (words and expressions) glossarium – a glossary (an explanatory list, usually collected from other lists) (h)ortus – a ‘garden’(6) lexicon – a lexicon (a wordbook, a collection of lexis or words, often of a specialized or classical nature)(7) manipulus – a maniple (a handful) medulla – the ‘kernel’ or ‘marrow’ of a matter(8) promptuarium or promptorium – a promptuary (a store-house) (9) thesaurus – a thesaurus (treasury or treasure-house)(10) vocabularium – a vocabulary (the words of a language, especially if listed in any way)(11) vulgaria – the ‘common things’ of life or a language(12) This varied terminology was applied to both alphabetically- and topicallyarranged lexicographical products. In addition to these other terms such as bibliotheca (e.g. in John Rider’s Bibliotheca Scholastica, 1589, or Richard Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica, 1591) and table (e.g. in Robert Cawdrey’s A Table Alphabeticall, 1604) were used for products arranged in alphabetical order, whereas nominale (as in the Mayer Nominale, ca 1500) and nomenclator (e.g. in Hadrianus Junius’ Nomenclator, 1567) were used for works following a topical arrangement. Within these topically arranged compilations a further distinction has to be made between vocabularies and nomenclators. Both followed a similar arrangement but were different in their scope and functions. Renaissance vocabularies were limited in scope and usually a part of schoolbooks intended to DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 30 0(5) As in John Baret’s Alvearie (1573). 0(6) As in the anonymous [H]ortus Vocabulorum (1500). 0(7) As in James Howell’s Lexicon Tetraglotton (1659); the second part of this book contains a topical word list entitled A Particular Vocabulary or Nomenclature . 0(8) As in the anonymous Medulla Gramatice (ca 1460). 0(9) As in the anonymous Promptorium Parvulorum (ca 1440). (10) As in Thomas Cooper’s Thesaurus Linguæ Romanæ & Britannicæ (1565), Claudius Hollyband’ Treasurie of the French Tong (1580), or Sebastian de Cobarruvias’ Tesoro de la lengua castellana (1611). (11) As in Alfonso de Palencia’s Universal vocabulario en latin y en romance (1490) or John Minsheu’s Vocabularium Hispanicolatinum et Anglicum (1617). (12) As in John Stanbridge’s Vulgaria (1508). meet the increasing communicative needs of travelers and businessmen. Nomenclators were larger vocabularies that served rhetorical education. Hüllen (1999, 346) explains: Nomenclator is predominantly the name of topical glossaries which were collected in the spirit of Humanism. The name started to be used in the late sixteenth century and became popular in the seventeenth. Nomenclators had a strong bias towards classical languages, although they also listed one or even two and occasionally many more vernaculars. In this case the classical languages, however, were the leading ones. Nomenclators were based on a strict and precise systematization and did not arrange vocabulary according to presumed necessities of everyday communication. It is the strict method of arrangement, the scholarly character of the macrostructure, which gives the nomenclator its Humanist tinge. In Spanish, scholars use a different term as an equivalent for the English vocabulary; Ayala Castro (1992a, 437) uses the generic term nomenclatura to refer to topical compilations: Se trata de repertorios léxicos en más de una lengua que ordenan sus materiales de acuerdo con el contenido o con la cosa designada y no con la forma de los términos consignados. Toman como punto de partida el objeto conocido y como punto de llegada la palabra; recogen el vocabulario usual de una lengua, con el fin de enseñar los rudimentos de un idioma; por ello, su extensión es breve en la mayoría de los casos, y pocas veces alcanzan la extensión de los repertorios alfabéticos coetáneos. Before Ayala Castro, Alvar Ezquerra (1993 [1987], 277) had defined nomenclatura in a similar way, and added that works so arranged “permiten una clasificación del mundo a través de la cosa designada, diferente de la que adoptan los diccionarios ideológicos, por un lado, y los de sinónimos, antónimos y voces relacionadas, por otro” (Alvar Ezquerra 1993, 278). However, in his dictionary of lexicography, Martínez de Sousa (1995) gives a different definition of nomenclatura: “Conjunto organizado de voces técnicas de una ciencia,” whereas a nomenclátor is defined as “[c]atálogo o lista de nombres, especialmente de pueblos, de personas o de voces técnicas de una ciencia. (Sin.: nomenclador.) Catálogo que contiene la nomenclatura de una ciencia.” Furthermore, in the definition of vocabulario by Martínez de Sousa (1995) the macrostructure may follow an alphabetical order: “Conjunto de palabras regionales, de una profesión u oficio, de un campo semántico, de un escritor, etc. […] Lista de palabras definidas sucintamente y colocadas por orden alfabético al final de un trabajo o libro. Diccionario.” (our italics). In their overviews of topical lexicography involving Spanish, neither Alvar Ezquerra nor Ayala Castro make a HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 31 clear cut distinction between a small vocabulary such as William Stepney’s (1591) and the larger nomenclators, such as Hadrianus Junius’ Nomenclator of 1567 or the one included in Félix de Alvarado’s Spanish and English Dialogues (1718). For these scholars the term nomenclatura is a generic covering both types of works. They do, however, separate the nomenclaturas from the thesauri, dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, and other similar books. In so doing, they follow the distinction established by Quemada (1968, 360 ff.), who groups all topical works under the heading “classements sémantiques”, and then distinguishes four sub-types: classements méthodiques, synonymiques, analogiques and idéologiques. Topical dictionaries to be examined here fall under Quemada’s classements méthodiques. But three are short word lists and fall under the category of vocabularies, the other one (Alvarado 1718) is a large nomenclator, which is why it is appropriate to retain the distinction made by Quemada (1968, 364) between these two types of topical compilations:(13) Dans le cadre de ce type d’organisation [les classements méthodiques], les recueils de proportions très modestes s’opposent aux ouvrages de plus grande envergure. on distinguera donc les petits vocabulaires, limités à 15 ou 20 chapitres qui rassemblent un nombre de mots réduit, […] Ce sont les petites nomenclatures utilisées la plupart du temps dans l’enseignement, ou les modestes appendices lexicographiques faisant suite à un manuel de langue […]. Parallèlement, de lourdes compilations de vocables qui peuvent rivaliser avec des dictionnaires généraux quant à l’importance du lexique consigné, totalisent jusqu’à 150 chapitres dans des cas exceptionnels comme le Decimator de 1596.(14) of the twelve terms mentioned by McArthur above, a few are still in use today, but only dictionary is currently used as a hypernym for the others, even when referring to topically arranged works. McArthur (1986a, 79) explains: of these dozen contenders, only three have survived in modern English as regular generic terms for wordbooks: dictionary, lexicon and thesaurus. one has survived as a term for a word list (glossary), and one as a general term for the words of a language or certain listings of such words (vocabulary). […] Additionally, it is worth recalling that even today sharp-edged distinctions do not exist in practice between the terms ‘dictionary’, ‘lexicon’ and ‘thesaurus’. The term ‘dictionary’ in particular […] has tended to be a coverall term for all sorts of presentations of information about ‘words’, however conceived. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 32 (13) Also see Kaltz (1995, 82, footnote 9). (14) Quemada refers to the polyglot Tertia Pars Syluæ Vocabvlorvm et Phrasivm, Sive Nomenclator by Heinrich Decimator, 1596; see bibliographical data in Niederehe (1994, 255). As will be seen, the terminology in early bilingual Spanish and English lexicography is varied. The first two anonymous word lists are simply called books; in later works, dictionary is used for alphabetical compilations, irrespective of their length. other names occasionally given to alphabetical compilations are the Latin word vocabularium and the English guide and table. The term vocabulary is used by early lexicographers to refer to short topical word lists. In this study, dictionary is used as a generic term to refer to both alphabetically- and topically-arranged compilations; in turn, topical dictionary is used to refer to vocabularies and nomenclators. Rey-Debove identified a second level of analysis, that of the microstructure, referring to the internal design of the entry. It is here that the compiler presents information about the formal and semantic properties of the headword or lemma. When comparing dictionaries, analysis of the microstructure can be used to evaluate the appropriateness of the discourse structure of the entry in relation to potential users. For Hartmann and James (1998, s.v. microstructure), the microstructure includes two types of information about the headword: 1. Formal properties, such as: 1.1 Spelling 1.2 Pronunciation 1.3 Grammar 2. Semantic properties, such as: 2.1 Etymology 2.2 Definition or, in bilingual or multilingual dictionaries, equivalents 2.3 Usage labels (e.g., diachronic, diatopic, diatechnical, dianormative, diaphasic, etc.) 2.4 Paradigmatic properties (synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, etc.) 2.5 Syntagmatic properties (collocations, phraseology, etc.). Hausmann and Wiegand (1989, 340-4) have expanded Rey-Debove’s conception into the following twelve groups of data provided within the microstructure. This more comprehensive typology will be used in this study: 1. Synchronic identification (spelling, pronunciation, part of speech, flexion and aspect) 2. Diachronic identification (etymology) 3. Diasystematic labeling (v.g., diachronic, diatopic, diatechnical, etc.) HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 33 4. Explanatory information (definition, linguistic description, encyclopedic description) 5. Syntagmatic information (construction, collocation, example, quotation) 6. Paradigmatic information (synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, word formation, etc.) 7. other semantic information (information that marks the semantic process undergone by the sign, such as figuratively or metaphorically) 8. Usage notes 9. Pictorial illustration 10. ordering devices (figures, letters, brackets, etc., that help clarifying the microstructure) 11. Cross-references 12. Representation or repetition symbols. The above typology is applicable to the microstructure of a monolingual dictionary. Regarding that of a bilingual dictionary, Haensch et al.(1982, 135) mention the presence of equivalents (or paraphrases or definitions, if there are no equivalents in the target language) as an element of the explanatory information.(15) They also note that usually no paradigmatic information is provided in bilingual dictionaries and that syntagmatic information relates to the equivalent in the target language. Thus, the difference between a monolingual and a bilingual dictionary is not as great as might be thought at first. In the words of Hüllen (1999, 8): For the average dictionary user it is probably important whether dictionaries gloss their headwords in the same language or in a different language, that is, by translation. But, lexicographically speaking, the difference between monolingual and bi- or multilingual dictionaries is not so great as it may appear, because they use the same techniques of semanticizing, with or without translation. Depending on the microstructure of entries, either the clarification of a lexeme is done by using it in a syntagma in the form of a definition or a paraphrase or a sample sentence, which frequently is a quotation or an utterance taken from a corpus. […] or it is done by the juxtaposition of a synonym, a hyponym or hyperonym, the negative form of an antonym, or another type of lexeme which bears a fixed semantic relation to the lemma. […] of course, the techniques can be combined. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 34 (15) On the problems of microstructure organization in bilingual dictionaries, see Al (1991). The concepts of macro- and microstructure may be applied both to alphabetically arranged and to topically arranged dictionaries. McArthur (1986a, 149) understands the macrostructure as “the set of themes or major topics”. In his study of the English topical tradition, Hüllen (1999) uses the two terms as follows: “The macrostructure applies to the dictionary as a whole; more precisely, to the sequence of its sections. It is for an onomasiological dictionary what the alphabet is for the semasiological”; while the “syntactic microstructure applies to the single entry” (Hüllen 1999, 179 and 177). In the topical dictionaries discussed here, the microstructure is as a rule simple and limited to the headword plus the equivalents. A third concept useful for the analysis of the component parts of a lexicographical work can now be introduced, namely what Hartmann and James (1998, 104) call the outside matter, that is, “those components of the macrostructure of a reference work which do not form part of the central word-list.” In Hartmann and James’ terminology (1998, 93), the totality of the components of a reference work, that is, the macrostructure plus the outside matter, is called the megastructure.(16) The macrostructure provides a format enabling compilers to organize their work and users to locate information. The outside matter acts as a supplement, in the front, middle or back of the reference work. Thus, the outside matter is divided into: 1.The front matter,(17) those constituent elements that precede the central wordlist. It comprises such preliminaries as: 1.1 Title page 1.2 Copyright page and imprint 1.3 Acknowledgements and dedication 1.3 Foreword or preface 1.4 Table of contents 1.5 List of contributors 1.6 List of abbreviations and /or illustrations used 1.7 In bilingual dictionaries, a pronunciation key of the source language 1.8 User’s guide 1.9 Notes on the nature, history and structure of the language 1.10 Grammatical information (conjugation and declensions). HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 35 (16) In this section we will follow the description by Hartmann and James (1998, s.v. macrostructure ) of the constituent parts of reference works. Other authors that deal with this subject are Haensch et al. (1982, 452 ff.), and Hausmann and Wiegand (1989). (17) In Spanish: principios del diccionario (Martínez de Sousa 1995, 118). 2. The middle matter, those components that can be included in the word-list without being part of it, for example: 2.1 Plates of illustrations 2.2 Maps or diagrams 2.3 Lists of grammatical terms or semantic fields 2.4 Examples; in bilingual dictionaries, examples include lists of phrases or idiomatic expressions. 3. The back matter,(18) the subsidiary components (lists, tables, etc.) located between the word list and the end of the work, such as: 3.1 Personal names 3.2 Place names 3.3 Weights and measures 3.4 Military ranks 3.5 Chemical elements 3.6 Alphabetic and numerical symbols 3.7 Musical notations 3.8 Quotations and proverbs Because most of the Spanish and English dictionaries under consideration in this study are part of books that include grammars, dialogues and other texts, we propose to extend the concept of outside matter to refer not only to the constituent parts of the dictionary, but also to any other text with which it may have been published. Based on the typology of 16th-century pedagogical texts by Kaltz (1995), Hüllen (1999, 105, footnote 33) introduced the term integrated book to refer to books that contain several or all the text types. To summarize, in metalexicography the structure of a reference work can be accounted for in terms of the macrostructure, the microstructure, and the outside matter. The macrostructure refers to the general (or external, so to speak) structure of the reference work; historical factors have led to the use of the alphabetical arrangement, although other ways of ordering the word list do exist. Preliminary, middle, and subsidiary components of the reference work can be analyzed in terms of the outside matter and, together with the macrostructure, they make up a larger whole called the megastructure. The microstructure, on the other hand, refers to the DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 36 (18) In Spanish: finales del diccionario (Martínez de Sousa 1995, 121). internal structure of the entry, namely the headword and the presentation and elaboration of its formal and semantic properties. The headword acts as a link between the macro- and the microstructure. These levels of analysis constitute a framework for the structural assessment of reference works and the investigation of the principles of compilation followed by compilers. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 37 between two or more dictionaries are discussed. The purpose of this section is not to provide an annotated reference list of these; rather, certain studies will be cited to give the reader an idea of the research devoted to Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. In the category of bibliographies, mention must be made of Fabbri 1979, which includes 3500 titles of general and technical reference works in Catalan, Galician and Spanish. Fabbri devotes pages 107 to 117 to Spanish and English dictionaries, presenting them by author in alphabetical order. He includes the title, place of publication, and dates of first and subsequent (if any) editions. Fabbri (1979) is, however, far surpassed in terms of comprehensiveness and reliability by the bibliography of English works by Alston (1967 and 1987) and that of Spanish works by Niederehe (1994, 1999, and 2005). The bibliography by San Vicente (1995) is also useful, but limited to the eighteenth century. The English Short Title Catalogue, which is available online, provides valuable data on editions and locations of mono- and multilingual dictionaries and grammars involving the English language. A comprehensive bibliography of lexicography has also been available online since 2003, compiled by Félix Córdoba Rodríguez, of the Universidade da Coruña. The website of the European Association for Lexicography (EURALEX) also contains an International Bibliography of Lexicography. In a second category are the facsimile editions published by Alston of the anonymous Book of English and Spanish (1554?, facsimile edition: 1971) and A Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554, facsimile edition: 1971); John Thorius’ The Spanish Grammer (1590, facsimile edition: 1967); (22) and of William Stepney’s The Spanish Schoole-master (1591, facsimile edition: 1971). The editions by Alston contain short introductory notes. Facsimiles of the polyglot and the bilingual dictionaries by John Minsheu have also been published. In 1978, Jürgen Schäfer published a facsimile edition of Minsheu’s Ductor in Linguas (Guide into the Tongues) and Vocabularium Hispanicolatinum (A Most Copious Spanish Dictionary) (1617), with an introductory essay. Later, in 2000, a facsimile reproduction of A Dictionary in Spanish and English by Minsheu (1599) was published by Gloria Guerrero Ramos and Fernando Pérez Lagos, also with an introductory essay. All the works included in our corpus are available in microfilm format from Early English Books (1475-1640 and 1641-1700) and The Eighteenth Century, and they have been made available in pdf format by Early English Books Online and Eighteenth Century Collections Online. The Spanish-English dictionaries by Percyvall (1591), Minsheu (1617), and Stevens (1706) are included in the Spanish Academy’s Nuevo tesoro lexicográfico on dvd-rom. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 45 (22) The facsimile edition published by Alston has Antonio del Corro as the author of the book, which is misleading. A third category is constituted by surveys of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography, such as the Preface (1960) that Samuel Gili Gaya wrote to his Tesoro lexicográfico (1492-1726).Although only volume one of this dictionary was published, the preface is an excellent survey of the evolution of Spanish bilingual lexicography up to 1726. Fernández-Sevilla (1974) devotes chapter five to the history of Spanish mono- and bilingual lexicography, listing the most important dictionaries and adding a short commentary on each. In his survey of the evolution of foreign-language dictionaries, Collison (1982, passim) briefly discusses the Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries produced from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries. The paper by Alvar Ezquerra (1991) is a survey of Spanish mono- and multilingual lexicography; the author devotes two pages to Spanish-English lexicography and this information is virtually the same as that found in the survey published a year later (Alvar Ezquerra 1992). In 1995 the International Journal of Lexicography devoted a special issue to a survey of Spanish lexicography. The issue contains another article by Alvar Ezquerra on the history of Spanish mono- and bilingual lexicography, but this article adds little to the preceding two. Another survey, based largely on Steiner (1970), is that by Rizo Rodríguez and Valera Hernández (2001). Whereas these studies concentrate on the alphabetic tradition, only one article included by Alvar Ezquerra (1993, 277-87)(23) and two by Ayala Castro (1992a, b) review the topical tradition with Spanish. For the English topical tradition, there is an overview in Starnes and Noyes (1991 [1946], 197- 211) and the standard work is Hüllen (1999). A number of articles and books deal with theoretical problems of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. The articles include: (1) a series of papers by James E. Iannucci (1957, 1959, 1967, 1974, and 1985), which treat the question of meaning discrimination in various pairs of languages other than Spanish and English (e.g. French and English, English and German, Portuguese and English); only Iannucci (1974) is fully devoted to meaning discrimination techniques in Spanish and English; (2) two papers by Edwin B. Williams: Williams (1959) discusses problems of content, the order of elements in the microstructure and meaning discrimination techniques; and Williams (1960) deals solely with meaning discrimination; (3) Louis Cooper’s paper (1962) on plagiarism in Spanish dictionaries of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; it discusses three lexicographers – oudin, Vittori and Palet– and touches on Percyvall’s and Minsheu’s dictionaries; (4) a paper by David L. Gold (1978) on the problems of microstructure and the middle matter in Spanish bilingual lexicography; (5) R. J. Nelson’s paper (1980-1981) on the problem of equivalence in DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 46 (23) This is a paper entitled Apuntes para la historia de las nomenclaturas del español , presented by Alvar Ezquerra in the VII Congreso Internacional de Lingüística y Filología de América Latina held in 1984; the paper was originally published in the proceedings in 1987. Spanish and English lexicography; and (6) a collection of papers (1992) by Gerd Wotjak; they include papers on Spanish lexicology and on specific problems of Spanish metalexicography, especially at the level of the microstructure (e.g. collocations, polysemy, equivalents, etc.). To turn now to books dealing with problems of Spanish and English lexicography: (1) the comprehensive works on the theory of lexicography as applied to the Spanish language by Haensch et al. (1982) and Haensch (1997) are particularly important, with sections on the specific problems of bilingual dictionaries, such as the semantic properties of equivalents in the microstructure and the macro- and microstructural problems of bilingual dictionaries; (2) the unpublished dissertation by Daniel Noland (1987) is the most comprehensive study of the sources of the 1617 polyglot dictionary by Minsheu; (3) the collection of articles in Alvar Ezquerra (1993) deal with a variety of subjects in mono- and bilingual Spanish lexicography; (4) equally important is the collection of articles on historical Spanish lexicography by Azorín Fernández (2000); (5) the book by Bajo Pérez (2000) should be mentioned, the first part of which is devoted to metalexicography and the second to an historical overview of lexicography; (6) finally, the comprehensive study of the macro- and microstructures of Connelly and Higgins’ New Dictionary of the Spanish and English Languages by Molina García and Sánchez Benedito (2007). In this category, works dealing partially with early lexicographers can also be included. First is the book on Italian-Spanish lexicography by Gallina (1959), which includes one chapter on Minsheu (1617). Gallina (1959, 249-60) briefly discusses the life and work of Minsheu, transcribes the title pages, and presents a study of the macro- and microstructures. Second, chapter one of Hayashi (1978, 1-30), a book on the history of English lexicography from 1530 to 1791, discusses the theory of bilingual lexicography during the Renaissance; among the compilers studied is Richard Percyvall. Hayashi follows an approach similar to the one adopted in this study: Hayashi is interested in theoretical principles and includes a comparative analysis of front matter texts. Third, in her book on English lexicography prior to the publication of the first monolingual English dictionary by Richard Cawdrey in 1604, Gabriele Stein (1985, 353-77) devotes one chapter to Richard Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica (1591) and John Minsheu’s A Dictionarie in Spanish and English (1599). Stein’s emphasis is on the compilation of the word list, lemmatization, the structure of the equivalents and the metalinguistic information provided for the headwords, such as indications of pronunciation, grammatical use and usage labels. Stein’s work is also valuable because she provides extracts from the introductions and samples from the letter Bof the dictionaries. This chapter later became the introduction to the microfiche edition of the Minsheu 1599 dictionary, published by Stein in 1993. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 47 Among other works, the Holt Spanish and English Dictionary by Edwin Williams (1955) is very important. Hausmann (1988b, 86) explains: Il faut mentionner aussi une école de lexicographie et de métalexicographie bilingue formée par le regretté professeur Williams (1891-1975) de l’université de Pennsylvania d’où il est sorti, à part la série des dictionnaires ‘Bantam’, des travaux historiques sur les dictionnaires bilingues espagnol-anglais et des travaux de critique de dictionnaires. Ces divers courants ont abouti à la fondation de la première societé nord-americaine de lexicographie, la Dictionary Society of North America qui édite une revue annuelle ‘Dictionaries’ paraissant depuis 1979. After Williams (1955), Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries started to be published at an increasing rate in America, France, Germany, and Spain. Unfortunately, this increase in quantity does not necessarily imply an increase in quality. To sum up, in this section a series of papers and monographs concerned with the problems of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography have been presented. The history of the field now covers four centuries, since the earliest works appeared in the second half of the sixteenth century. Following Steiner’s historical account of the alphabetic tradition, the first recension in Spanish and English bilingual lexicography covers a period of almost two hundred years (from 1591 up to 1778), during which six main lexicographers (Percyvall, Minsheu, Stevens, Pineda, Giral Delpino and Baretti) published dictionaries. Steiner’s survey shows that plagiarism was common throughout the period, with lexicographers usually copying from their predecessors. The dictionaries form a chain of borrowed material going back to Percyvall’s sources. Percyvall’s dictionary began a lineage that continued with Minsheu, Stevens, Pineda, Giral Delpino, and ended with Baretti. The second recension begins in 1797-98, with the publication of Connelly and Higgins’ fourvolume bilingual dictionary. This original work was prepared following a new methodology in the treatment of the microstructure, for which the authors consulted Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language (1755), Thomas Sheridan’s General Dictionary of the English Language (1780), the Spanish Academy’s Diccionario de la lengua castellana (1726-39) and the Diccionario castellano con las voces de ciencias y artes by Esteban de Terreros y Pando (Madrid, 1786-8). The dictionary by Connelly and Higgins began a second lineage, which continued until the first half of the twentieth century, a period that Steiner calls the second recension. of all the compilers belonging to the first recension, Richard Percyvall and John Minsheu have received particular attention; in fact, their sources and methods of compilation have been studied by, among others, Steiner himself, Schäfer (1978), Stein (1985), Noland (1989), Guerrero Ramos (1992), and Alvar Ezquerra (2002). DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 48 Along with the rapid increase in the number of Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries published, the number of bibliographies, facsimile editions, books, journal articles, conference papers, and case studies indicate an increasing interest in our field of study. But there are still areas that require further research. For example, in-depth studies of the sources of each of the early dictionaries, such as that carried out by Professor Noland (1987) on the sources of Minsheu’s polyglot dictionary of 1617, remain to be done. Likewise, little work has been done on the nineteenth century: the different dictionaries and editions have to be inventoried, their sources and relationships explored. Even if Steiner explained the lineage of dictionaries from Percyvall to Connelly and Higgins, his study does not include the anonymous compilations of 1554 recorded by Roberts (1970) or Lewis owen’s short alphabetical dictionary of 1605, nor are his analyses of the works by Thorius (1590), Stepney (1591), and Minsheu (1617) detailed. His discussion of the lives of the early lexicographers and the circumstances surrounding the production of the works is often thin. Therefore, his study published in 1970 needs to be revised and completed with more recent findings. Furthermore, two aspects are conspicuous by their absence, not only from Steiner’s works but also from more recent research: topically arranged dictionaries and the structural components of the outside matter. Indeed, prior to studying the nineteenth century, a historical and comparative study of the subjects discussed in the front and/or back matter texts of the early Spanish and English dictionaries should be carried out. Such a study should be done bearing in mind that lexicography includes both the alphabetical and the topical traditions, since scholars have dealt primarily with alphabetical works and explored mainly their sources. In this way, future projects would be able to better explore relations among works of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and investigate principles followed in the compilation of all types of dictionaries. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 49 3) Statement of the Problem From the previous review of the literature it is clear that two aspects are missing from existing research on early Spanish and English lexicography: 1) the systematic comparison of topically arranged dictionaries, and 2) the study of the outside matter of both alphabetic and topical dictionaries. “There is more to the story of lexicography,” writes McArthur (1986b, 157), “than dictionaries – if by ‘dictionaries’ one means no more and no less than alphabetically organized books that list words and their definitions.” McArthur (ibid.) argues that historians have had a limited view of lexicography, generally focusing only on alphabetical dictionaries. In fact, however, this history is more complicated and a wider approach is required, one that includes both alphabetical and topical dictionaries: A more panoramic examination of the history of reference technology and taxonomy suggests that lexicography – the art and craft of marshalling and relating words, etc. – consists of not one strong tradition-cum-format plus some occasionally fascinating fragments of other approaches, but two distinct and complementary traditions. These traditions are alphabetic lexicography on the one side and thematic lexicography on the other (McArthur 1986b, 157). According to McArthur, the thematic or topical tradition is older, having its roots in Plato, Aristotle and Pliny and stretching to the Scholastics, whereas the alphabetical tradition became dominant in the early seventeenth century. In Spanish and English bilingual lexicography, a study of the topical tradition of early dictionaries is lacking. Scholars have also devoted little attention to the outside matter of both alphabetic and topical compilations. In section 1.2 above, the constituent elements of the outside matter were examined and grouped under three headings: the front matter, the middle matter, and the back matter. According to Cop (1989, 761), these may contain two types of information: Front and back matter of a dictionary can be separated into two different categories: such containing information which is essential to the effective use of the dictionary or which can be considered as an integral part of the main body, and such which complements the information given in the main part of the dictionary or which provides additional linguistic and/or encyclopedic information; this information need not have a direct relationship to the main body. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 51 Cop goes on to explain that to the first category belong component parts such as the preface or foreword, the user’s guide, the phonetic alphabet, and a list of abbreviations. Almost every dictionary contains such information, usually in the front matter. The second category of information includes, for example, lists of place names, foreign words and phrases, weights and measures, etc. of the different texts the front matter may contain, the preface or foreword is essential, serving as an introductory text where data on the purpose, content, sources, intended users, compilers and plan of the dictionary may be given. In his surveys of the history and theory of lexicography, Hausmann (1988b, 81 and 1989, 216) mentions three important texts for the history of metalexicography prior to the development of this discipline during the twentieth century: ancient prefaces, dictionary reviews, and the entry dictionary in early dictionaries and encyclopedias. This is where the prolegomena, so to speak, to modern metalexicography can be found: on peut se demander depuis quand il y a une métalexicographie. À la recherche des premiers balbutiements, on épluchera d’abord les préfaces des dictionnaires. Certains parmi les grands lexicographes du temps passé ont beaucoup réfléchi sur leur art et se sont élevés à un niveau théorique admirable. C’est notamment le cas d’auteurs de dictionnaires bilingues qui étaient souvent en même temps enseignants et traducteurs. […] on se tournera également vers les comptes rendus de dictionnaire, genre qui débute avec éclat dès l’Anticrusca de Paolo Beni en 1612 […]. Troisième source à ne pas négliger pour l’histoire de la metalexicographie: les articles consacrés au dictionnaire dans les dictionnaires eux-mêmes et dans les encyclopédies (Hausmann 1988b, 81). In the case of bilingual dictionaries in particular, Hausmann (1989, 217) explains that prefaces to bilingual dictionaries have remained “dans l’ombre” although they often contain “une grande richesse d’information tant sur le plan métalexicographique que culturel général.” This scholar speaks of a “métalexicographie ‘préfacière’” (Hausmann, 1989, 220 ff.) and refers to a series of subjects discussed in prefatory texts of mono- and bilingual dictionaries, such as the history of the language, contrastive linguistics, a theory of lexicography, the works of other lexicographers, criticism of other dictionaries, and technical problem of dictionary compilation. The importance of these prefatory texts is explained by Quemada (1997, viii-ix) as follows: [I]ls abordent, à l’occasion ou en marge de la présentation du contenu, de nombreuses questions de linguistique, d’histoire de la langue, de théorie et DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 52 d’histoire de la lexicographie, quand ce n’est la critique d’ouvrages ou d’auteurs rivaux. […] [L]a plupart de ces textes éclairent de manière irremplaçable l’entreprise, ses objectifs linguistiques, didactiques, politiques, les destinataires visés, les positions théoriques et méthodologiques des rédacteurs envers la langue et sa description, les conditions d’exécution de l’ouvrage, etc. It should be noted that this metalexicographical content has rarely been the object of systematic research and description. The following works have been identified: an article by Naïs (1968) on the prefatory texts of Cotgrave’s A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongves (1611); Hayashi’s The Theory of English Lexicography 1530-1791 (1978), which takes prefatory texts into account in its study of English lexicography (1530-1791); an article by Mazière (1985) on the prefaces of French dictionaries from the late seventeenth century to the mideighteenth century; an article by Alvar Ezquerra (1993, 215-239) on the prefaces of the Spanish Academy’s dictionaries; the critical edition of the prefaces of the French Academy’s dictionaries (1694-1992) by Quemada (1997); an article by Francoeur et al. (2000), where the authors examine the evolution of French monolingual dictionaries in the light of two topics from the front matter: the expected readership and comments on previous and/or competing dictionaries; an article by Chrétien et al. (2001) on the prefaces of two of the French Academy’s dictionaries (1694 and 1798); and professor Francoeur’s unpublished dissertation (2001) on the front matter of French monolingual dictionaries, Les discours de présentation des dictionnaires monolingues français (1680-2000): des dictionnaires non institutionnels au ‘Dictionnaire de l’Académie française’. In collaboration with Professor Monique C. Cormier, we have written two papers studying topics in the outside matter of French and English dictionaries from 1580 to 1699 (Cormier and Fernandez, 2006, and Fernandez and Cormier, 2010). The lack of research on prefaces and other preliminary texts is particularly noticeable in the field of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. Scattered references to prefaces can be found in some of the works mentioned in section (2) above, for example in Martín-Gamero (1961) and Steiner (1970, 1985, and 2003), where there are references to prefaces of the early dictionaries in connection with the sources and compilation or aspects of the microstructure. Martin-Gamero’s remarks on the works are often unreliable and vague, however, while Steiner focuses on issues of compilation methodology and dependence to establish a line of dictionaries divided into the historical periods he calls recensions. Steiner pays little or no attention to the way dictionaries are structured or to the texts included in the front matter. Indeed, he does not use the term preface consistently but rather to refer to any front matter text, even with a different title. Moreover, when there are various texts HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 53 with different titles in the front matter of a dictionary he does not specify to which “preface” he is referring. Dictionary structures, and the outside matter in general, have not been approached in a methodical way; there has been no detailed study of the outside matter in general, or of the preliminary texts in particular, of early Spanish and English bilingual dictionaries. Given this, the aim of our study is as follows: to examine this rather neglected area of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography, including the works that make up the topical tradition. The general question that this historical and comparative study tries to answer is this: what can the structure of the early alphabetical and topical Spanish and English dictionaries and their outside matter texts tell us about the principles of compilation lexicographers followed and about the purpose of their works? As for the diachronic frame of the study, the corpus begins with the two anonymous dictionaries of 1554 (the earliest specimens of Spanish and English lexicography known to date) and ends with the second edition of Stevens’ grammar and vocabulary (1739) and the dictionary of Pedro Pineda (1740). We end with Pineda’s work since in the work of later bilingual compilers it is possible to observe an increasing dependence on monolingual dictionaries such as Samuel Johnson’s authoritative Dictionary of the English Language (1755) and the Diccionario de autoridades (1726-39) of the Spanish Academy. Spanish and English dictionaries published after Pineda’s were influenced by the normative approach. In fact, Hippolyto Giral Delpino (Pineda’s successor) was the first to recognize on the title page of his 1763 Diccionário, españól è inglés, è inglés y españól the authority of the Spanish Academy. The codification of Spanish spelling by the Academy was recognized first in the topical tradition by Sebastian Puchol, the editor of the second edition of Stevens’ grammar and vocabulary (1739), but it did not affect the content of the vocabulary beyond spelling. It is necessary to include this edition in the corpus because it contains the only complete version of Stevens’ vocabulary. The following topical and alphabetical dictionaries, and editions, are included in our corpus, presented in order of publication of their first edition: 1. Works from the sixteenth century: 1.1 The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) 1.2 A Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554) 1.3 John Thorius’ The Spanish Grammer […] with a Dictionarie Adioyned unto it (1590) 1.4 Richard Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica. Containing a Grammar; with a Dictionarie in Spanish, English, and Latine (1591) DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 54 En la columna de la derecha, Palencia dispone la misma entrada en latín, pero esta vez seguida de la traducción al romance de las explicaciones latinas de la columna de la izquierda. on the other hand, Nebrija’s work was revolutionary, as far as its sources and methodology were concerned, and became a milestone in lexicography. Antonio de Nebrija is traditionally considered the father of Spanish philology and lexicography. His full name was Antonio Martínez de Cala y Xarana, and he was born in the city of Nebrissa, Sevilla. During his youth he studied in Salamanca and Italy. Returning to Spain he taught rhetoric and grammar at the Universidad de Salamanca, after which, in 1513, he became professor of the Universidad Complutense de Alcalá de Henares. He published a series of works that made him the greatest Spanish humanist and grammarian, (27) as well as a key figure in modern lexicography. (28) In 1481, he published a Latin grammar which, according to MacDonald (1982, 11), became the standard in Spain for over three centuries. In 1492, he published the first Spanish grammar,(29) a remarkable work that was ahead of his time in technique and insight, and that, MacDonald (1982, 12) continues, “served to promote grammatical stability and enabled the public to study the colloquial language in a formal and orderly fashion.” For many scholars, it was the first grammar of any vernacular in Europe, as Percival (1975, 249) explains: “The first full-scale grammar of a vernacular (apart from Alberti’s brilliant but uninfluential sketch of Tuscan) was the Castilian grammar of the humanist Antonio de Nebrija, which appeared in 1492.” Padley (1988, 157), on the other hand, says that the first grammar of any European vernacular is Leon Batista Alberti’s Regole della vulgar lingua fiorentina (c. 1443). Be that as it may, there is agreement among scholars about the pioneering role of Nebrija’s Spanish grammar. More important for this study is the publication in Salamanca, also in 1492, of Nebrija’s Lexicon hoc est dictionarium ex sermone latino in hispaniense, a Latin-Spanish dictionary containing approximately 22,500 entries.(30) In the same city also appeared Nebrija’s Dictionarium HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 61 (27) On Nebrija’s life, see Cuesta Gutiérrez (1961, 107 ff.), MacDonald (1974, 11 ff.), and Padley (1988, 157 ff.). Regarding the importance of Nebrija in the history of Spanish lexicography, see Gili Gaya (1963, 9-10); Niederehe (1987a, 158 ff.); Guerrero Ramos (1996, 9 ff.); Stammerjohann (1996, 669-71), Azorín Fernández (2000, 14 ff.), Alvar (2001, 149-67), and García-Macho (2001, 43 ff.). For a comprehensive bibliography of Nebrija’s works, see Esparza Torres and Niederehe (1999). (28) The role of Nebrija as first modern lexicographer has been showed by Gili Gaya (1960, ix ff.), MacDonald (1974, 1982), Guerrero Ramos (1992, 1995, 1996), Alvar Ezquerra (1991, 1995), and Medina Guerra (1996). (29) See the 1992 edition of Nebrija’s grammar in three volumes: volume one contains a facsimile edition of the grammar, volume two a critical edition by Antonio Quilis, and volume three a series of papers on Nebrija edited by Manuel Alvar. Also see Padley (1988, 157 ff. and 196 ff.) for a discussion of Nebrija’s work. (30) See the facsimile edition with an introduction prepared by Colón and Soberanas in 1979. For a full title page, description and excerpts from this work see Viñaza (1978, 723-32). ex hispaniensi in latinum sermonem,(31) probably in 1495 (the original has no publication date), a Spanish-Latin dictionary with more than 28,000 entries. The influence of these two dictionaries was enormous; in fact, they served as a source for both the content and methodology of subsequent bilingual dictionaries. Niederehe (1987a, 158 ff.) establishes four periods in the history of Spanish lexicography up to 1599, of which the first two are relevant to our subject. The first covers the period from the early twelfth century up to the publication of Palencia’s work in 1490. Palencia’s Vocabulario is important because it contains Spanish glosses and rich encyclopaedic information; nevertheless, as previously mentioned, it is a work still deeply rooted in the medieval tradition for its sources and overall structure. Niederehe (1986, 12 and 1987a, 159) calls the second period the age of Nebrija, which testifies to the importance of this lexicographer. This period covers the life and work of Antonio de Nebrija, from the publication of his Latin-Spanish dictionary in 1492 to his death in 1522. Moreover, Nebrija’s works underwent numerous editions: in the introductory note the facsimile edition of the Spanish-Latin dictionary, the Real Academia Española (1989, unpaginated) remarks that there were some ninety editions of both dictionaries up to 1834. Likewise, Niederehe (1987a, 160) points out that from 1530 up to the end of the sixteenth century, there appeared an average of five editions of Nebrija’s works per decade. The dictionaries became true classics, the first in a large series of dictionaries involving the Spanish language as well as other modern languages. Colon and Soberanas (1979) have shown how the 1495 Spanish-Latin work is not a simple reversal of the Latin-Spanish dictionary published three years earlier; they have also traced the potential sources of the 1492 work and demonstrated how difficult it is to find definitive links to previous compilers, a fact that points towards Nebrija’s originality with respect to the works that may have been available to him. These aspects have been studied by Guerrero Ramos (1995, 1996) and Azorín Fernández (2000, 36 ff.), who have concluded that Nebrija did not follow any particular source but rather devised modern lexicographical techniques that broke with the long, encyclopaedic compilations that had preceded him. What made Nebrija’s works so influential? From a lexicographical point of view, entries in Nebrija’s dictionaries are structurally uniform, as is his treatment of abbreviations and orthography. Such consistency is also evident, according to Alvar Ezquerra (1995, 175-6), in the grammatical information Nebrija provides and in the DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 62 (31) See the facsimile edition published in 1951 (reprinted in 1989) by the Real Academia Española . There is also a critical edition based on the 1516 edition prepared with an introduction by Gerald MacDonald (1981). simplicity of the equivalents. MacDonald (1982, 12) explains that Nebrija’s dictionary of 1492 is: [T]he first regular dictionary – one that is neither a selective nor partial lexicon – of a modern European language. It displays technical qualities and strengths which only today are we able to appreciate fully. Primary among these are excellent word processing procedures, including use of origin, status, and usage labels, discriminating glosses, and specification phrases. His definitions may be described as precise and objective, and the entire enterprise as scientific, insightful, and economical in format. The first modern bilingual dictionaries, such as Christoval de las Casas’ Vocabulario de las dos lenguas toscana y castellana (1570) and Jean Palet’s Diccionario muy copioso de la lengua española y francesa (1604), (32) made use of Nebrija’s word lists, as Gili Gaya (1960, x) points out in the preface to his Tesoro lexicográfico (1492-1726):(33) Estos primeros diccionarios bilingües se apoyan igualmente en el de Nebrija, en el cual sustituyen las palabras latinas por sus equivalentes italianas, inglesas o francesas; sus autores añaden por su cuenta un número mayor o menor de vocablos castellanos. Nebrija, reducido y adaptado a las necesidades de la catequesis y de la vida práctica, es también la base de los vocabularios compuestos por los misioneros en lenguas indígenas de América (34) y de las islas del Pacífico. En lenguas europeas, el primero en fecha fue el toscano del P. Las Casas (1570), al cual siguieron el inglés de Percivale (1599)(35) y el francés de Palet (1604); de ellos arrancan la mayor parte de los diccionarios bilingües y plurilingües que se escribieron durante los siglos XVII y XVIII. According to MacDonald (1982, 12), it is clear that other dictionaries make use of Nebrija’s word lists: [W]e know that the Spanish-Latin dictionaries of Bartolomé Bravo and his successors, the Spanish-Italian vocabularies of Las Casas and Franciosini, the Spanish-French of oudin and Sobrino, the Spanish-English of Percyvall, Minsheu, and Stevens, the Spanish-Flemish of Trognesius and de la Porte, and even the venerable polyglot Calepino itself, utilize Nebrija’s word list as the basis of their Spanish vocabulary. The influential Spanish-Arabic vocabulary of Pedro de Alcalá HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 63 (32) This is the first bidirectional Spanish-French, French-Spanish dictionary. (33) On the influence of Nebrija on subsequent lexicographers, see Guerrero Ramos (1992 and 1995, 99 ff.), Nieto (1994), and Azorín Fernández (2000, 51 ff.). (34) For example, in the case of Nahualt; see Bustamante (1987, 86-7). (35) Here Gili Gaya mistakes Richard Percyvall’s Spanish-English dictionary of 1591 with that compiled by John Minsheu in 1599. (1505) uses Nebrija’s lexicon exclusively, a fact which he acknowledges frankly. And the countless dictionaries of New World and Pacific languages compiled by Spanish missionaries and administrators in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries betray this descendancy with rare acknowledgement. Thus, Nebrija’s lexicographical works are the starting point of modern lexicography. His dictionaries were reprinted several times, well into the nineteenth century, and became a template; indeed, they were imitated, modified, copied (with and without acknowledgement) and followed by all the lexicographers after him, which indicates how dependent upon Nebrija other compilers were. A similar conclusion is reached by Gallina (1959, 329-30), at the end of his book on Italian- Spanish lexicography: Da tutto quanto precede, risulta evidente che l’opera fondamentale da cui in misura maggiore o minore quasi tutti i lessici posteriori derivano per la parte spagnuola, è il “Vocabolario de romance en latin” del Nebrija, il quale rivendica perciò non solo il merito di essere stato il primo lessico bilingue contenente una lingua viva, concepito modernamente, ma anche l’ispiratore dei suoi successori, miniera inesauribile cui essi attinsero a piene mani durante più di due secoli. Molto contribuì anche il Covarrubias a completare il materiale lessicale spagnuolo dei vocabolari a lui posteriori, ma è un apporto d’importanza assai inferiore sia per quantità sia perchè limitato nel tempo. Nebrija is one of the truly great intellectual figures of Europe, whose works paved the way for future lexicographical work. Bilingual dictionaries involving two vernacular languages were rare before the sixteenth century: Latin continued to be the language of culture and the bridge between languages. In addition, Alvar Ezquerra (1995, 178) points out that whatever need for translation people had was fulfilled by polyglot works. As the cultural factors characterizing the Renaissance continued to transform society and as the vernaculars continued to assert themselves, the decline of Latin opened the way to a transition from polyglot to bilingual works, modeled upon those by Nebrija. Nebrija’s work became the paradigm for bilingual lexicography. once bilingual dictionaries involving two vernaculars became increasingly available, monolingual lexicography and modern bilingual dictionaries were just one step away: “Una vez olvidada la autoridad de Nebrija y ante las necesidades reales de las lenguas vulgares surgirá la lexicografía monolingüe y estaremos ante los diccionarios bilingües modernos”, as Alvar Ezquerra (1995, 178) puts it. Let us now continue with a brief overview of the historical circumstances that led to the production of the earliest lexicographical works in Spanish and English DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 64 bilingual lexicography in sixteenth-century England, namely the The Boke of Englysshe, and Spanysshe (1554?) and A Very Profitable Boke to Lerne the Maner of Redyng, Writyng, & Speakyng English and Spanish (1554). During the first half of the sixteenth century, Spanish and English appeared together in polyglot dictionaries;(36) Salmon (2003, 265) also mentions a few lines in Spanish that appeared in Andrew Boorde’s The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction to Knowledge (1542).(37) It was during the second half of that century, however, that the increasing political tension between Spain and England fostered the production of bilingual dictionaries linking these two languages. 4.2) Relations between Spain and England in the sixteenth century In his study of Spanish literature in Tudor England, Underhill (1971, 2 ff.)(38) observes that the alliance between Spain and England during the Renaissance can be traced back to the Middle Ages, when, Underhill explains, the relations between Spain and England were characterized by political expediency: the intermarriage of princes from both nations contributed to establish a diplomatic tradition. This connection between the two states “by marriage and by treaty since medieval times”, as Underhill (1971, 58) puts it, prevented war or maintained neutrality depending on the circumstances. As for the relations between France and England, Underhill (1971, 6-7) notes that: In the twelfth century the French duchies, which were the patrimony of the Plantagenets, compelled the English to seek the alliance with Portugal and Castile, and to maintain it while territory on the south side of the channel continued to remain in their hands. When the sixteenth century had fairly begun, however, the English possessions in France had shrunk to proportions so inconsiderable that they no longer occupied other than a subordinate rôle [sic] in determining the policy of the nation. It was at this juncture that the attitude which Spain and England had maintained toward each other for over three hundred years was HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 65 (36) See the bibliographies by Alston (1967) and Niederehe (1994); on early European polyglot works, also see Stein (1988). (37) On the life and works of Andrew Boorde (or Borde, 1490?-1549), see the Dictionary of National Biography (2: 833-5), as well as F. J. Furnivall’s edition of Boorde’s Fyrst Boke (1981). The lines referred to by Salmon appear in chapter xxxi of Boorde’s book, p. 201 of Furnivall’s edition. Prior to Furnivall’s edition, there was a facsimile of the book printed in 1814 with a short introductory note, see Borde (1814). (38) Ungerer (1972, 5-6) warns that Underhill’s “presentation of literary facts is spoiled by many a mistake of detail. His bibliography ought to be consulted with utmost caution,” but Ungerer acknowledges that Underhill’s general conclusions are still valid, and that his political and biographical accounts compensate for Underhill’s lack of first-hand literary information. That is why we have retained Underhill’s book in our discussion of this period. For comprehensive historical studies, see Elliot (1967), and Lynch (1991). reversed, so that an alliance with England grew to be imperative to the interests of Spain itself. The Renaissance changed the reliance on political expediency that had characterized relations between Spain and England. Indeed, the revival of art and learning, the development of science, the discovery of America, and the increasing trade with the East meant that relations between states had to go beyond the purely political sphere; commercial as well as social and religious factors began to reshape the old alliances. Spain’s political power and colonial empire influenced England’s social and intellectual life. A growing interest on the part of English intellectuals in Tudor England in Spanish language and literature led to the publication of the first Spanish grammars and dictionaries in that country at the end of the sixteenth century. (39) According to Ungerer (1965, 178), this interest was due to Catherine of Aragon, who had married Henry VIII in 1509. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the relations between Spain and England went through different phases, from alliances and royal marriages to hatred and war. Spain did not pay much attention to artistic, literary, and linguistic activities in England; it was England that became gradually interested in all things Spanish during that period. The changing political situation between the two countries influenced social life in England, in particular literature and lexicography. At the end of the fifteenth century, Ferdinand of Aragon’s strategy aimed at maintaining and fortifying the alliance that had existed with England since the Middle Ages. Thus, in 1489, Ferdinand and Henry VII signed the treaty of Medina del Campo, agreeing to the marriage of Catherine of Aragon to Prince Arthur, the son of Henry VII. The marriage of Catherine of Aragon to Prince Arthur in 1501, and later to Henry VIII (in 1509, after Arthur’s death in 1502) was the first step in a diplomatic policy that involved the residence of Spanish courtiers, ambassadors, and other diplomatic agents in London. Catherine of Aragon played an important role in the history of Spanish letters in England.(40) Underhill (1971, 56) explains that it was due to her that England had access to knowledge of Spanish letters for the first time. She was intelligent and cultivated and, in the words of Ungerer (1965, 178), “the inspiration of Spanish culture at Court and at the Universities.” The importance of Catherine’s presence in England was enormous; as Ungerer (1965, 178) explains, “All the Spanish books adapted and translated into English during the reign of Henry VIII can DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 66 (39) On the teaching of Spanish at that time see Watson (1909, 468 ff.); for a historical study of the printing of Spanish books in Tudor England, see Ungerer (1965). (40) On the figure and role of Catherine of Aragon in Tudor England, see Travitsky (1997). ultimately be traced to her influence.” Thanks to her presence, the court of Henry VIII became the cradle of translation of Spanish books into English. on the deaths of Edward VI and of Lady Jane Grey, Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, became Queen of England in 1553. Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, seized the opportunity that the Restoration of Roman Catholicism in England offered to strengthen his interests there, with the marriage of his son, Philip II, to Queen Mary I in 1554. England had become important to Spanish foreign policy and trade and Charles V tried to make it part of his empire: “Charles V had staked the security of the Low Countries on the English alliance and had expressed his wish ‘that at all costs England and the Low Countries should be bound together, so that they can provide each other with mutual aid against their enemies’” (Lynch 1991, 252). An alliance with England was imperative and this was the reason of the arranged marriage between Philip II and Queen Mary. As Elliot (1967, 202) explains: It was in the hope of making this new empire a viable unit that Charles married Philip to Mary Tudor in 1554. There was about the English match an imaginative boldness typical of the Emperor coupled with a greater awareness of economic and strategic realities than had characterized some of his previous grand designs. In place of the vast and cumbersome geographical monstrosity that passed for an empire under Charles V, Philip II would rule an empire of three logical units: England and the Netherlands, Spain and Italy, and America. Philip II tried to continue his father’s foreign policy and diplomacy, but this failed with the death of Queen Mary in 1558, the ascension of Elizabeth I, and the repeal of Catholicism in England: Philip II tried his utmost to salvage what he could from this policy [Charles V’s], and before he reached a settlement with France he waged an intense diplomatic campaign to keep the English base in his hands. But circumstances were against him. The fall of Calais ruined the little reputation he still possessed in England, while the death of his wife severed the formal ties of alliance. In desperation he then tried to marry Elizabeth, but she was elusive and noncommittal, and it took Philip about two months to realize that she had no intention of marrying him (Lynch 1991, 252-3). Philip II then inaugurated a more aggressive imperial policy towards England, a decision which was in part a response to the naval and commercial attacks by English pirates. There were religious reasons as well, with the catholic Philip II fighting the protestant Elizabeth I. Finally, during the 1580s and 1590s shipments of HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 67 silver from America had increased to an extraordinary extent, allowing Philip II to move towards a more aggressive foreign policy. Elliot (1967, 263) explains: This new largueza – abundance of money – gave Philip real freedom of manoeuvre for the first time in his reign. At last, after long years on the defensive, he could go over to the attack. It was because he had acquired this sudden accession of wealth that Philip was able to embark upon the bold projects and imperial ventures of the 1580s and 1590s: the plans for the recovery of the northern Netherlands […]; the launching of the Armada against England in 1588; the intervention in the civil wars in France in the 1590s. This policy of conquest that ultimately led to the defeat of the Spanish Invincible Armada in 1588(41) and the continuation of war against England until 1603 provide the political framework for the origins and development of Spanish letters and lexicography in England. During the sixteenth century relations between England and Spain were not limited to princes and their courtiers. Commerce with England had been steadily growing since the fifteenth century, and after the marriage of Philip II and Mary, the number of Spanish merchants in London increased; with the death of Mary and the ascension of Elizabeth I, however, religion became a source of dissension and the situation of Spaniards in England deteriorated. Many left the country. The total number of Spaniards in England diminished even further after the defeat of the Invincible Armada. Commercial relations between both countries also brought merchants from England to Spain, mainly to Madrid and Valladolid, or to ports such as Bilbao and Seville, due to the commercial activity with the colonies in America. In this way, commercial activities followed political alliances, and both in turn influenced the printing of Spanish books in England: The dissemination of Spanish books in England, therefore, was absolutely dependent upon the course of politics and commerce. It followed their development closely in volume and in kind. The rise and power of Castilian culture in the home of the Tudors were determined by and sensitive to the successive phases of the political contest between the English and Spanish nations (Underhill 1971, 16). English merchants in Tudor England gradually realized the importance of the study of the languages of the countries with which they traded.(42) Tudor merchants, and later on Stuart tradesman, took up the study of foreign languages because this DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 68 (41) For a study of the planning and launching of the Spanish Armada, see Lynch (1991, 439-63). (42) See Wright’s paper (1931) for an overview of the works available to Elizabethan merchants. knowledge became essential to carry on their trade abroad. A series of works printed in continental Europe, in particular in France and Flanders, were available to them; these were the conversation manuals, polyglot dictionaries and vocabularies derived from the works of Adam von Rottweil and Noel van Barlement, as well as grammars and dialogues printed specifically for English merchants. The polyglot vocabularies included languages such as French, Latin, Spanish, Flemish, and English, and proved useful to tradesmen wherever they went. Even though Spanish did not attain the importance of French in England, it slowly became essential during the late sixteenth century due to Spain’s preeminence. As trade increased, knowledge of Spanish became necessary, despite the growing political tension between Spain and England during the reigns of Mary I and Elizabeth I. According to Ungerer (1965, 177), of the European countries that printed books in Spanish during the sixteenth century, the Netherlands were first, followed by Italy and France. In contrast, Spanish books were printed in England at a later date, beginning with the publication of the Book of English and Spanish and the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish, to be discussed in the following sections.(43) As already mentioned, during the sixteenth century relations between England and Spain went through different phases, from royal marriages and diplomacy to open hostility and war. Merchants were also an important part of these relations. Another group of Spaniards living in England were immigrants who fled Spain for religious motives. Hauben (1967, xii) explains: “Those who escaped Spain and the Inquisition, and others of Spanish lineage concentrated in cities like Antwerp, had sooner or later to scatter across Western Europe. With Elizabeth’s accession London rapidly became their center, much as it was for most Reformed exiles.” Consequently, the number of these heterodox Spaniards – such as Cipriano de Valera, Rodrigo Guerrero, and Antonio del Corro – increased after the ascension of Elizabeth I. According to Ungerer (1965, 178), Corro’s edition of Alfonso de Valdes’ Dialogo en que particularmente se tratan las cosas acaecidas en Roma: el año de M.D.XXVII. (1586) “set the tone for the Spanish books subsequently printed. The majority of them bear on religion.” In addition, there was the increasing interest in Spanish language and literature among Tudor scholars and intellectuals, which can be traced back to the beginning of the century and the presence of Catherine of Aragon. It was this interest that led to the publication in England of Corro’s Reglas gramaticales para aprender la lengua española y francesa in 1586, subsequently translated and adapted into English by John Thorius as The Spanish Grammer, with HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 69 (43) It should be mentioned that, by the time Ungerer published his survey of the printing of Spanish books in Elizabethan England, these works had not been recorded. Thus, according to Ungerer (1965, 183) Spanishlanguage printing began in England in 1586 with the publication of Corro’s Reglas gramaticales and Corro’s edition of Alfonso de Valdes’ Dialogo . a Spanish-English word list added (London, 1590). With the notable exception of the Book of English and Spanish and of the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish, published in the middle of the sixteenth century, the bulk of Spanish books printed in England began to appear in the late sixteenth century. Ungerer (1965) has studied the reasons why English printers were slow to start printing Spanish texts despite the increasing interest in learning Spanish. As already indicated, there was in Tudor England a group of scholars, translators, and grammarians who knew Spanish and were interested in all things Spanish. Ungerer (1965, 179) indicates that, in the Tudor practice of learning Spanish, Latin was of paramount importance. Spanish translations from Latin were used for pedagogical purposes and Latin was indispensable for Tudor Hispanist grammarians, lexicographers, and translators. Nevertheless, Latin was not the only medium, and other scholars approached Spanish through French or Italian texts. In addition, there was a lack of suitable printers and proofreaders for Spanish texts at that time. These, together with the conflicting political relations between the two countries, are some of the reasons that led to the delay in printing Spanish books in England. Ungerer (1965, 186) writes: The reason for this delay must be sought in the breakdown of the Anglo-Spanish alliance over the issue of England’s entry into the Spanish Empire overseas and in the national hatred felt for Queen’s Mary’s consort [Philip II], whose sole aim had been the annexation of England to Spanish rule and to the Catholic Church. Since Philip’s arrival in England, public feeling had run high against Spain. […] This animosity did not affect the whole structure of English society, nor did it check the pursuit of Spanish studies among the intellectuals and statesmen. Yet it is significant that no English printer contributed to the expansion of Spanish. In the meantime, this shortage of Spanish texts was met by continental – especially Flemish – printers, who brought out a number of polyglot manuals and dictionaries, grammars, and dialogues for the teaching of languages, intended for the English public. The situation changed in the 1580s with the aggressive foreign policy of Philip II. What had up to then been a slow spread of Spanish in England was quickened by the threat of aggression against England, that is, by Spain’s imperial policy that led to the attempted invasion of England by the Invincible Armada. This threat resulted in an increase in the production of Spanish texts by the end of the sixteenth century, and in this enterprise oxford University Press assumed the leading role, by printing Corro’s Reglas gramaticales para aprender la lengua española y francesa in 1586. But before examining this work and its relevance to the present study, it is necessary to discuss two earlier books: the Book of English and Spanish (1554?) and the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554). DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 70 […] It is fulle Esta lleno It is emptye Esta vazio Come with me Ven comigo Helpe me Ayuda me Shewe me hym Muestra me le […] The .xii. Chapyter of breade, and Wyne, and other thynges to be eaten. El .xii. capi. es dell pan y / del Vyno / y de todas las cosos / de comer. Breade Pan Wyne Vino Uynegre Vinagre […] Salte Sall Butter Longaniza Cheese Manteca, queso Mylke Leche There are, however, some exceptions to this rule, found for the most part in the second chapter, “of the Pater noster and Aue Maria”, where only a few entries have initial capitals: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .ii. chapiter of the Pater noster and Aue Maria […] El .ii. capi. del Paternoster y dell Aue Maria […] Wherfore Porque Why not porque no Therfore Por esso for nought Por nada for what cause HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 77 por que causa let it be so aboue a sabienda i uso […] within a lytell dentro poco Inoughe Assaz to moche assaz mucho […] Thankefully de buena voluntad one tyme vna vez seconde tyme vna autra vez many wayes. Diverso modo. The English headword, which may take the form of a single word, a phrase or a sentence, is followed by the Spanish equivalent. No accents or stress marks are used in either language. As is often the case with topical word lists, most one-word headwords are nouns, although some are adjectives, as, for example, in chapter thirteen. There are also some verbs conjugated in phrases, and in certain cases they appear in the infinitive (preceded by to in English); these features can be seen in the following sets of entries: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .iii. Chapyter is of speches. El .iii. Cap. es de las palabras. […] Syt styll Sienta quedo […] Ihaue done it Io lo hize Ihaue not don it No lo hize Thou hast don it Tu lo heziste […] Iwyll yo quiero DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 78 Thou woldest Tu queziste He wyll Aquell quiero I wyll do it Quiero hazer I haue done yo hize […] The .viii. Chapyter is of tyme, yere, month, weke and daye. El .viii. Ca. es dell tiempo / anno / mes / samana / y dia. […] To laboure Labrar […] The .xii. Chapyter of breade, and Wyne, and other thynges to be eaten. El .xii. capi. es dell pan y / del Vyno / y de todas las cosos / de comer. […] To eate Comer […] To drynke Bever […] To sleepe Dormir To aryse Leuentar To go to bed Ir a dormir […] The .xvi. Chap. of warres, bataylles and players. El xvi. Cap. de la guera / y de los Jugadores. […] To bewytche Encanter […] To robbe Robar To playe Jugar Phrases and sentences frequently appear as headwords, as in the following examples: HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 79 The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .iii. Chapyter is of speches. El .iii. Cap. es de las palabras. […] Of whome De quien Of a knaue De vn bellaco […] Why not Porque no […] In the fyelde En la placa I am sure that they spake of the and me Yo soy cierto qui esse habla de mi y de ti […] I shall gyue you it shortly yo to lo voluere presto Looke you doo it soone, for I maye tary no longer Guarda que lo hagas presto / por que yo no puedo mas seperar He wyll kyll me Aquell me quiere matar He is my deadlye enemye Aquell es mi enemygo mortall […] It was nede for me to weepe Ea necessario que Llore Thou mockest me Burlas me All hayle Dios vos salue In the case of nouns, countable English headword nouns and their Spanish equivalents are sometimes preceded by articles, but this usage is irregular in both languages: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .iii. Chapyter is of speches. El .iii. Cap. es de las palabras. […] The right hande La mano drecha The lefte hande La mano yzqueerda DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 80 […] The .viii. Chapyter is of tyme, yere, month, weke and daye. El .viii. Ca. es dell tiempo / anno / mes / samana / y dia. […] Christen El Christiano The yeare Anno The month El mes The weke La semana The daye El dia An houre La hora Mydnyght La media noche Articles are more frequent in the second half of the book, and are used consistently in chapters nine, ten, and eleven. In English, the indefinite article is more frequent than the definite (of which there are a few instances in chapters three and eight; see above). When articles are present in the Spanish equivalents, only the definite is used: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .ix. Chapyter of seruauntes El .ix. Capitul. de los seruidores. Afooteman Don Aseruaunt Moco Amayden Moca […] Aman chylde Varon Awoman chylde. Muchacha. […] The .x. Chapyter of Graundefather; and all the kynred. El x. Capit. de lo bisaguello / y todo el parentesco. […] ASonne El hiio Adoughter HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 81 Hiia Astepsonne El ahiiado Astepdoughter La ahiiada ABrother El hermano ASyster La hermana […] A frynde El amigo ATutoure El tutor An Uncle El tyo An Aunte La tya An Heyre El heredero A neyghboure El proximo An husbande El maarido An huswyfe La muger Generally, then, the definite or indefinite article in English corresponds in Spanish to no article or to the definite article. It should be noted, however, that there is inconsistency throughout the book regarding article usage with singular countable nouns. on the other hand, no article precedes plural nouns or uncountable nouns in English headwords, for example: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The xi. Chapyter of Houssholde stuffe and clothes El xi. Capitu. es del apareso casa y vestido. […] Shooes zapatos Slyppers Galochas Sockes Pantoflos […] The .xv. Chapiter is of spyces. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 82 El .xv. Capi. es de le espezia. Peper Pimenta Gynger Gyngybre Nutmegges Nues muscada Clowes Clauos Longe pepper Pimenta luenga Cynamom Canela […] Fygges Figo Oyle Aseyte Comyne Comino Anys Anys Chesnottes Castanna An aple Mancana A peare Pera A nutte Nuez A haselnot. Auellanas Sylke. Seda. Another interesting feature is the use in chapter nine of the indefinite article to show the alternation between singular and plural: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .ix. Chapyter of seruauntes El .ix. Capitul. de los seruidores […] Ayonge man Mancebo Yonge men Mancebos HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 83 AChylde Mochacho Chyldren Mochachos Thus, the use of articles with English headwords distinguishes between countable and uncountable nouns and indicates gender in Spanish equivalents. Synonyms are very rare in both languages; they are separated by commas in the few entries where they appear: The Book of English and Spanish (1554?) The .iii. Chapyter is of speches. El .iii. Cap. es de las palabras. After a lytell tyme, whyle De aqui a paco tipo […] In your name, on your behalfe En nombre vuestro […] The .xii. Chapyter of breade, and Wyne, and other thynges to be eaten. El .xii. capi. es dell pan y / del Vyno / y de todas las cosos / de comer. […] Cheese Manteca, queso The .xiii. Chapitre of the Deuell, of hel and of purgatorye El .xiii. Ca. es los Diabolos / y dell inferno / y dell purgatorio […] Lyghte la luz, lumbra 5.1.4 Concluding remarks After comparing the contents of the abridged Book of English and Spanish to the original Septem Linguarum, Roberts (1970, 89) is of opinion that “the abridgement selects what is more immediately useful in everyday life” and that the omissions do not “seem to have any relevance to the contemporary religious and political situation.” Roberts adds that chapter three, which was taken in toto from the Septem Linguarum, “is in fact the only one that offers any assistance with the small change of everyday speech.” Certainly, the Book of English and Spanish shows no consistent techniques of compilation, yet, as one of the earliest productions in English-Spanish lexicography, it is a work of considerable importance. It is perhaps even more important as a bilingual example of the ancient topical (or thematic) DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 84 tradition of dictionary compilation, which coexists with the alphabetical tradition, even if the latter has by the time the Book is published become predominant: As a format the alphabetic mode was practised rather haphazardly and hesitantly until the invention of the printing press in the 15thcentury, but thereafter – and particularly from around 1600 – it consolidated itself into the dominant tradition […]. The thematic mode, however, is the older, broader tradition, with its roots in the classical traditions of Plato, Aristotle and Pliny, and with strong foundations in the world of medieval Scholasticism (McArthur 1986b, 157). A more detailed study of the development of the topical tradition as compared to the alphabetical can be found in Hüllen (1999, chap. 1). Underlying a topical dictionary is a philosophical view of the world, such that the semantic organization of the macrostructure reflects the structure of a specific view of reality, as Hüllen (1999, 15) explains: “topical dictionaries are organized according to the semantic structure of a whole language, which, however, depends on the structure of reality as language users believe they understand it at a given time.” This semantic structure is not easy to see in the Book of English and Spanish probably because it is an abridgment and therefore not complete. Yet, the macrostructure begins with God and prayers (headings one and two) and ends up with the human things (headings fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen), mixing headings of a religious nature (e.g. headings four, five, six, and thirteen) with earthly ones (e.g. headings three, and seven to twelve). A similar semantic structure will be found the works of Stepney (1591) and Alvarado (1718). Unfortunately, whatever outside matter the Book of English and Spanish may have contained has been lost and thus cannot provide clues as to the way in which the book was compiled. 5.2) The Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554) 5.2.1 Introduction The Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish (1554) is a small volume of sixty-four leaves (1 title page plus 126 unnumbered pages). (58) The title page only provides the title of the book and the date of publication; information about the printer comes in the colophon at the bottom of the last page, which reads: HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 85 (58) For a bibliographic description of this work, see Alston (1987, 33) and Niederehe (1994, 122). “Imprinted at London by John Kyngston and Henry Sutton dwellynge in Poules churchyarde for John Wyght.” The author is unknown; nevertheless, Roberts (1970, 89) notes that there is a strong indication as to the source on D.v.v: “I John of Barlemõt witness, that I haue let out to Peter Marschalco my house at Andwarpe […]”;(59) the name “Ihon a Barlamon” is also previously found in a model letter on D.ii.v. This mention suggests that the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish is a version of Noel van Barlement’s Vocabulaire. If this is so, then the Very Profitable Book is very important, since, as mentioned in the introductory note to the facsimile edition published by Alston, it antedates the earliest recorded version of Barlement’s popular work to include English, namely A Boke Intituled Italion, Frynsshe, Englesshe and Laten, published in London (1567?) by Edward Sutton. In his bibliography, Alston (1967, 5) explains that “[a]ccording to the entry in the Stationers’ Register (I, 343) this appears to be the first English adaptation of Barlement’s popular phrase-book and vocabulary, originally published in Antwerp in 1536.” 5.2.2 Sources As for the sources, it is not easy to precisely situate the Very Profitable Book in the chain of editions of Barlement’s book. It is the first to include English, and the Spanish text seems to derive from the edition of Barlement’s work printed in Louvain in 1551.(60) Roberts (1970, 90) argues that: The English version is clearly unique and without descendants; it remains to establish the origin of the Spanish version. The Spanish cannot itself be original in this edition, as the vocabulary which forms the second book, although it claims to be in alphabetical order, is in fact alphabetized in the order of the Flemish words which Berlaimont originally translated into French. It follows that the Spanish is almost certainly either translated from the immediately preceding edition (the Flemish-French diglot printed at Antwerp in 1552), or lifted bodily from the tetraglot containing Flemish, French, Latin, and Spanish, printed at Louvain in 1551. The latter indeed proves to be the source. At the same time, it is clear that the English was not translated from the Spanish, but from one of the other languages. Roberts (1970, 91) adds that further evidence from the introduction to book two of the Very Profitable Book shows that the English was translated from the Latin of the 1551 edition. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 86 (59) Roberts refers to a model business document entitled “The maner of bargain or setting out an house”, found in chapter four, “Of the waie to write epistles, obligacions, and quittaunces”. (60) For the full title page and description of this book see Niederehe (1994, 112). vsual wordes, set in order of the Alphabete. A.b.c.d. whiche be as it wer a matter loquutions ar ioyned.” However, as has already been seen, this is not so, the reason being – as previously mentioned – that the Spanish follows the word order of the Flemish from Barlement’s tetraglot (Flemish, French, Latin and Spanish) vocabulary printed in Louvain in 1551. What is more, the English was translated not from the Spanish but most likely from the Latin of the same work (Roberts 1970, 91). In fact, the compiler copied his source so blindly that the English version of the “Preface” opens with a reference – quoted above – to the book being useful for speaking French! The anonymous author of the Spanish version was more careful and deleted that reference: “Como en el libro passado ayais oydo diuersas maneras reglas como dechados, en este Segundo Libro oyreis muchas palabras vsadas puestas por la orden del A,b,c,d. las quales son como vna materia con la qual las hablas se ayuntan.” What is of more interest for the discussion here is the mention of another tradition of lexicographical compilation, based on alphabetical arrangement. The “Preface” highlights the fact that this method (even if it was not actually carried out in the word list) facilitates consultation of the book: “Therfore wh you wil tourne any oraciõs out of the Germaine toungue into Frenche, Latine, or Spanishe, you muste consider nothyng els, then of what letter the woorde that you seke, dooeth begin, whiche afterwarde you shall easely finde.” Consequently, and even in such an epigrammatic way, it can be said that the “Preface” to the second part of the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish already touches on two lexicographical topics, namely alphabetic order and its advantages. This calls to mind the following remark by Murray (1993, 107): “There is indeed no other connexion between a dictionary and alphabetical order, than that of a balance of convenience.” However, the word dictionary did not appear in a bilingual Spanish and English compilation until 1590, on the title page of The Spanish Grammer […] with a Dictionarie Adioyned vnto It by John Thorius. (62) The “Preface” contains a third interesting feature: “The wordes nowe founde, you shall so ioyne, as you haue learned in the booke before. But vnto the right ioinyng of wordes, necessary shal be vnto the, the maner of chaungyng verbes by their tenses, and diuerse persons in their cõiugaciõs.” In other words, the word list in the second part was not conceived as an autonomous or independent work; the words it contains were envisaged as the building bricks, so to speak, for constructing a discourse whose rules were exemplified in the first part of the book. The purpose of the first part was to teach the HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 93 (62) It is a well known fact that the first work in English lexicography to be called a dictionary is the Dictionary of Syr Thomas Eliot Knight (1538). In Spanish lexicography, the term appeared in the Latin form dictionarium in the Latin and Spanish dictionaries by Nebrija (1492 and 1495?), but it did not appear in the Spanish form until the first volume of the Spanish Academy’s Diccionario de la lengua castellana was published in 1726. grammar and syntax underlying the dialogues and document templates it contained, while the second part listed the constituent units of those types of discourse. A similar point of view, more clearly expressed, of the relationship between grammar and lexicon will be found in the Percyvall (1591) dictionary. What are the contents of the word list in the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish? What type of lexicon does it contain? The word list was meant to provide, according to the “Table of this Booke”, the “vocables necessary in daily talke” or, as the “Preface” says, “many vsual wordes”; its purpose was to provide, as the “Table” states, some essential, everyday words for “redĩg writing, [&] speakyng Englishe [&] Spanishe”. The book as a whole and the word list in particular clearly had a pedagogical function. The fact that the title page as well as all the subject matter is bilingual, together with the circumstances surrounding its publication, indicate that it may have been conceived as a manual or textbook for both the English and Spanish speaking publics. These features make the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish a very interesting lexicographical work, the first to contain in the front matter the seed of subjects which would be developed by future compilers. 5.2.5 Concluding remarks To sum up the discussion of the first two bilingual Spanish and English dictionaries, it can be said that although neither work was completely original, as was often the case in early lexicography, they are important simply by being the earliest known examples of this lexicographical tradition. Deriving from two of the earliest works of European lexicography (Rottweil’s Introito et porta and Barlements’s Vocabulaire), they were also important as examples of two traditions of compilation – the topical and the alphabetical – bound together in a small volume containing both books. It is as if the two methods of compilation developed at the same time in Spanish and English bilingual lexicography. Finally, as indicated in the introductory note to Alston’s facsimile edition of the Book of English and Spanish, these two bound copies antedate, by thirty-two years, the earliest previously recorded Spanish books printed in England, namely Antonio del Corro’s Reglas gramaticales and Alfonso de Valdes’ Dialogo en que particularmente se tratan las cosas acaecidas en Roma: el año de M.D.XXVII., both dated 1586. As previously mentioned, these two small word lists may have been published to coincide with the increase in activity between England and Spain expected to result from the marriage of Queen Mary and King Philip of Spain in 1554. Now, let us turn to the dictionary by John Thorius (1590). DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 94 5.3) John Thorius’ The Spanish Grammer […] With a Dictionarie adioyned vnto it (1590) 5.3.1 Introduction Since John Thorius’ work is based on Antonio del Corro’s grammar, it is necessary to provide some information about Corro’s work in order to understand the genesis of Thorius’ Spanish grammar and dictionary. Antonio del Corro was a Calvinist reformer born in Seville in 1527. (63) According to Nieto (1988, 7), his life can be divided into three periods: 1527-57: Corro lived in Spain, where he entered the ascetic order of the monks of St. Jerome; 1557-67: Corro renounced Roman Catholicism and spent ten years in France and Flanders, during which he composed the Reglas gramaticales for Henry IV of France while he was Henry’s Spanish tutor in 1560 at Nérac; 1567-91: Corro moved to London in 1568, Hauben (1967, 3) explains, “to be successively a controversial refugee minister in London, theological lecturer at the famous Elizabethan law schools, the Inns of Court, and obtained a similar post at oxford which occasioned heated debate there.” In 1586, he entered Christ Church College in oxford, where he lived first as a student and then as a lecturer; along with Cipriano de Valera, he was one of the leading peninsular reformers in sixteenth-century England, but his theology was derivative and had little impact (Hauben 1967, 3); he died in London in 1591. Corro’s Reglas gramaticales is a comparative grammar of Spanish and French and, according to Alonso (1951g, 226), “un libro capital para la reconstrucción de la antigua pronunciación española.” The work, however, has received little attention from scholars. Menendez Pelayo (1880) provides one of the earliest profiles of Corro, discussing his theological works with a passing mention of Thorius’ translation; Boehmer (1904) is a comprehensive biography of Corro, including a list of Corro’s writings, copies of title pages from Corro’s works, and a register of documents concerning Corro. Alonso (1951d, 129-30; 1951e, 267-70;(64) 1951g, 226- 36; and 1967, 231-7) studies the phonetic aspects of Spanish in Corro’s work. Hauben (1967) devotes part I of his study of Spanish reformers to Corro, placing him HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 95 (63) For information about Corro’s life and work, see the overview in the Dictionary of National Biography (4: 1178-9); as well as Menendez Pelayo (1880, 2: 481-91); Underhill (1971 [1899], 190 ff.); Boehmer (1901 and 1904, 1-146); Alonso (1951g, 226-36); Hauben (1967), and Nieto (1988). There is also the unpublished dissertation The Life and Work of Antonio del Corro (1527-1591) by William McFadden (1953). (64) Reproduced in extenso in Alonso (1967, 197-8 and 231-7). in a broader historical setting. Finally, Nieto’s facsimile edition of Corro’s Reglas (1988) contains a well-documented introductory essay in two parts, devoted respectively to Corro’s life and the Reglas gramaticales. Nieto’s edition is also important because it was the first time the Reglas was published since 1586. The full title of Corro’s work is Reglas gramaticales para aprender la lengua española y francesa, confiriendo la una con la otra, segun el orden de las partes de la oration latinas.(65) It was printed in oxford by Joseph Barnes, the first official printer to oxford Press,(66) without mention of the author’s name. In the dedication (Corro, 1988) makes the following reference to the circumstances surrounding the composition and printing of the book: [Q]uise seruirme de la presente occasion, en que vn nueuo imprimidor [i.e. Joseph Barnes] delibero tētar, si sus obreros sabrian imprimir algo en lengua Castellana: y para con menor peligro hazer la prueua me saccaron sus amigos de las manos ciertas reglas de lengua Española y Francesa, que casi treyenta años passados recogi, quando yo aprendia a hablar Frãces, y enseñaua el lenguage Español, al Rey Don Henrique de Nauarra […]. Alston (1987, 33) and Niederehe (1994, 223) record the oxford imprint, as well as another edition printed in Paris, which, it turns out, is a fake.(67) Ungerer (1965, 190-1) explains that there are two imprint variants of Corro’s Reglas: one with the imprint of the oxford University Press and the other the faked Paris one.(68) The Paris edition does not contain the dedication to Horatio Palavicino, but a preface entitled “El corrector de la imprimeria, al prudente Lector”. Madan (1908, 6) advanced the hypothesis that, “The feeling against Spain, however, ran so high at that date, just before the Spanish Armada, that it was considered unpatriotic to publish Spanish books in England, so Barnes hastily reissued the Grammar with a forged Paris imprint!” However, according to Ungerer (1965, 190) commercial reasons as well as the nature of the books themselves explain the Paris imprint. The commercial explanation, says Ungerer (1965, 188), refers to the fact that these books were intended for a continental public: DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 96 (65) For a description of this work, see Laurenti and Porqueras-Mayo (1983, 324) and Niederehe (1994, 223). (66) Barnes was the Oxford University printer from 1585 to 1617, for further information, see Madan (1908, 5 ff.), Simpson (1935, 47 and 169), and McKerrow (1968, 22-3). Madan (1908) also contains an overview of the history of the Oxford University Press. (67) The Oxford imprint is available on microfilm from Early English Book s, 1475-1640 , reel 207: 06, STC 5789, and the Paris imprint is on reel 208: 02, STC 5789a. Both editions are also available in pdf format from the Early English Books Online . (68) A more detailed account of the printing of the Paris edition, with a reproduction of the title pages and detailed bibliographical descriptions, can be seen in Woodfield (1973, 21-3 and 76-7). The home market was too small to guarantee financial success. The books were designed for the export market, to be sold and distributed in Spanish territories, as well as in Spain itself. Thus the Elizabethan printers put false imprints to their Spanish books. Barnes issued two impressions of the Grammar [Corro’s], one bearing an oxford imprint, the other a fraudulent Paris one, and he published the Dialogue [Valdes’] with a faked Paris imprint. The other reason has to do with religion and the Reformation. Ungerer (1965, 192)(69) writes: Spanish Protestant literature was known to be subsidized by Spanish merchants of Marrano origin who had settled down in towns like Bordeaux and Antwerp and had developed a decided leaning towards Protestantism. They were anxious to read the gospels in their own tongue and were at the same time determined to spread it in Spanish territories. Their large-scale business with Spain, their factors in Spanish towns, favoured the smuggling and dissemination of Protestant books behind the Spanish border. The Anglican Church and the government authorized the printing and selling of Spanish Protestant literature to Protestants not only in England but also in the rest of Europe. Ungerer (1965, 198-201) explains that copies of Corro’s Reglas with the oxford imprint were sold in England, while those with the false Paris imprint were sent to the Continent. Another question relating to this text is that of the identity of the author. The Reglas were actually published anonymously, with only the initials “A.D.C.” at the end of the dedication. The book is not mentioned by Viñaza (1978 [1893]); Knapp’s Bibliography (1884, 2) gives the title page without mention of the author. Under the entry “1590 Del Corro”, Knapp (1884, 3) gives the title page and a description of Thorius’s version into English, adding that this is, “[T]he only copy known of this famous Spanish protestant’s grammar.” In 1899, both Wiener (1899, 3) and Underhill (1899, 194-5, 393) identified the author as Corro, but without an analysis of the text. Later on, Madan (1912, 24) added the following commentary to his description of the book, “As the preface to the Reglas states that the author was born in A.D. 1527,(70) there can be no doubt that ‘A. D. C.’ stands for Antonio del Corro (Antonius Corranus), and that this is the Grammar which was translated into English HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 97 (69) Ungerer refers to McFadden, i, pp. 250-66. (70) Here Madan refers to the following paragraph in the penultimate page of the dedication: “Quise juntar con estos preceptos Gramaticales, ciertos dialogos, en que los lectores visoños exercitassen la licion Española: Mas la negligentia de los obreros, impidio mi deseño. Pero con todo esso puse a la fin vna breue narracion de las cosas acaecidas en Roma, en el ano M.D.XXVII. que es de mi nascimiento.” by Johannes Thorius and published in London in 1590.” It was Amado Alonso (1951g, 266 ff.), who, in his paper on early Spanish grammarians, provided certainty about the identification of the author as Antonio del Corro; Alonso’s analysis showed, first, that Corro was really the author of the Reglas gramaticales; second, that the work was composed in Nérac in 1560; and third, that the similarities between this work and Thorius’ version of 1590 are not due to plagiarism (frequent not only among lexicographers but among grammarians as well) but to the fact that Thorius’ work is a translation of Corro’s. Generally speaking, Corro’s grammar is important in the history of Spanish letters in England because: 1. once Joseph Barnes, the first official printer to oxford University, began printing Spanish texts, other printers followed his example, especially as tensions between Spain and England grew in the late sixteenth century; 2. it contains invaluable information for the reconstruction of Spanish pronunciation during the sixteenth century; 3. it served as a basis for Thorius’ translation into English (1590), which included one of the earliest Spanish-English lexicographical works after the anonymous works of 1554; 4. it also served as a base for the first comprehensive Spanish-English grammar and dictionary, that of Richard Percyvall (1591). John Thorius (or Thorie) was a poet and translator of Spanish books born in London in 1568. (71) Besides the Reglas gramaticales, he translated Bartolomé Felipe’s Tractado del conseio y de los conseieros de los principes (1589) (English version: The Counseller, a Treatise of Counsels and Counsellers of Princes), and the Espejo, y deceplina militar by Francisco de Valdés (1590) (English version: The Sergeant Major: or a Dialogue of the Office of a Sergeant Major). on october 1, 1586, Thorius, aged 18, and Corro, then aged 59, matriculated at Christ Church College (Boehmer 1904, 74). Thorius became Corro’s pupil, and the project of translating the Reglas was decided upon. Thorius, “Graduate in oxenford” as the title page indicates, translated Corro’s grammar into English with only a few modifications and adaptations for the English public, adding a dictionary of the words cited in the grammar. However, Thorius’ adaptation was not a successful one according to Ungerer (1965, 202): DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 98 (71) Concerning the life of Thorius, see the overviews in the Dictionary of National Biography (19: 764) and the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (54: 585); as well as the British Biographical Archive , microfiches 389-396; and Ungerer (1965, 187 and 192). Thorie’s adaptation improved certain sections by trying to meet the need of the English reader, yet on the whole it merely made matters worse. The rules and explanations have been put into English, the examples, however, remaining in Spanish and French throughout. What Thorie should have done was to dispense with the French part. He was forced to add a dictionary to explain the Spanish examples used in the book. 5.3.2 Sources Thorius’ Spanish Grammer (72) was entered on April 7 at the Company of Stationers of London; (73) the record transcribed by Arber (1875b, 2: 544) reads as follows: vijº Die Aprilis John wolf(74) / Entred for his copie vnder th[e h] handes of Doctor Cozen and the wardens The Spanishe Gramer with certen rules teachinge the Spanish and Frenche tonges / with a dictionarye adioyned vnto yt with Spanishe wordes.........................................................vjd on the title page, Thorius notes that this grammar of Spanish was originally written by Corro and intended for people with a knowledge of French; he also mentions the dictionary he appended, explaining that it contains the words cited in the grammar, and other useful words. our calculations, based on a small sample from the section “of the pronunciation of the Spanish and French Alphabet”, indicate that this statement is fundamentally true; of the 172 words used as examples in that section of the book, 138 (that is, 80.23%) are entries in the dictionary. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 99 (72) We consulted the facsimile edition prepared by Alston, (Corro 1967). All our quotations come from this edition, but we have used Thorius’ name and the year 1590, instead of Corro (1967), to avoid confusion. See Steiner (1970, 15) for a transcription of the title page; see also Laurenti and Porqueras-Mayo (1983, 325), and Niederehe (1994, 241) for the full title page and description of the volume. It is also available on microfilm from the Early English Books, 1475-1640 , reel 209: 2, STC 5790. (73) See the entry in McKerrow (1968, 256-7) on the Company of Stationers. (74) John Wolf or Wolfe, printer in London, 1579-1601; see information in McKerrow (1968, 296-8). 5.3.3 Megastructure 5.3.3.1 Outside matter The Spanish Grammer is structured as follows: 1. Title page 2. Dedication, in Latin, to John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury (1 p.) 3. “The Epistle to the Reader” (2 pp.) 4. “A Table comprehending the contentes of each Sexion and diuision of this Grammer”; this table of contents is for the grammar only and does not list the dictionary (2 unnumbered pages) 5. Text of the “Spanish Grammer” (pp. 1- 119) 6. “The Spanish Dictionarie” (14 pp.). In her description of this book, Martín-Gamero (1961, 80) says the dictionary has only 7 pages. This error is also found in Seris (1964, 405), and Azorín Fernández (2000, 65). Perhaps they were misled by the fact that Knapp’s description (1884, 3) reads “(3) pp. 119 + (7) for the vocab.” These scholars may have not noticed Knapp’s observation on page 2, at the beginning of his annotated bibliography: “Figures in parentheses denote unnumbered leaves; ff., numbered leaves, and pp., pages.” (our italics). 5.3.3.2 Macro- and microstructures Calculations vary regarding the size of the word list: Steiner (1970, 15) says the dictionary contains 1100 entries; according to Santoyo (1974, 90), there are 955 entries; Nieto, in the introductory essay to his facsimile edition of Corro’s Reglas (1988, 21, footnote 51) and in subsequent papers (2000, 178 and 2001, 215), says there are approximately 850 entries. our count arrives at a total of 953 entries for the dictionary; the number of entries per letter of the alphabet is as follows: A (101), B (30), C (134), D (63), E (31), F (17), G (40), H (24), I (17), L (35), M (56), N (41), o (39), P (100), Q (14), R (44), S (67), T (45), V (36), X (8), Y (8), and z (3), for a total of 953 entries. In his brief discussion of the work, Steiner (1970, 15-6) writes that (1) the text of the dictionary is arranged in two columns; (2) capital letters are used for each Spanish headword; (3) no accent marks are used; and (4) the glosses are usually equivalents, although Thorius at times provides definitions and particularizing words and phrases. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 100 Thorius’s Spanish Dictionarie is a short list of Spanish headwords with explanatory information in English. one guide letter of the alphabet is used at the beginning of each section. our study of Thorius’ dictionary also indicates that alphabetization becomes irregular after the second or third letter,(75) for example: Thorius (1590): The Spanish Dictionarie Adelante before. Adorar to worship. Adolecer to bee sicke, grieued, or ill at ease. Adeudarse to bring himselfe in debt. Adelantar to prefer, to get before. Adentellar to bite. […] Amonestar to admonish. Amenazas threatnings. Amigo a friende. Amar to loue. Amo, a master to a slaue or a seruant. Amargo bitter. [...] Fieles they that be faithfull. Fiebre an ague. Fiesta an holy day. […] Liberall, liberall. Librar, to deliuer out of bondage. Libertar, to sette at froedome. It is worth noting that the capitalization of the Spanish headwords does not indicate that the word is written with a capital letter in actual discourse. Although single-word headwords are by far the most common, there are a few exceptions to this rule: Thorius (1590): The Spanish Dictionarie Derecha mano the right hand. […] Garças ojos squint eyes. […] Luego que, as soone as. […] Nombre proprio, a proper name. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 101 (75) Concerning the origins and evolution of alphabetization, see for example Murray (1993 [1900]) and especially Daly’s study (1967) on the history of alphabetization up to the Middle Ages. […] Otra y ostra vez, againe and again. […] Rezma de papel, a ream of paper. The microstructure is simple and contains only explanatory information in the form of equivalents, definitions or glosses. Nine entries contain no microstructure whatsoever, namely Alberchigo, Alberchiga, Aximez, Chiste, Chistar, Chozno, çuño, Gonces, and Pichel. Although in most instances throughout the dictionary only one equivalent is provided, the microstructure may contain a number of English equivalents ranging from one to four: Thorius (1590): The Spanish Dictionarie Aculla there, thither, that way, thence, De aculla. […] Affloxar to loosen, to slacken. Afuziar to giue hope, to encorage. […] Faltar to want, to lacke. […] Fe faith. Feo ilfauoured. Feamente ilfauouredly. […] Fuero, without. Fuerça, force, strength. Fundamento, foundation. It should be mentioned that at the beginning of the dictionary equivalents are sometimes separated from the headword by a comma; this becomes systematic after letter H: Thorius (1590): The Spanish Dictionarie Llegar,to approch, to draw near, to come vnto, to arriue. […] Lobrego,wretched, miserable, sorrowfull. […] Luz,light, brightnesse. Luzir,to bee light, to shine, to gli-ster. […] Tabla,a table, or boord, Tachar,to shew one his vice, to rebuke, to blame, to find fault with. […] Tiembra,a trembling, a quaking. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 102 grammarians and lexicographers, devoted to the study of the Spanish language and literature. Sir William Cecil, Lord Burghley (1520-98), is another example of this dual approach to Spanish culture. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Online (s.v. William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley), Lord Burghley was “principal adviser to England’s Queen Elizabeth I through most of her reign. Cecil was a master of Renaissance statecraft, whose talents as a diplomat, politician, and administrator won him high office and a peerage.” on the one hand, he was a statesman, who needed a knowledge of Spanish in order to keep track of the enemy; on the other, he was a scholar and an omnivorous reader, who encouraged the study of Spanish. Cecil served Queen Elizabeth I as Secretary of State; as such, he was in charge of the secret service, with a staff to help him, among other things, collect and translate all kinds of material that came from Spain. (78) Translation and lexicographical activities developed as a response to the need to stay informed about the movements of the Spanish government during the period. one of the members of Cecil’s staff was Richard Percyvall, the author of the first Spanish-English dictionary. Sir Richard Percyvall(79) (1550-1620) was educated at St. Paul’s School and at Lincoln’s Inn. According to the Dictionary of National Biography (14: 819-20), when he was a student at Lincoln’s Inn, Percyvall led an extravagant life, and his excesses and an early marriage to a penniless girl alienated and offended his father, George Percival. Ruined, Percyvall went to live in Spain, although it is impossible to determine the exact dates of his stay there or the reasons why he chose that country. He remained four years in Spain, until the death of his first wife and, according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (43: 662), he returned to England in 1585, at the outbreak of war, although Underhill (1971, 335) says his return was around 1583. The knowledge Percyvall acquired of Spanish would change his life. In England he was introduced by his friend Roger Cave to the circle of Sir William Cecil, who employed him as part of his staff. Due to his knowledge of Spanish, Cecil entrusted Percyvall with deciphering and translating documents seized by the British that contained the first sure information of the planned invasion of England by the HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 109 (78) On the role of Sir William Cecil during this period, see Ungerer (1972, 48 ff.). (79) Variant spellings of the name are Percyuall, Perceval(l), Perciual, Percival, Percyval, Perciuale , and Percyuale . We will use the spelling from the title page of the dictionary, the Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera , and perhaps the most common: Percyvall . More information about his life can be found in Santoyo (1974, 75 ff.), who surveyed Percyvall’s life and the genesis of the Bibliotheca Hispanica based on various sources, such as Percyvall’s biographers of the eighteenth century mentioned by the Dictionary of National Biography , namely James Anderson ( A Genealogical History of the House of Yvery , 1742), and John Lodge ( The Peerage of Ireland , 1789). Spanish Armada. This he did, and afterwards his ascent was swift: Queen Elizabeth I rewarded him with a pension, Sir William Cecil made him his protégé, and his father forgave him. He was a member of Parliament in 1603-1604 and, in 1609, he became a member of the London Virginia Company.(80) After having led, in the words of Collison (1971, 62), “a life as fully romantic as that of any hero in a light novel”, Percyvall retired to Ireland with his second wife, where he died in 1620. Beginning as a wayward son, he ended up with a secure and prosperous life as a politician and colonist. According to Ungerer (1965, 203), Percyvall began compiling his dictionary while he was part of the intelligence service of Lord Burghley. Santoyo (1974, 78) advances the probable date of 1587 as the year when Percyvall began working on the grammar and dictionary. Before discussing the sources and megastructure of the Bibliotheca Hispanica, some important details need to be clarified. The Bibliotheca Hispanica is divided into two parts: first a grammar and next, with a separate title page, the Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera, which contains the dictionary proper. First, concerning the title of the work itself, Stein (1985, 354) has rightly noted that, “[T]he title which Percyvall used for his dictionary immediately recalls that of John Rider’s Bibliotheca scholastica (81) published two years earlier. Yet as to the work itself, Percyvall has more in common with earlier English dictionaries describing a spoken vernacular of the time than with John Rider’s dictionary.” In fact, Percyvall himself says, on the second page of the preface “To the Reader” of the dictionary, his purpose was “to explain the Spanish, not to teach the Latine” whereas the subtitle of Rider’s works says the dictionary was “[p]enned for all those that would haue within short space the vse of the Latin tongue, either to speake, or write.” Second, in the first part, there is a section entitled “To the Reader”, where Percyvall comments: I open vnto thee a Librarie; wherein thou mayst finde layed readie to thy view and vse, the toonge with which by reason of the troublesome times, thou arte like to haue most acquaintance: hauing trauailed (though at home) with a more curious endeuour to search out the proprietie thereof; then many that haue spent some years in the Countrie where the toonge is naturall; yea then some Spaniardes, that haue dealt in the same argument. For no doubt, those things that to me being a straunger to the toonge, appeared vpon good reason to bee worth the obseruation: were so ordinarie with them, as they seemed needlesse to be drawen into rule. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 110 (80) Also known as “The Virginia Company of London”, or just “The Virginia Company”, it was set up as a joint stock company by royal charter on April 10, 1606. Its business was the colonization of Virginia. (81) See Starnes (1954, chap. 15) and Stein (1985, chap. 26) for a discussion of this English-Latin dictionary. Based on this commentary, and on the fact that the exact dates of Percyvall’s sojourn in Spain are unknown, some scholars have argued that the composition of the Bibliotheca Hispanica took place before Percyvall’s stay in Spain. Dámaso Alonso (1931, 16), in his paper on the distinction between Spanish band dfricative, praises Percyvall’s “fina sensibilidad de fonético”, and credits him with being the first to have established and described such a distinction between those Spanish phones. (82) on page 20, footnote 4 of that paper, Alonso notes that the Dictionary of National Biography does not gives the dates of Percyvall’s travel, and he remarks that Percyvall was able to describe both sounds even though he had not been in Spain. Alonso makes the claim that, from Percyvall’s commentary quoted above, it can be deduced that travel to Spain took place after 1591. A similar opinion has been expressed by Amado Alonso (1967, 199), who, in his discussion of Percyvall’s grammar, agrees with Dámaso Alonso’s claim and assumes travel took place after 1591. Martín-Gamero (1961, 80-1) follows the same line of thought, claiming that Percyvall, “[A]prendió, pues, el español en Inglaterra, tuvo ocasión de practicarlo en España y, a su vuelta a la patria, los conocimientos adquiridos le valieron un nombramiento de traductor de documentos oficiales, que fue el principio de una carrera brillante.” The same information has been repeated recently by Guerrero Ramos and Pérez Lagos (2000, 10), in their overview of Percyvall’s life in the facsimile edition of John Minsheu’ A Dictionarie in Spanish and English. However, these claims are in contradiction with the fact that Percyvall went to Spain after his first marriage and that it was his knowledge of Spanish that led to his being hired as a translator on the staff of Sir William Cecil, with the consequence that he knew Spanish before undertaking the preparation of the Bibliotheca Hispanica. What can be deduced from Percyvall’s words is that the Bibliotheca Hispanica was begun when he was in England and that he did not have a native-like command of Spanish, his second language. Santoyo’s assertion (1974, 82) would thus seem to correspond to the facts: Lo que en verdad puede deducirse de este párrafo no es que Percyvall desconociera la Península, sino que acaso su estancia en ella trascurrió sin preocupaciones o intereses lingüísticos de ningún tipo; y que sólo años después, a causa precisamente de su trabajo en Inglaterra, comenzó a interesarse por el castellano más que quien – como él mismo – había pasado varios años en España sin ese “empeño más cuidadoso”.(83) HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 111 (82) According to Alonso (1931, 16), Percyvall was able to establish “una simetría entre los fenómenos correspondientes a la b y a la d , simetría reconocida hoy por la fonética moderna; comprende que la posición inicial (de palabra, dice él, inicial absoluta, diríamos nosotros) produce la oclusión de b y d ; se da cuenta de que la fricación de estas letras es lo normal en español, y su oclusión lo excepcional; en fin, nos da la mejor descripción de al decir que suena como th inglesa en them, then, these .” (83) Here, Santoyo refers to Percyvall’s words “a more curious endeuour” (found at the beginning of our quotation from the section “To the Reader”) which he translates as “empeño más cuidadoso”. Steiner (1985, 89) expresses a similar view, when he writes that there is no real contradiction between the facts as presented in the Dictionary of National Biography and Percyvall’s remarks. It can be concluded, then, that the Bibliotheca Hispanica was begun when Percyvall returned to England and while he was working for Sir William Cecil, probably in late 1586 or early 1587. According to Santoyo (1974, 78), the book was ready for the press in october 1590. The license in the Registers of the Company of Stationers (Arber 1875b, 2: 570), dated December 26, 1590, reads: 26 Decembris [1590] Master Watkins Entred for his copie vnder th[e h] handes of Master HARTWELL and the wardens Bibliotheca Hispanica / Contayninge A Grammar with a Dictionary in iij Languages gathered out of diuerse good Aucthors. very profitable for the studious of the Spanyshe tonge. By R. PERCIUALL ................................................................................................vjd The book was printed in London by John Jackson, (84) for the editor Richard Watkins, in 1591. The British Biographical Archive, microfiche 343, gives the years 1591 and 1592; likewise, the record in Knapp (1884, 3) says, “Repeated 1592”. However, we have found no evidence that the book was reprinted in 1592. Interestingly enough, Alvar Ezquerra (1995, 200, footnote 7, and 2002, 175) mentions that his own personal copy of this dictionary belonged to the Kent historian William Lambarde (1536-1601) and that on the cover there is a handwritten note by Lambarde reading “1590 Ex dono Authoris”. This leads Alvar Ezquerra to believe that the book was printed before the date on the cover and that some copies were actually distributed by late 1590. He explains (Alvar Ezquerra 2000, 175): Estoy convencido de que, cuando el editor recibió la autorización, tenía ya impreso el libro, o, al menos, muy avanzada la impresión. Después no le quedaría nada más que estampar el primer cuadernillo, si es que no se lo había hecho ya con la fecha del año inminente, por si no llegaba a tiempo el permiso, o por no poner un año al que le quedaban muy pocos días y que podría hacer pensar en una obra más vieja de lo que era. There is an additional interesting aspect to this dictionary that Alvar Ezquerra (ibid.) discovered: not all of the copies of the Bibliotheca Hispanica are equal. This scholar compared the copy in the Real Academia Española with that of the Biblioteca Nacional in Madrid and with his own. Alvar Ezquerra noticed spelling errors in certain entries in the copy in the Real Academia Española that have been corrected in the copy in the Biblioteca Nacional and in his own. This could mean that some DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 112 (84) Printer in London (1584-1596), see McKerrow (1968, 150). copies of the book are older that others, that is that some copies had already been printed while others were still being proofread. Alvar Ezquerra (2002, 176) concludes that the book was certainly printed by December 26, 1590, the day when the license for printing was granted. 5.4.2 Sources The sources and word list of Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica have been studied by several scholars: Steiner (1970 and 1985), Santoyo (1974), Stein (1985), Guerrero Ramos (1992 and 1995), Nieto (1994), and Alvar Ezquerra (2002). Like Thorius’ work, Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica consists of a Spanish grammar preceding the dictionary. A comparison between the two grammars lies outside the scope of this study; nevertheless, Amado Alonso (1951g, 226 and 1967, 200), in his works on Spanish phonetics, has pointed out Percyvall’s debt to Corro’s Reglas gramaticales. This does not prevent Alonso from recognizing the merits of Percyvall’s description of Spanish pronunciation. As mentioned before, Dámaso Alonso (1931, 15 ff.) had already credited Percyvall with being the first to establish the distinction between the Spanish phones b and d. Alonso (1931, 20) says this merit was “tanto mayor cuanto que tal distinción no se encuentra ni en el Vocabulario de las Lenguas toscana y castellana, de Cristóbal de las Casas, ni en las obras de Nebrija, que son las fuentes que nuestro inglés reconoce haber manejado.” Similarly, Amado Alonso (1951a, 38, footnote 3, and 1967, 198) praises Percyvall’s talents as a phonetician, calling him the best and most careful English grammarian of Spanish at that time (Alonso 1951d, 130-1). Did Percyvall borrow material from Thorius’ dictionary? At the level of the macrostructure, Alvar Ezquerra (2002, 178) has determined that four entries out of forty-one under letter Ain the first page of Thorius’ work are not to be found in Percyvall’s. our analysis shows that only one entry of seventeen under letter F, one of thirty-five under L, and three of forty-five under letter T in Thorius’ dictionary are not included in Percyvall’s. Yet, these results are not surprising since Percyvall’s word list is twelve times larger than Thorius’. The following examples can provide an idea of the similarities and differences between the works as far as the microstructure is concerned: Thorius (1590): Percyvall (1591): The Spanish Grammer Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera Ladron, a theefe. Ladron, a theefe, Latro. Leer, to read. Leer, Leo, to reade, Legere. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 113 Lengua, a tongue. Lengua, the tongue, intelligence, Lingua, exploratio. Leche, milke.Leche, milke, Lac. Lexia, lie made of ashes. Lexía, lie to wash with, Lixiuium, Lexo, farre off, far from. Lexos, farre off, Procul. Ley, alawe. Ley, the law, Lex. Liberall, liberall.Liberal, liberall, Liberalis. Librar, to deliuer out of bondage. Librar, to deliuer, to make free, to weigh money, Ponderare, liberare, pecuniam decernere. Libertar, to sette at frædome. Libertar, to deliuer, to set free, Liberare. Llamar, to call. llamar, to call, to knocke at a gate, Vocare, pulsare. Llaue, a key.llave, a key, Clauit. Llegar, to approch, to draw near, to come vnto, llegar, to gather togither, to come neare, to arriue.Congregare, appropinquare. Notice that short entries are identical (s.vv. Ladron,Leche,Liberal, and Llaue), or only slightly different (for example s.vv. Ley or Leer, where Percyvall adds the conjugated form Leo). In entries such as Lengua, Librar, Libertar, and llamar Percyvall’s microstructure is longer; whereas for s.v. Lexos, it is made up of only one equivalent. Finally, the microstructure may also be different in the two works, as with s.v. Lexia and Llegar. Generally speaking, there are more differences than similarities between the dictionaries; consequently, it seems unlikely Thorius’ work influenced that of Percyvall at the level of the microstructure. Percyvall may have incorporated Thorius’ macrostructure, but the microstructure in the former’s dictionary is more elaborate. Thus, our results coincide with Steiner’s remark (1970, 18), according to which: Although many vocabulary entries and English glosses of the Thorius dictionary are duplicated exactly by Percyvall, who adds a comma after the vocabulary entry(85) and adds the Latin gloss after the English gloss, they are of a kind in which duplication is, in some way, inevitable. For instance, if a one-word gloss of the word entry Abierto is desired, it is hard to see how Percyvall could have chosen any other word than open, which Thorius used. Duplication is not proof that any relationship existed between the two dictionaries. Indeed, the entries are often different […]. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 114 (85) We already mentioned in our discussion of Thorius (1590) that he used the comma after the headword, but that this procedure only became systematic after letter H , so this part of Steiner’s remark is not a valid difference between Thorius (1590) and Percyvall (1591). The first source Percyvall mentions using was Thomas D’oylie’s unpublished manuscript mentioned at the beginning of this section, the Spanish Grammer, Conformed to Our Englishe Accydence. with a Large Dictionarye Conteyninge Spanish, Latyn, and Englishe Wordes. Thomas D’oylie (or Doyley, D’oyly, c.1548- 1603) was a Spanish scholar and physician born in oxfordshire. He studied abroad and travelled for many years, visiting such places as Paris, Basel, and the Low Countries, and returned to England about 1585 (Dictionary of National Biography, 5: 1322). He had a considerable knowledge of languages and became a friend of Francis Bacon and Sir Robert Cecil, son of Sir William Cecil. D’oylie was thus part of the group of grammarians, lexicographers, and other scholars involved in the study of Spanish in England at the end of the sixteenth century. Percyvall himself acknowledged his debt to D’oylie on the title page of his work as well as in some well-known lines from the introductory section “To the Reader”, in the first part of the Bibliotheca Hispanica: In very good time, I chaunced to be acquainted with the learned Gentleman, Master Thomas Doyley doctor in Phisicke; who had begunne a Dictionary in Spanish, English, and Latine; and seeing mee to bee more foreward to the presse then himselfe; very friendly gaue his consent to the publishing of mine; wishing me to adde the Latine to it as hee had begunne in his; which I performed, being not a little furthered therein by his aduise and conference. Percyvall explains on the title page that he added the Latin glosses by request of D’oylie, whose projected Spanish Grammer was to contain a Spanish, Latin, and English dictionary. In the same section from which the above quotation is taken, Percyvall states that he had begun a dictionary in Spanish and English only, using Antonio de Nebrija’s and Christoval de las Casas’ dictionaries. The dictionary was ready for the press by october 1590 (Santoyo 1974, 788), while D’oylie was just beginning his. D’oylie abandoned his project and gave his materials to Percyvall, who subsequently added the Latin glosses. It should be noticed that D’oylie mentions the dictionaries of Nebrija and Calepine(86) as his sources. Did Percyvall borrow only the Latin glosses from D’oylie? Is D’oylie’s text the only source of the Latin glosses, as Percyvall claims, or did he consult other Latin and English dictionaries? Regarding the potential relation between Percyvall’s dictionary and HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 115 (86) The Ambrosii Calepini Dictionarivm was the work of the Italian monk Ambrogio Calepino (1435-1511), whose Latin dictionary was published in 1502; it was subsequently published in Europe with increasing number of languages added (Martínez de Sousa 1995, 60). The work became so popular that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Europe the word calepine became synonymous with dictionary . Several editions containing ten languages appeared after 1585, so it is impossible to know which D’Oylie used. For information on editions, title pages, etc., see Niederehe (1994, passim). other Latin and English dictionaries, such as those by Thomas Elyot, Thomas Cooper, and Thomas Thomas, Starnes (1937, 1010) noted that “Brevity of definitions in this volume [Percyvall’s] renders extremely difficult proof of indebtedness to the work of Thomas Thomas and his predecessors.” (87) Did D’oylie’s manuscript influence Percyvall’s macrostructure and/or microstructure? Is there an influence of Calepine’s dictionary on Percyvall’s work via that of D’oylie? Unfortunately, there can be no definitive answer to these questions, which require further research. The other two sources Percyvall mentions using are the works of Antonio de Nebrija and Christoval de las Casas. The importance of Nebrija’s works for modern lexicography has already been discussed and his influence on subsequent lexicographers, including Las Casas and Percyvall himself, has been mentioned. As with D’oylie, Percyvall acknowledged his debt in the section “To the Reader” from the first part of the Bibliotheca Hispanica. In the following quotation from this section, Percyvall first talks about Nebrija and Las Casas and then claims to have added 2,000 entries not found in either one of them, finally mentioning the assistance he had from two Spanish prisoners from the Armada in correcting what was up to that moment – before the additions from D’oylie – only a Spanish-English dictionary: The Dictionarie hath coste me greatest paynes; for after that I had collected it into Spanish and English out of Christoval de las Casas, and Nebrissensis; casting in some small pittaunce of mine owne, amounting well neere two 2000 wordes; which neither of them had; I ranne it ouer twise with Don Pedro de Valdes, and Don Vasco de Sylua; to whome I had accesse, by the fauour of my worshipfull friend Maister Richard Drake, (a Gentleman as vertuouslie minded as any, to further any good attempt): and hauing by their helpe made it readie for the presse with the English interpretation onely […]. In this quotation, Percyvall acknowledges his debt to Nebrija and Las Casas. Again in the section “To the Reader” of the Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera, Percyvall recognized having followed Nebrija and Las Casas, specifically, in the alphabetization of the macrostructure: “The Order of the letters may seeme somewhat vnorderly. But as it fell out it could be no otherwise; bicause that following Nebrissensis and Casas, I traced their steps.” In that same text, he makes the following remark regarding the methodological principle he followed when borrowing from Nebrija: The Spanish words gathered out of Nebrissensis, are not al in vse: for him selfe saith; he framed and coined some; yet I haue set downe all, least thou shouldest DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 116 (87) On Thomas’s Latin-English dictionary, see Starnes (1954, chap. 10) and Stein (1985, chap. 25). thinke I dealt scarce faithfully with him: I haue purposely passed ouer his repetitions of the selfe same word, which he often useth to expresse the sense of the Latin words; for I go about to explain the Spanish, not to teach the Latine. In this way, Percyvall admits to having used the word list from Nebrija almost in its entirety. If it can be assumed, following Santoyo (1974, 77), that Percyvall began working on his dictionary in late 1586 or early 1587, then he would have had access to an edition of Nebrija’s Spanish-Latin dictionary from 1585,(88) or perhaps even earlier editions from his sojourn in Spain. However, since editions of Nebrija’s work were so numerous it is not possible to know exactly which one Percyvall used; in any case, it probably was a late sixteenth century edition. Christoval de las Casas’ Vocabulario de las dos lenguas toscana y castellana was published in Seville in 1570.(89) Like Percyvall, Las Casas based his work upon that of Nebrija. Las Casas’ Vocabulario was the first bilingual Italian-Spanish, Spanish-Italian dictionary, of which several editions were published, for example in 1576, 1579, and 1583. As in the case of Nebrija, there can only be speculation about the edition Percyvall used; in this regard, Santoyo (1974, 93) thinks that Percyvall probably used the 1587 edition of Las Casas, and Alvar Ezquerra (2002, 179-80) comments: No resulta fácil saber cuál pudiera ser la edición empleada, pues los cambios de una edición a otra no son muchos, y el repertorio de Percyvall es más extenso que la parte español-toscano de De las Casas, que tiene unos 10 500 artículos. Si sabemos que Percyvall estuvo en nuestro país, no resulta demasiado aventurado conjeturar que manejaría alguna de las dos ediciones españolas del Vocabulario –el resto son venecianas–, la primera y la cuarta (1570 y 1583) –la de 1579 es fantasma–. (90) Si además sabemos que Percyvall llegó en 1579 a nuestro país resulta más probable que conociera alguno de los ejemplares de la primera impresión que uno de la edición siguiente (Venecia, 1576), y que se dejara impresionar por su contenido. The general conclusion drawn by scholars who have dealt with the relation between Percyvall, Las Casas, and Nebrija is that the Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera is a blend, a hybrid product, based on Nebrija and Las Casas. Percyvall borrowed Nebrija’s macrostructure almost in its entirety, and Steiner (1970, 20) HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 117 (88) See bibliographical data in Esparza Torres and Niederehe (1999, 168). (89) For bibliographical information about this work, see Niederehe (1994, 172). For a discussion, see Gallina (1959, 161 ff. and 1991, 2992 ff.). (90) Here Alvar Ezquerra refers to Gallina (1959, 171, footnote 9), who says in a reference to the 1579 edition: “è probabile che si tratti sempre dell’edizione del 1570, forse con il solo frontespizio cambiato, cosa non rara a quei tempi.” explains that “[a] comparison of the two dictionaries reveals that this claim is substantially true, although many times Percyvall composed only one vocabulary entry based upon more than one vocabulary entry in Nebrija.” Taking Las Casas’ work into consideration, Steiner (1970, 21) goes on to observe that in spite of this direct link between Percyvall and Nebrija “it is on Las Casas that he depended for the basic framework of his word list. Many times both Las Casas and Percyvall will omit the same words from Nebrija […] and many times both Las Casas and Percyvall will enter words not listed by Nebrija […] and usually these words are listed in the same sequence”. Alvar Ezquerra (2002, 182) explains in greater detail that Percyvall followed Las Casas’ way of presenting the overall word list by guide letters: [S]eparando cada combinación de dos letras, con las que encabeza cada serie. Así estaba en el italiano, pero no en Nebrija, por más que en el repertorio de éste cada una de esas combinaciones comenzara con una capital, y que cada plana o columna fuera encabezada por una combinación de dos letras que sirve de guía al usuario. Guerrero Ramos (1992 and 1995) has studied the influence of Nebrija’s Spanish-Latin dictionary on a series of lexicographers, from Pedro de Alcala’s Spanish-Arabic Vocabulista arauigo en letra castellana (1505) up to César oudin’s Thresor des deux langues françoise et espagnole (1607), including Las Casas and Percyvall. Guerrero Ramos (1992, 463 and 1995, 100) uses a small sample compiled from entries under letter Aof each work.(91) Her results show that there are a series of words that Percyvall took from Nebrija, but that Las Casas did not take: for example, words with the mark “in aravigo” in Nebrija. In other words, Guerrero Ramos (1992, 467 and 1995, 134) shows that Percyvall’s borrowings from Nebrija are more extensive that those of Las Casas. Guerrero Ramos (1992, 467-8 and 1995, 135) also elaborates further on Percyvall’s technique of reduction, by means of which several entries in Nebrija sometimes became only one in Percyvall: En cuanto a la supresión de vocablos, observamos en Percyvall el mismo procedimiento que en los lexicógrafos hasta ahora estudiados [such as Alcalá and Las Casas]: elimina ciertas formaciones femeninas, como por ejemplo Alfereza, y suprime las distintas matizaciones o especificaciones ofrecidas por Nebrija, tanto si van acompañadas de un vocablo con carácter totalizador, por ejemplo Alferez y Alferez de aguilas, como si en Nebrija sólo aparecen las matizaciones y Percyvall las engloba bajo una sola entrada, por ejemplo, Almorrana (Guerrero Ramos 1995, 135). DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 118 (91) In her papers about the influence of Nebrija on subsequent lexicographers, Guerrero Ramos (1992, 1995, and 1996) limits her samples to entries from the letter A of each dictionary. Regarding this method of sampling, we agree with Zgusta (1999, 181) in the sense that Guerrero Ramos’ conclusions are correct, but that a broader sampler would be preferable, “because within the European languages, entries at the beginning of the letter ain a dictionary are not fully representative of the rest of them.” [1986]), that is, the author uses the hypernym directionality in terms of the function a dictionary serves depending on the user’s four skills for encoding and decoding: speaking, writing, listening, and reading.(100) Although Steiner’s terminology is legitimate, here the terms monodirectional and bidirectional will not be understood from the perspective of the user but rather following scholars such as Anderson (1978, 7 et passim), Kibbee (1985, 22 and 1986, 140), Bray (1988), and Alvar Ezquerra (1995, 175), who take them in a different sense. Bray (1988, 334, note 4), for example, gives the following definitions: Par unidirectionnalité nous entendons ici unilatéralité des équivalences: les fonctions du dictionnaire (production, réception) n’entrent pas ici en ligne de compte. Un dictionnaire italien-allemand, quelles que soient ses fonctions, quel que soit le public visé, est donc considéré comme unidirectionnel; un dictionnaire italien-allemand et allemand-italien comme bidirectionnel. Therefore, for us Percyvall’s dictionary is a monodirectional dictionary because it has only a Spanish-English part, and not because he was “primarily concerned with the needs of the native English speaker who wished to read Spanish” as Steiner (1970, 35) says. From the user perspective, we would say that Percyvall’s dictionary is monofunctional.(101) 5.4.4 Analysis of the front matter Let us return to the overall structure of the book and its constituent parts. Like that of his predecessor, John Thorius, Percyvall’s work contains a grammar followed by a Spanish-English dictionary, with the latter far surpassing the scope of Thorius’ modest attempt. Both men make it clear on the title page of their respective books that the dictionary was subordinate, so to speak, to the grammar, meaning that for both authors a student had to learn first the rules, and then the lexicon to master a language. A similar approach was already found in the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish. It is obvious that Percyvall’s dictionary has a lesser degree of subordination, since unlike Thorius – whose headwords come primarily from the grammar itself – he consulted other sources. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 125 (100) Concerning this terminology and the active/passive dictionary typology, see Bogaards (1990), Mikkelsen (1992), and Mugdan (1992). (101) About monofunctional and bifunctional dictionaries in the way we understand these terms, see Kromann et al. (1991, 2713). The Bibliotheca Hispanica contains four preliminary texts: the title page, a dedication, a preface, and four poems; the front matter of the Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera, or dictionary proper, contains a separate title page and a preface. Excerpts from the prefaces were quoted when it was a question of the sources of the book. It was seen that scholars who have studied Percyvall found in the prefaces explicit mention of the sources he consulted (Nebrija, Las Casas, the unpublished Spanish Grammer by D’oylie, and the two Spaniards who helped Percyvall correct the dictionary). Hayashi (1978, 10-1) has emphasized the fact that Percyvall was explicit about the sources and compilation of his dictionary. Excerpts were also quoted from the preface to the dictionary, in which Percyvall referred to the arrangement of the macrostructure, explaining his method of alphabetization. Moreover, the function of the dictionary – to help Englishmen read Spanish – was stated on both title pages, where Percyvall says that the book was “very profitable for the studious of the Spanish toong.” The fact that all the prefatory texts to both parts are written in English is also indicative in this respect. What other topics are mentioned in the preliminary texts to the grammar and the front matter of the dictionary? The poems in Percyvall’s book offer a picture of the duality that marked the relations between Spain and England at that time. Aware of this fact, Dámaso Alonso (1931, 22, footnote 2) reproduced the Latin poem by Thomas Doyley, because the lines “explican muy bien la aparente contradicción entre la enemistad contra España y el crecimiento de los estudios de español en la Inglaterra de fines del siglo XVI y principios del XVII.” Alonso refers in particular to the following lines: “Qvas nouus orbis opes, quas profert India fructus, / Quas mare, quas tellus gemmas, aurique fodinas; / Has habet Hispanus, Iasonis vellere diues: / Cum populo aurato collubet ergò loqui. […] / Cum quibus aut bellum cupimus, commercia, pacem; / Horum sermo placet […].” (102) As mentioned in the survey of the relations between these two countries, interest in the Spanish language and literature developed in England during a period of hatred and war with Spain and reached a high point after the defeat of the Spanish Armada: “Inglaterra, al día siguiente de la victoria, consciente del poder y la riqueza de España, se dispone a conocer a su rival y a estudiar su idioma para combatirla o para comerciar con ella” (Alonso 1931, 22). That the interest in Spanish had reached unprecedented heights in Tudor England is also shown in the poem “To the Practitioners in the Spanish”, where the author (James Lea) compares Spanish to French and Italian: “Though DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 126 (102) “The wealth of the New World, the fruit that India bears, the jewels and gold mines that both Earth and Ocean yield, all these are held by the Spanish, whom Jason’s fleece made rich: to speak with the golden people is therefore to be wished […] And whether we want war with them, or commerce, or peace, their language is desirable […].” Spanish speech lay long aside within our Brittish Ile, / (our Courtiers liking nought save French, or Tuscane stately stile) / Yet now at length, (I know not how) steps Castile language in, / And craues for credit with the first, though latest she begins […].” Hayashi (1978, 9) has mentioned and quoted Percyvall’s references to the political situation between Spain and England in two other texts. The first is in the dedication to Robert Deveroux, where Percyvall says: But understanding that your Honor bestoweth much time with happie successe, as well in the knowledge of the toongs; as of other commendable learnings beseeming your place and person; and remembring that hauing emploied your selfe so honorablie against the Spanyard in Flanders, Spayne & Portugal; you had gained an immortall memorie with all posteritie, & might perhaps encounter with them againe upon like occasion […]. The complete excerpt presents the Earl of Essex in a way similar to Sir William Cecil and Queen Elizabeth, as someone who showed a love for the Spanish language while at war with Spain. The other text quoted by Hayashi is from the beginning of the preface to the grammar, where Percyvall speaks of the need to learn Spanish in the difficult times the country was going through: “I open vnto thee a Librarie; wherein thou mayst finde layed readie to thy view and vse, the toonge with which by reason of the troublesome times, thou arte like to haue most acquaintance […].” our analysis shows other interesting features and issues discussed. Percyvall was proud of his work and in the preface to the grammar defends himself against the potential criticism of the “malicious who with their venemous toonges, seeke to deface the labours of others, themselues being vermine altogether unprofitable […].” How he thought of his work, however, is best seen in the poem he wrote “Ad Lectorem”, where he places his book next to those by Nebrija and Las Casas: “Quod Casas Italis; quod Nebrissensis Iberis; / Pluraque; nostra tibi Bibliotheca dabit.”(103) In other words, the Bibliothecæ Hispanicæ Pars Altera is the sum of Nebrija and Las Casas for the English-speaking public who needed a knowledge of Spanish due to the political situation between the two countries. As James Lea writes in the commendatory poem “To the Practitioners in the Spanish”: Though learned pens in Italy and France do florish more, / And in our happy Britaine, where are learned men such store: / Yet Spanish speech lists giue no ground: which here by painfull hand / of Perciuall, is open laid, for all to vnderstand, / And soon to speake and write the same, by practise in his booke: / In practise, yeeld him praise and thanks, for thee such paines that tooke. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 127 (103) “What Casas gave the Italians, what Nebrija gave the Spanish, our Library will give you — and even more.” It is interesting to see that Percyvall not only mentioned his sources in the preface to the grammar but also refused to criticize his predecessors: I am not so malicious as to detract from the labours of any that haue gone before me; but confesse, that I haue both seene and used them where I thought it conuenient: referring it to the indifferent iudgement of the discreete Reader, whether I haue reason to dissent from them in such points as wee varie. Let us now turn to the preface to the dictionary. This text begins with a sentence that explains Percyvall’s idea of the relationship between the rules of grammar (the form) and the lexicon (the matter): Beholde good Reader, the seconde part my Librarie: without which this little worke would be maimed and mishapen: for since that hath the forme; and this the matter; vnlesse thou haue that from hence, which the other may set in order, decke, and polish, I shal seeme but slenderly to haue respected thy studies. Percyvall distinguished between form (the grammar) and matter (the lexicon); both are indispensable but he considers the grammar more important in the learning process, for it is the grammar which “may set in order, decke, and polish”. This is a similar outlook to that contained in the “Preface” of the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish. This is a conception also close to that of James Howell in French and English lexicography of the seventeenth century, according to which the grammar should precede the dictionary. In the first two editions of Cotgrave’s Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues (1611, 1632), the grammar was placed after the dictionary, indicating the primacy of the lexicon in the learning process. Commenting the structure of the Cotgrave dictionary, Naïs (1968, 345) observes that “[t]out se passe comme si l’auteur considérait qu’un dictionnaire (bien complet) suffit pour comprendre la langue; et, pour savoir la parler, il suffit d’y ajouter quelques rudiments de phonétique et de morphologie.” This approach was reversed by James Howell in his third edition of Cotgrave’s French-English Dictionary, […] Whereunto Are Newly Added the Animadversions and Supplements, &c. of James Howell (1650) for reasons Howell explains at the beginning of the “Proeme” to the prefatory “French Grammar”, and worth quoting because they may as well have been the same as Thorius and Percyvall had: What Foundations are to materiall fabriques, the same is Grammar to a language, If the Foundation be not well layed, will be but a poor tottring superstructure; If grammaticall grounds go not before, ther is no language can be had in any perfection. The Schoolemen use to compare Logic to the fist, and Rhetoric to the palm of the hand […] in regard that one hath a close pressing form of proceeding, the other a dilated and loose open way of expression; Grammar may be compared DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 128 to the Feet or supporters, which the other two use to goe upon, and indeed all other Sciences, specially the knowledg of Languages. Now, for a Dictionary, which contains the whole bulk of a Language, to go before the Grammar, is to make the Building precede the Basis: Therfore ‘twas held more consentaneous to reason and congruous to order, that the Grammar should be put here in the first place, for Art observes the method of Nature, to make us creep before we go. Therefore, the position of the grammar and the dictionary within the outside matter is not random: it follows a principle according to which the lexicon is important yet secondary or subordinate to the rules of grammar when teaching languages. Percyvall then goes on to explain three important things: the use of accents in Spanish, the arrangement of the macrostructure and the alphabet he followed. Percyvall refers to the section “of Accent” in the grammar where he explains the rules of accents (“Accent, being the second pillar of Euphonia, is the sounding of a syllable sharpe or soft, or the pronouncing it long or short […].”) for nouns, verbs, adverbs, etc. and where he says that the exceptions were to be looked up in the dictionary (“what faileth not within the compasse of this rule, shall be holpen by the Dictionarie, where in words doubtful, I commonly set the accent ouer the sillable”). He explains how he has used accents for irregular verbs and nouns. Then, he attributes the irregularities in the order of the macrostructure to the fact that he has followed Nebrija and Las Casas.(104) Let us remember that Percyvall’s arrangement of the macrostructure is a mixture of the alphabetical order with the etymological order used by Nebrija. Finally, Percyvall sets out the alphabet he followed: “The Alphabet is thus set, A, B, ca, co, cu, ça, ce, ci, ço, çu, ch, D, E, F, G, H, I, Y, j, L, ll, M, N, ñ, O, P, Q, R, S, T, u, V, X, Z.” These features have been discussed by Steiner (1970, 31 ff.) and Stein (1985, 355), but it is worth pointing out that Percyvall was the first lexicographer in Spanish and English lexicography to explain his macro- and microstructural choices in the front matter. 5.4.5 Concluding remarks To sum up, Richard Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica (1591), a grammar followed by a Spanish-English dictionary with Latin glosses added, marks a pivotal HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 129 (104) The corresponding section is quoted in the discussion of sources above: “The Order of the letters may seeme somewhat vnorderly. But as it fell out it could be no otherwise; bicause that following Nebrissensis and Casas , I traced their steps.” moment in the history of the field. It was, according to Ungerer (1965, 203), “the most popular primer to be published in the last decade of the sixteenth century”; in fact, it was so successful that the first edition was sold out in a few years. Santoyo (1974, 96-8) has pointed out Percyvall’s contributions to the Spanish language and literature, as the first lexicographer to record numerous Spanish words that, although in use had never appeared in printed form. He was also the first to incorporate terms used by writers of the time but not included in the dictionaries by Nebrija, Las Casas or Thorius. From the point of view of the prefatory texts, Thorius had mentioned the circumstances surrounding the preparation of his grammar and dictionary, the pedagogical function of both parts, the intended public, and the source of the macrostructure of his Spanish Dictionaire. Percyvall’s book had a similar structure to that of Thorius: it is a grammar containing a dictionary, hence form precedes matter. But Percyvall discussed other topics in the prefatory texts to the grammar and the front matter of the dictionary and provided more information in the word list. Percyvall referred to the extralinguistic circumstances surrounding the compilation of his book, the sources he consulted, his methodology of compilation, and the function of the dictionary. In addition, we showed that he also tried to protect himself from criticism, praised his book, and refused to criticize his predecessors. As for the word list in particular, Percyvall set out the alphabet he followed, the arrangement of the macrostructure, and made some remarks on orthoepy in the case of irregular Spanish verbs and nouns. The importance of the Bibliotheca Hispanica for bilingual lexicography is thus enormous, serving as a base for subsequent Spanish and English dictionaries and beginning a lineage that lasted until the late eighteenth century. John Minsheu’s dictionary (1599) was released after Percyvall’s; within the field of Spanish and English lexicography, they are the two dictionaries that have been studied the most. Prior to examining Minsheu’s dictionary, however, another work in the topical tradition, which appeared in 1591 shortly after Percyvall’s, needs to be discussed. 5.5) William Stepney’s The Spanish Schoole-master. Containing Seven Dialogues […] and a Vocabularie (1591, 1619, 1620) 5.5.1 Introduction In his survey of the evolution of English lexicography, Murray (1993, 107) explains that between the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries many vocabularies were organized using class-headings according to subjects or topics. This tradition of vocabulary compilation has been studied for English by Starnes and Noyes (1991 DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 130 [1946], 197 ff.), Stein (1985), McArthur (1986a and 1986b) and in depth by Hüllen (1999). For Spanish, there are the overviews by Alvar Ezquerra (1992 [1987], 277- 87), and Ayala Castro (1992a and 1992b). In the last of these papers, Stepney’s book is mentioned in the framework of other topical works (Ayala Castro 1992b, 134). Relevant to our discussion is the typology of lexicographical works during the Middle Ages established by Buridant (1986, 11-23). According to this scholar, five components can be distinguished in traditional medieval glossography, the first being that of the “gloses interlinéaires ou marginales / gloses regroupées continues = glossaire”. Interlinear glosses explained the meaning of difficult words in a variety of texts and were latter compiled in the form of glossaries for pedagogical purposes. The second component is that of the “regroupements onomasiologiques de vocabulaire se référant aux concepts, techniques, realia”; these include a whole variety of nominalia, or subject-matter vocabularies. The third constituent is represented by the “regroupements onomasiologiques de vocabulaire se référant à un art du discours; lexicographie et rhétorique”; this type of work presents models of discourses on specific subjects. The fourth component includes the “lexiques alphabétiques; lexiques unilingues, bilingues, réduit / étendus”; this component refers to alphabetical works prepared following a semasiological approach from textual glosses. The last component is that of the “lexique et grammaire”, which refers in the words of Buridant (1986, 22) to the close relationship existing between: [L]exique et grammaire: – soit dans le passage des glossae à l’ars grammatica, les grammairiens utilisant pour l’usage scolaire gloses et glossaires qu’ils introduisent dans les textes grammaticaux; – soit dans le passage du traité grammatical au glossaire, de l’ars grammatica aux glossae. Dans ce sens, les grands lexiques savants de la latinité médiévale sont des témoignages particulièrement significatifs de l’insertion de la grammaire dans des structures lexicographiques dont elle constitue une composante majeure […]. It is important to retain here the second component, that of the nominalia. These followed an onomasiological approach that, for the teaching of languages, proved helpful for memorizing material. In fact, according to Hazlitt (1888, 27) the nominalia, together with the vocabularies and glossaries, “afford examples of the method of instruction pursued in this country [England] from the Middle Ages to the invention of printing.” The tradition of the nominalia continued after the Middle Ages in the teaching of languages; Buridant (1986, 17) observes that “[l]e classement onomasiologique est courant dans les vocabulaires biligues [sic] ou plurilingues fort HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 131 répandus aux XVe-XVIesiècles qui ont pu servir de vademecum de voyage”. Besides the traditional medieval glossography,(105) which led to modern dictionaries by way of interlinear glosses and bilingual glossaries, Starnes and Noyes (1991, 198) distinguish “a more popular type of vocabulary, which flourished from the Anglo- Saxon period to the nineteenth century, […] in which the terms were arranged in related groups, according to subjects as Church, Pulpit, Funeral, Churchyard, etc.” McArthur (1986a, 75) explains that in medieval Western Europe: Bilingual grammatical and conversational primers were available, based on models used in the ancient world for Romans to learn Greek and Greeks to learn Latin; the acquisition of words, however, was handled generally in terms of special vocabularia. These were lists of vocabula (‘words’ or ‘utterances’) and are the originals of our present-day word ‘vocabulary’ A vocabularium was organized, not alphabetically, but in themes or conventionalized topics. The vocabulary in Stepney’s Spanish Schoole-master (1591) belongs to this tradition that has its roots in the topically arranged works of the Middle Ages. As such, it is related to a similar work compiled in English and Latin by John Withals, entitled A Shorte Dictionary for Yonge Begynners (1553).(106) As Starnes and Noyes (1991, 204) explain: other books besides the Withals gave vogue to the conventional word lists of vocabularies in the second half of the sixteenth century. Most of the bilingual manuals used in teaching modern foreign languages devoted part of their space to such lists. Claudius Hollyband, a teacher of French in London, published two manuals: The Frenche Littleton (1566) and The Frenche Schoole-maister (1573). These little books contained dialogues of daily life in London, proverbs and sentences, the Lord’s Prayer, articles of faith, the ten commandments, and a vocabulary – all on parallel pages with the French before the English. The more extensive vocabulary in The Frenche Schoole-maister has many topics similar to those in the Withals, from which it probably drew. The conventional lists appear also in Florio’s Firste Fruites (1578), in Italian and English, and in William Stepney’s The Spanish Schoolemaster (1591), in Spanish and English. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 132 (105) On the subject of English glossaries, see the overviews in Mathews (1966, 8 ff.), Green (1996, 54 ff.), and Jackson (2002, 31-2); for more detailed analysis, see Starnes and Noyes (1991, 197 ff.), Stein (1985), and Hüllen (1999, 54-77). Regarding Spanish glossography, see the overviews in Menéndez Pidal (1973, 21 ff.), Fernández-Sevilla (1974, 159-61), MacDonald (1982, 9-11), Alvar Ezquerra (1996a, 1153-6), Haensch (1997, 17 ff.), and Nieto (2000, 155 ff.). (106) About Withals’ dictionary, see for example Wheatley (1865, 220-2), Hazlitt (1888, 228-9), Starnes (1954, chap. 13), Stein (1985, chap. 19), and Hüllen (1999, chap. 6). At the beginning of the section 5.4, the extraordinary lexicographical activity in England at the end of the sixteenth century was discussed. Mention was made of a series of books for teaching Spanish, entered in the records of the Company of Stationers of London: the works of John Thorius, Richard Percyvall, William Stepney, and John Minsheu, in addition to the unpublished manuscript of Thomas D’oylie. Let us now turn our attention to Stepney’s work, entered in the Stationers’ records on January 13, 1591, less than a month after the license for publication was granted to Percyvall’s Bibliotheca Hispanica. The entry in Arber (1875b, 2: 270) reads: xiijº die Januarij Master John Harrison Entred for his Copie vnder the hande of Master Warden Cawood the the elder / Spanische Schoolemaster conteyninge 7 Dialogues, accordinge to everie daie in the weeke and what is necessarie everie daie to be donne &c wherevnto besides the 7. Dialogues are annexed most fine proverbes and sentences, as alsoe the Lordes prayre, the Articles of our belief the x. commaundementes, with diverse other thinges necessarie to be knowen in the said tonge / By William Stepney …vjd Like the Book of English and Spanish, the word list in Stepney (1591) follows a topical arrangement. Stepney was a professor of Spanish in London and his book consisted of a manual with dialogues plus an English-Spanish vocabulary; the book followed the tradition of the modern-language manuals of the Renaissance. According to Sánchez Pérez (1992, 62), neither the contents nor the methodology it presents deviate from what was usual at the time. Nevertheless, it is an important work, considered by Alston (in the introductory note to the facsimile edition of Stepney’s work, 1971) to have inaugurated the study of Spanish in England, despite being published after Corro’s Reglas gramaticales. The reason for this probably lies in the contents of the book. Like the works of his predecessors (Thorius and Percyvall), Stepney’s Spanish Schoole-master had a clearly pedagogical function, indicated by the inclusion of dialogues, a vocabulary, and texts for everyday use. The previous grammars with dictionaries by Thorius and Percyvall had adopted a normative approach (learning through rules), however, and may have not been very adequate for the teaching of the vernaculars to a wide public. These early books also had a pedagogical function but differed in content. This difference in outlook sets Stepney’s book apart and highlights its importance. Bourland (1933, 286-7) comments: The Spanish Schoole-master was one of the first manuals prepared for teaching Spanish to the English. In spite of the long standing political and commercial relations existing between Spain and England, both French and Italian were preferred to Spanish in the latter country, at least until late in the sixteenth century. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 133 Text books for teaching French were made in England as early as 1530, for example John Palsgrave’s Eclaircissement de la langue Françoise, which was printed in that year. Hollyband’s French Littleton came out in 1566 and his French and Italian Schoolmasters in 1573 and 1575 respectively. But for those who wished to learn Spanish, no corresponding books were made until after the expedition of the Armada. From that time on, there is no lack of them. Antonio de Corro’s Spanish Grammer, published in 1590, heads the list, and it was followed in the next year by The Spanish Schoole-master and the better known Bibliotheca Hispanica of Richard Percyvall. Although not printed until 1591, Stepney’s book was under way before the outbreak of positive hostilities between Spain and England. The expansion of the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth century brought about an interest in learning and teaching Spanish as a foreign language. Pedagogical materials for this purpose were rare in Spain, other than Nebrija’s grammar of 1492, while books of dialogues, polyglot manuals, and dictionaries began to appear in the Netherlands and other European countries. Ungerer (1965, 177) notes that “Spanish books printed outside the Peninsula in the sixteenth century far outnumber those in any other vernacular language outside its home country.” Grammars such as those by Nebrija, Corro, Thorius, and Percyvall followed a theoretical approach derived from the teaching of classical languages.(107) They were normative and probably adequate for the teaching of the vernaculars to scholars and literary men. In the case of Spanish, on the other hand, diplomats and tradesmen needed to be able to communicate; mastery of the language was vital for the development of their mission or trade. As a result, they needed a more practical approach, like that followed in the Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish and Stepney’s Spanish Schoolemaster. These works typically contained a word list, dialogues, the days of the week, numbers, a religious section of prayers, etc. 5.5.2 Sources The paper by Bourland (1933) is the most detailed study of the sources for the Spanish Schoole-master. Stepney makes no mention of sources in the preliminary texts of his work, but Bourland shows that he took most of his materials from various sources and modified them to suit his purposes. Bourland (1933, 288) provides the following overview on this question: DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 134 (107) On grammatical theories in Europe from 1500 to 1700, see Padley (1985 and 1988). See also a classification of works according to their pedagogical approach in Sánchez Pérez (1987, 42 ff.). almost four times more than the topically arranged Book of English and Spanish and roughly the same number as the alphabetically arranged Very Profitable Book to Learn English and Spanish:(120) 1. of heaven (29 entries) 2. of the foure Elements (4 entries) 3. of the windes (5 entries) 4. of hell (16 entries) 5. of the 7. deadly sinnes (7 entries) 6. of the earth, moũtaines and valleys (33 entries) 7. of landes (28 entries) 8. of townes and Cities (18 entries) 9. officers of a towne (10 entries) 10. of degrees of birth by descent and first of nobilitie (19 entries) 11. Ecclesiasticall men (16 entries) 12. of the Villages, countreymen and fruits of the earth (86 entries) 13. of the garden and his fruites (94 entries) 14. of the wood (23 entries) 15. of the wild beasts and of hunting (43 entries) 16. of wormes and other venomous beastes (102 entries) 17. of the birds (57 entries) 18. of gold, siluer, and melting things: of merchants & all kind of merceries (151 entries) 19. of handycraftes men and their instruments (82 entries) 20. Pond-fish (675 entries) 21. The seuen liberall sciences. (20 entries) 22. of the kindred (125 entries) 23. of all the parts of mans bodie (173 entries) This semantic organization of the macrostructure reflects the structure of a specific view of reality underlying a topical dictionary. We already found an instance of such an organization in the Book of English and Spanish. Such an arrangement of topics, beginning with the heavens, the four elements, the earth, cities, and proceeding to the human things, professions, occupations, and ending with the body parts, became the rule during the Renaissance, as Starnes and Noyes (1991, 199) HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 141 (120) According to Nieto (2000, 179 and 2001, 215), there are 22 subject headings and approximately 17,000 entries (this last figure is surely an error in print), while Sánchez Pérez (1992, 78) calculates 1,800 words, and Alvar Ezquerra (2002, 174) 1,700 entries. In any case, it does not contain “about the same number of vocabulary entries” as Thorius’ dictionary, as Steiner (1970, 103) and Rizo and Valera (2001, 344) say. explain. In topically arranged dictionaries, the alphabetical macrostructure is replaced by a semantic arrangement. In the words of Hüllen (1999, 14): As a rule, a systematic arrangement of topics is selected which is derived in a popularized form from some scientific system, or a semantic classification which can be expected to be generally understood. Unavoidably, the order of a topical dictionary is dependent on a certain philosophical understanding of the world, although it must remain commonly intelligible. In the vocabulary by Stepney, there are two columns: the entries in English on the left in italics, and the entries in Spanish on the right in normal type. All of the English lemmas under headings seven, nine, and eleven are capitalized. Capital letters are also generally used for the first letter of the first entry under a heading in each language, whether or not it is the lemma. Capitalization was thus not meant to indicate to readers that a word was capitalized in actual use and is not systematic. Consider the following examples: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the foure Elements. De los quatro Elementos. The earth La tierra the water el agua […] […] of hell. Del infierno. Hell Infierno a deuill vn diablo […] […] of the 7. deadly sinnes, De los siete peccados mortales. Pride Soberuia couetousnes codicia […] […] of the earth, moũ-taines and valleys. De la tierra, montañas y valles. An earthquake Vn terremoto the earth trembleth la tierra trembla […] […] of the wild beasts and of hunting. De las fieras, & de la monterea. Abeast Vna bestia a wild beast vna fiera […] […] of gold, siluer, and melting things: De oro, plata, y derretimiento: Gold Oro fine gold oro puro […] […] of the windes. De los vientos the east winde El viento del oriente DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 142 the west winde el viento de ponente […] […] of townes and Cities. De villas y ciudades. atowne vna villa a citie vna ciudad […] […] of the wood. Del bosque. Awood vn bosque a parke vna caça […] […] of the kindred. Del linage. Agreat grand father vn bisabuelo a grand father vn abuelo […] […] The vocabulary shows a predominant use of the indefinite article both in English and Spanish (thereby indicating gender in the latter): William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the earth, moũtaines and valleys. De la tierra, montañas y valles. […] […] agreat rocke vn peñasco aheadlong rocke downeward despeñadero asteepe hill derumbadero astone vna piedra a flint stone vn pedernall The indefinite article is not, however, always used. Consider, for instance, the following series, in which most of the entries in Spanish are not preceded by any article: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of townes and Cities. De villas y ciudades. […] […] akey llaue a tower torre a castell castillo a bulwarke fortaleza a street vna calle alane callexuela In addition, the definite article in Spanish is used at times to discriminate meaning: HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 143 William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the garden and his fruites. Del jardin, y de sus frutas. […] […] a peach vn aluarcoque a peach tree el aluarcoque […] […] an oliue vn azeytuna an oliue tree el azeytuno Headwords can take a variety of forms, but no accent marks are used. Headwords may be: 1. Singular or plural nouns; as Quemada (1968, 362) and Hüllen (1999, 177) explain, these are by far the most common in this kind of word list, hence the word nominalia: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of townes and Cities. De villas y ciudades. a towne vna villa a citie vna ciudad […] […] walles murallas gates puertas 2. Adjectives: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the earth, moũtaines and valleys. De la tierra, montañas y valles. […] […] durtie lodoso foule suzio […] […] of the wild beasts and of hunting. De las fieras, & de la monterea. […] […] wearie cansado 3. Adverbs: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of wormes and other venimous beastes. De los gusanos y cosas ponçoñosas que gatean por el suelo. […] […] bitterly amargamente DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 144 softly poco a poco sweetely dulcemente finely lindamente 4. Verbs; these are given in the infinitive form and are syntactically marked by the preposition to in English: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the Villages, countreymen and De las villas, villanos y frutas de la tierra. fruits of the earth. […] […] to plough arar to digge cauar […] […] to reape segar […] […] to gather acoger There are still other occurrences, such as: 5. Adjectives plus nouns: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the earth, moũtaines and valleys. De la tierra, montañas y valles. […] […] sandie earth tierra arenosa […] […] of wormes and other venimous beastes. De los gusanos y cosas ponçoñosas que gatean por el suelo. […] […] white wax cera blanca Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] a siluer cup vna taça de plata a siluer goblet vn vaso de plata 6. Verbs plus a preposition or an adverb: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the garden and his fruites. Del jardin, y de sus frutas. […] […] to roote out desarraygar to roote in arraygar of the wild beasts and of hunting. De las fieras, & de la monterea. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 145 […] […] to go about rodear of gold, siluer, and melting things De oro, plata, y derritimiento […] […] to depart away despedirse Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] to ioyne together ayuntar of the kindred. Del linage. […] […] to go backe voluer las espaldas 7. Verbs followed by a particularizing word or phrase: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of gold, siluer, and melting things De oro, plata, y derritimiento […] […] to combe your head peynar la cabeça […] […] to set a price hazer el preçio of handy craftes men and their instruments. De los oficiales y sus instrumentos. […] […] to boult the meale cernir la harina Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] to draw a sword out of the sheath desembaynar la espada […] […] to scoure a coate of maill limpiar vna cota de malla 8. As Steiner (1970, 37) remarks, phrases and sentences appear in the wordlist; they may be short or rather long: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the garden and his fruites. Del jardin, y de sus frutas. […] […] pare me this apple mũda me essa mãçana of the birds. De los paxaros. […] […] the birds begin to make their nestes los paxaros comienc hazer los nidos of gold, siluer, and melting things De oro, plata, y derritimiento […] […] it is a faire iewel este es vn lindo joyel […] […] all his merchandize is but trumperie toda su mercaduria es bagaje of handy craftes men and their instruments De los oficiales y sus instrumentos. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 146 […] […] how sell you a pound of this meate? como se vende la libra de esta carne? Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] musicke maketh mirth where money is musica haze alegria a do ay mucha requiza plentie but small is the mirth where the mas la bolsa vazia trae siempre tristeza purse is emptie Another interesting feature is that sometimes entries under a particular heading form a small subgroup, such as that of wines: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] white wine vino blanco red wine vino vermejo bastard wine bastardo bollocke wine vino tinto allegant wine vino de Alicante canara wine vino de Canaria claret wine vino clareto Gascoigne wine vino de Gasconia french wine vino de françia Rochel wine vino de Rochela or of colors: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] coulors colores red vermejo white blanco blacke niegro yellow amarillo greene verde blew azul tawny naranjado gray pardo violet violet Synonyms appear in both languages, although more frequently in Spanish; in this case, sometimes the conjunctions or and oare used: HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 147 William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the Villages, countreymen and fruits De las villas, villanos y frutas de la tierra. of the earth. […] […] a stable vn establo, caballeriza […] […] an hedge vn soto o seto […] […] a fan vn vieldo, auandor of the wild beasts and of hunting. De las fieras, & de la monterea. […] […] to hunt montear, caçar a hunter montero, caçador of wormes and other venimous beastes. De los gusanos y cosas ponçoñosas que gatean por el suelo. […] […] a butterflie vna mariposa o paueliõ of the birds. De los paxaros. […] […] to sit or to brood yazer sobre los hueuos of gold, siluer, and melting things De oro, plata, y derritimiento […] […] snuffe the candell despauila la vela o candela […] […] a penknife vn trinchete, ganiuete Pond-fish. Pescado de estãque […] […] to bath or wash bañar en baño of the kindred. Del linage. […] […] a virgin or maid vna donzella […] The topical arrangement makes it possible to occasionally use the left brace to enclose synonyms: William Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master of the Villages, countreymen and De las villas, villanos y frutas de la tierra. fruits of the earth. […] […] a cribbe vn pesebre a manger to harrow peynar o quebrantar la tierra, y the ground sacar o escardar la tierra DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 148 {{ {{ of gold, siluer, and melting things De oro, plata, y derretimiento […] […] a bag vn saco costal Stepney’s vocabulary lacks rigor in the distribution of entries under its headings; thus, there are words that belong to subjects not explicitly mentioned. This is especially the case under heading twenty, which contains the largest number of entries. Even if the macrostructure reflects a particular conception of the world, the actual entries under some headings seem arbitrary. The microstructure cannot be simpler: it contains only explanatory information in the form of equivalents. All in all, the Spanish Schoolemaster is a compilation of a variety of texts used for teaching languages. 5.5.4 The editions of 1619 and 1620 A second edition of Stepney’s Spanish Schoole-master appeared in 1619,(121) “[N]ewly corrected by a new Author with many necessary additions”, printed by Nicholas okes for John Harrison, in London; (122) another issue was published in 1620. (123) Ungerer (1965, 204) claims that “[t]he manual was reprinted twice: in its old form in 1619 (S.T.C. 23257; entered on 11 April 1614), and in an improved version in 1620 (S.T.C. 23258)”; a similar claim has been made by Ramajo Caño (1987, 238), who says that the 1620 issue was the one “reelaborada por J. Harison”. The same confusion regarding the editions is found in Bourland (1933, 284), who makes the following remark concerning the dialogues: “It is now known that Stepney’s Dialogues were reprinted at least once, since a second edition of The Spanish Schoole-master was made in 1620 […]”; Bourland seems to think that the second edition is that of 1620, and gives its full title page in footnote 2 of her paper. However, the dialogues had, in fact, already been modified in the 1619 edition, as can be seen in the following excerpts from the first dialogue: Stepney (1591): The Spanish Schoole-master God giue you good morrow maister Henrie. DIos de a v. m. buenos dias Sr.Henrico. God giue you good morrow, and many good Dios de a v. m. buenos dias y buenos yeares maister William. años Sr. Guillielmo. How doth your health since Como ha estado v.m. de su salud desde HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 149 {{ (121) We consulted the edition on Early English Books, 1475-1640 , reel 1466: 01, STC 23257. (122) Okes was a printer in London, 1606-39 (Mc Kerrow 1968, 206) and Harrison a bookseller, 1603-39 (McKerrow 1968, 126, s.v. Harrison (John IV) ). (123) We consulted the edition on Early English Books, 1475-1640 , reel 1586: 06, STC 23258. I saw you last? que nos vimos la otra vez? So so, reasonable Sir. Razonablemente Señor. Me thinketh that you do not A mi me parèce que v. m. no està so well as you were wont. tan bueno como solia. How know you that? En que lo vee v. m? By your face which is pale. En su rostro que està amarillo. Stepney-Grange (1619): The Spanish Schoole-maister God giue you good morrow maister Henry. DIos dè á v. m. buénos dias Señor Henrico. God giue you good morrow, and many good Dios dè à v. m. buénos dias y buenos yeares maister William. anos Señor Guillielmo. How doth your health since Cómo hà estádo v. m. de su salúd désde we last saw each other? que nos vímos la otra vez? So, so, reasonable Sir. Razonáblemente Señór. Me thinketh that you do not A mi me paréce que v. m. no ésta so well as you were wont. tan buéno como solia. Wherein see you that? En que lo veé v. m.? In your face which is pale. En su rostro que està amarillo. In fact, the modifications had already been made in the second edition of 1619, while the 1620 issue is a reprint of that.(124) The second edition of 1619 is 239 pages long. It was entered in the records of the Company of Stationers as follows (Arber 1876, 3: 544): 11˚ Aprilis 1614 master John Entred for his Coppie by order of a full court and Consent of master Harrison Harrison the eldest, a booke called the Spanish scholemaster. vjd 5.5.4.1 Megastructure 5.5.4.1.1 Outside matter The structure of the 1619 edition is identical to the first edition of 1591, except for the inclusion of one more preliminary text: a four-page dedication entitled “[t]o DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 150 (124) Perhaps this confusion about the editions originates in the cards containing their bibliographical data. Microfilm reel 1466: 01 contains the following data: “23257 Stepney, William. The Spanish schoolemaster. [Anr. ed.] 12˚. N. Okes f. J. Harison, 1619. Ent. 11 ap. 1614”. Microfilm reel 1586: 06 contains the following data: “23258 Stepney, William. The Spanish schoole-master. [Anr. ed.] Now newly corrected . 12˚. J. Harison, 1620”. We show in italics the data that may have led to confusion: notice that the 1620 edition is the one presented as “newly corrected”. the existence of a vocabulary, small but distinguishable, of terms particularly expressive of subscription activities. […] “Adventurers” or “subscribers” were those who gave in their money to an undertaking. And they did so usually as a result of “proposals,” prospectuses setting forth the project and the conditions of entering into its benefits. Clapp (1931, 204) explains terms like proposals, found in the document reproduced by Alston: Yet another of the words in the subscription vocabulary is “proposals,” which almost explains itself as a statement of the contract between undertaker and subscribers. The proposal often took the form of a small pamphlet, issued by the undertaker in announcement of the intended book, describing it and the terms of purchase. The pamphlet might accomplish the physical description by being itself “on the same paper and letter” as the proposed book; or there might be included a “specimen page” or pages.(199) This two-page document contains a description of the dictionary as project, followed by the proposals as such and the name of those who have taken a subscription, one of them being George Sawbridge, whose name appears as printer on the title pages of Steven’s dictionary and grammar of 1706-05.(200) The text begins by introducing the author and the circumstances surrounding the origins of the dictionary. Curiously, Stevens’ name is not mentioned: The New Dictionary and Grammar propos’d to be Printed, are Compli’d by a Person perfectly skill’d in the Spanish Tongue, and conversant with it from his Infancy. He has for a considerable Time gather’d Materials, in order to perfect so Difficult and laborious an Undertaking; intending it at first only for his own private information: But being of late perswaded and encourag’d by some Gentlemen, curious in that Language, to make it Publick, he has now methodiz’d it for the Press. Note the mention that Stevens had gathered materials for his own information; it is possible, then, that the idea of the dictionary resulted from his documentary research for his translation activities. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 253 (199) Clapp (1931, 204, footnote 2) says that “[p]roposals, like books, were advertised in newspapers and in the Term Catalogues , frequently with a full statement of the subscription terms. Sometimes what is apparently an exact reprint of an entire proposal occurs in a newspaper […].” (200) George Sawbridge the Younger, a bookseller in London (1692-1711), see Plomer (1968, 263). Next are listed the types of sources Stevens used; with the mention of the dictionaries by Sebastian de Covarrubias, Antonio de Nebrija, Cesar oudin, Jeronimo Victor, and John Minsheu: He laid his Foundation upon Covarrubias’s Spanish Dictionary, and as a Superstructure, made use of Ælius Antonius Nebrissensis, oudin, Jerome Victor and Minshew, corrected their gross Errors, and supply’d their Deficiencies with several Thousands of Words. To this end he has carefully read the best Spanish Authors, viz. Historians, Poets, orators, Travellers, &c. that no Word in common Use might escape his Search. These dictionaries and a comprehensive list of specific authors consulted are mentioned in the catalogue Stevens included in the front matter of the dictionary, and will be discussed later. Following the sources, the comprehensiveness of the dictionary word list is highlighted: More especially, the Proper Terms in the Arts and Sciences; as in Navigation, Fortification, Gunnery, Architecture, Musick, &c. To compleat the Work, he has inserted above 2000 Spanish Proverbs, all explain’d Word for Word, with equivalent English ones for as many as can be found, and these rank’d under the first Substantive in the Proverb; or, if it have none, under the first Verb […]. It is clear from the proposals that this dictionary was conceived as an encyclopedia, based on Stevens’ readings and translations: Besides a Geographical Dictionary of all Kingdoms, Provinces, Towns of Note, Rivers, Lakes, Capes, Bays, &c. in Spain and the West Indies, with some Account of the Principal Families in Spain; here are also the Names, together with an Account of all Drugs, Plants, Minerals and Strange Creatures in the East and West Indies, gather’d from the Ablest Pens that have wrote on those Subjects, whether Physicians, Philosophers, Natural Historians or Travellers. In fine, nothing is omitted that may satisfy the most Curious, and render the Book valuable, the Author having spar’d no Pains in Compiling it. As will be seen, the descripton of the contents of the dictionary on the title page follows that of the proposals. on the first page of the text of the proposals there is mention that a specimen of the dictionary is annexed, but unfortunately it has not been reproduced by Alston. The specimen is described in the proposals as “design’d only to give some Idea of what the Dictionary here propos’d will be. It contains a number of Words in the DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 254 Letter A, not to be found in our old Spanish and English Dictionary, Compos’d by Minshew […]”. (201) To further emphasize the difference with Minsheu’s dictionary, the proposals speak of the great number of entries added and how the new dictionary gives “the various Uses and Significations of every Word, wherein all other Spanish Dictionaries have fallen short.” To highlight the advances of the new work, a comparison is made at the end of the first page of the entry Alçar in Minsheu’s Spanish and English dictionary and in that being advertised. The second page establishes five proposals, dealing with matters such as the number of sheets, the type of paper and font to be used, prices, and a list of subscriptors. Along with Minsheu’s prospectuses for both editions of his polyglot dictionary (1617 and 1625), each of the three texts contains a description of the dictionary as project, that is a sketch of its contents, the characteristics that set it apart from other dictionaries, together with a specimen of the dictionary as evidence of its value and originality, all from a very commercial point of view. The description of the dictionary sketched in the prospectuses and the proposals served as a basis for the title pages of the respective dictionaries. However, the proposals for Stevens’ dictionary, as seen from the data included on the second page, also indicate how much the method of printing by subscription had evolved by the eighteenth century. 7.1.2 Sources According to Amado Alonso (1967, 220), the main sources for Stevens’ grammar are Minsheu, Lewis owen, and the Grammaire espagnole en français by César oudin (1619). (202) As for the dialogues in Spanish and English that close the volume, Viñaza (1978, 1064) believes these are taken from the dialogues by Juan de Luna, but as seen in the discussion of Minsheu’s dialogues, the dialogues by Luna are based in turn on those by Minsheu, to which Luna added another five. Stevens’ dialogues are borrowed from Minsheu with some minor modifications. Stevens omitted Minsheu’s fifth dialogue, reducing the number of dialogues from seven to six, and whereas Minsheu had placed short notes to the sides of the text, Stevens adds some notes and deletes others and converts them all to footnotes. The text of some of the notes is identical to those in Minsheu’s text. What sources did Stevens consult for his dictionary? He was the first in Spanish and English lexicography to provide an extensive list of sources in the “Catalogue of HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 255 (201) This two-page specimen is in the British Library, shelfmark: Harley 5946 (144). (202) For further remarks on Spanish phonetics as described by Stevens, see Spaulding and Patt (1948, 54-9) and Alonso (1951a, 50, and footnote 34; 1951d, 153-5). Authors from whom this Dictionary is Collected.”(203) This catalogue lists more than 170 works on a variety of subjects. It is clear from the other texts in the front matter of the dictionary that this catalogue applies only to the Spanish-English part, but it is the only explicit indication of sources there is. Relevant to our discussion is the mention in the catalogue of the following six dictionaries: 1. “Tesoro de la Lengua Castellana, por el Licenciado D. Sebastian de Covarrubias orosco. Fol.”. Covarrubias’ Tesoro de la lengua castellana, o española,(204) the first Spanish dictionary, which appeared in 1611 (2nd ed. 1673-4). It was the standard monolingual Spanish dictionary until the publication of the Spanish Academy’s dictionary (1726-39). 2. “Dictionarium Ælii Antonil Nebrissensis”. As mentioned in the discussion of Antonio de Nebrija and his role in modern lexicography, his dictionaries were reprinted numerous times after they first appeared in the late fifteenth century. Nebrija’s Spanish-Latin dictionary is a source Percyvall and Minsheu admitted using for their compilations. Due to the numerous editions of Nebrija’s works during the seventheenth century it would be difficult to say which edition Stevens used. The last edition of the seventeenth century listed by Esparza Torres and Niederehe (1999, 199) appeared in 1681. 3. “Minshew’s Spanish Dictionary”. Stevens clearly refers to Minsheu’s Spanish and English dictionary (1599, 1623). As shall be seen, he used the second edition of 1623. 4. “Tesoro de las tres Lenguas, Francesa, Italiana, y Española” and “Tesoro de las tres lenguas Española, Francesa y Italiana, de Jeronimo Victor”. The reference is to the Tesoro de las tres lengvas francesa, italiana, y española by Gerolamo Vittori (also known as Jeronimo Victor or Hierosme Victor).(205) The first edition of the work appeared in 1609; subsequent editions appeared in 1627, 1637, 1644, and 1671. 5. “Tesoro de las dos Lenguas Española y Francesa de Cæsar oudin 8vo”. Here the reference is to the work by César oudin, Tesoro de las dos lengvas francesa y española.Thresor des devx langues françoise et espagnolle […] (1607, 1616 DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 256 (203) John Florio included a similar book list in his Italian-English dictionary A Worlde of Wordes : a prefatory text of seventy-two sources entitled “The names of the Bookes and Authors, that have bin read of purpose, for the accomplishing of this Dictionarie, and of which it is collected.” However, O’Connor (1991, 2970) remarks that “[i]t is a little-known fact that the source he used most of all was a Latin-English dictionary deliberately omitted from the booklist: nearly every page of Thomasius 1592 was borrowed by Florio and transcribed word for word.” (204) About Covabrrubias’ life, see González Palencia (1925); for information on the dictionary, see Lépinette (1989) and Niederehe (1999, 46, 221-2 and 256). (205) On Vittori’s work, see Gallina (1959, 229-46), Cooper (1960), and Bingen and Van Passen (1991, 3008-9). et seqq.).(206) This famous dictionary, based on Henricus Hornkens’ Recueil de dictionaires francoys, espagnolz et latins (1599) and Jean Palet’s Diccionario muy copioso de la lengua española y francesa [...] Dictionaire tres-ample de la langue françoise et espagnole (1604, 1606 and 1607), (207) was very influential throughout the seventeenth century. 6. “Vocabulario Español, y Italiano de Franciosini. 8vo.” This book is mentioned twice in the Catalogue; the second time as “Vocabulario Español y Italiano de Lorenzo Franciosini.” Here Stevens refers to the second part of Lorenzo Franciosini’s Vocabolario Italiano e Spagnolo […] Vocabolario Español e Italiano [...].(208) It was first published in 1620 and there were several editions throughout the seventeenth century: 1636, 1638, 1645, and 1666. This dictionary continued to be published during the eighteenth century, the first time in 1706, but it is unlikely Stevens consulted this edition. From the way Stevens lists these works, for which several editions exist, it is difficult to determine the specific editions he used. The only exception is the dictionary by Minsheu. In this case, the spelling provides valuable information. Let us remember that in the second edition (1623) of the Spanish and English dictionary by Minsheu, spelling was modernized, even if incompletely. Steiner (1970, 60 ff. and 105) thinks that Stevens followed the 1599 edition of Minsheu. However, a comparison of the two editions of Minsheu’s dictionary and the first edition of Stevens’ indicates that, where the spelling was modernized, Stevens follows the edition of 1623, and not that of 1599, as in the following examples from the Spanish- English part: Minsheu (1599): A Dictionarie Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie Stevens (1706): A Spanish in Spanish and English in Spanish and English and English Dictionary aBatír or Abatírse, to beate downe, aBatír or Abatírse, to beat downe, to Abatír, to beat down, to to discourage, to debase, to driue discourage, to debase, to driue out of discourage or cast down, to out of hart. Also to stowpe as a heart. Also to stowpe as a Hawke or debase, to humble. hawke or such like, to abase or vaile such like, to abase or vaile bonet. bonet. Abilidád or Habilidád, f. ablenesse, Abilidád, or Habilidád, f. ablenesse, Abilidád, or Habilidád, Ability, handsomnes, fitnesse, power, handsomnes, fitnesse, power, Handiness, Capacity. meetnesse, capacitie.meetnesse, capacity. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 257 (206) See editions and Niederehe (1999, 32 et passim). For overviews, see Niederehe (1987b, 17-9), Lépinette (1991), and Verdonk (1991, 2977-8). (207) Jean Palet (1604) is the first bidirectional Spanish-French, French-Spanish dictionary. Overviews can be seen in Niederehe (1987b, 16-7) and Verdonk (1991, 2976-7). (208) See Gallina (1959, 263-84), Alvar Ezquerra (2002, 191-220), and especially Martínez Egido (2002) for a discussion and editions of Franciosini’s dictionary. *Abitár or Habitár, to dwell, inhabite, *Abitár or Habitár, to dwell, inhabit, Abitár, or Habitár, to dwell, lodge or abide in a place.lodge or abide in a place. live, or inhabit in a place. Lat. Habito. Fabricár, Præs. yo Fabríco, 1. Præt. Fabricár, Præs. yo Fabríco, 1. Præt. Fabricár. Præs. Fabríco. Præt. yo Fabriqué, to frame, to forge, yo Fabriqué, to frame, to forge, to Fabriqué; to build, to frame, to worke, to fashion, to invent, to worke, to fashion, to invent, to make, to forge. make, to builde.to build. *Falcificár, Præs. yo Falcifíco, 1. *Falcificár, Præs. yo Falcifíco, 1. Falcificár. Præs. Falcifíco. Præt. yo Falcifiqué, to falsifie, to Præt. yo Falcifiqué, to falsifie, to Præt. Falcifiqué; to falsifie, to counterfaite, to corrupt.counterfeit, to corrupt. corrupt, to counterfeit. Famosaménte, famouslie, Famosaménte, famously, Famosaménte, famously, renowmedly, notably.renowmedly, notably. notably. Labránça, f. tillage, husbandrie.Labránça, f. tillage, Labránça, Tillage, husbandry.Husbandry; also a Farm, or Parcel of till’d Land. *Láña, f. an iron that they vse in *Láña, f. an iron that they vse in Láña, a cramping Iron to bind buildings to hold the stones togither. buildings to hold the stones together.Stones together in building. Lanúdo, m. woollie.Lanúdo, m. woolly. Lanúdo, woolly. Tafuréa, f. a horse boate, a boate to Tafuréa, f. a horse boat, a boat to Tafuréa, a Ferry-boat for ferrie ouer horses with. ferrie ouer horses with. Horses. Arab. * Tagarmina, a kinde of thistle sweete * Tagarmina, a kinde of thistle sweet Tagarmína, a sort of sweet to eate.to eat. Thistle, good to eat. Arab. Tálamo, m. a bedde chamber where Tálamo, m., a bed-chamber where Tálamo, a Bridal Bed, or Bedthe bride and bridegroome do lie.the bride and bridegroome doe lie.chamber, Greek, Thalamos. The situation is similar in the English-Spanish parts of each dictionary, confirming that Stevens used the second edition of Minsheu’s dictionary: Minsheu (1599): A Dictionarie Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie Stevens (1705): A Dictionary in English and Spanish in English and Spanish English and Spanish to Accumulate or heape togither, to Accumulate or heap together, to Accumulate or heap vide Acumulár. vide Acumulár. together, Acumulár. a Facultie, vide Facultád. a Faculty, v. Facultád. a Faculty, Facultád. a Fallowe fielde, v. Barvécho. a Fallow field, v. Barvécho. a Fallow field, Barvécho. Fallowing time for lande, v. Fallowing time for land, Fallowing time for Land, Barvechazón. v. Barvechazón. Barvechazón. to Larde, v. Enlardár, Pringár. to Lard, v. Enlardár, Pringár. to Lard, Enlardár, Pringar. the Latine toong, v. Léngua latína. the Latine tongue, v. Léngua latína. the Latin tongue, Léngua latína. to Launce, or open a soare, to Launce or open a sore, vide Abrír to Launce, or open a sore, vide Abrír herída. herída. Abrír herída, Sajár, Lanceteár. a Table plaier, v. Jugadór de táblas. a Table player, v. Jugadór de táblas. a Table Player, Jugadór de tablas. a Tanne house, vide Tenería. a Tan-house, v. Tenería. a Tan house, Tenería. to Tappe vessels, vide Ponér to Tap vessels, vide Poner torníllos to Tap Vessels, Ponér torníllos torníllos en barriles. en barriles. en barríles, or Ponér caña. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 258 How much did Stevens borrow from Minsheu (1623)? opinions among scholars vary. For instance, in the late nineteenth century, Knapp (1884, 8) thought Stevens’ dictionary was “[a] painstaking work, and the basis of subsequent Spanish-English dictionaries up to Neuman’s (1802).” Wiener (1899, 9) replied to this opinion saying that “John Stevens’ A New Spanish and English Dictionary is nothing but a shameless copy of Minsheu with some matter of his own of a doubtful character.” Based on our study of Stevens as a professional translator, it can immediately be objected to Wiener’s opinion that there is evidence to support the view that Stevens was a man of broad scholarship, that he actually was familiar with the sources of the material he added to the dictionary, and that these sources were far from being of “doubtful character”. Like Wiener, Santoyo (1974, 100) discounted Stevens’ remarks in the catalogue concerning the sources he used, saying that “[a] pesar de estas detalladas afirmaciones [Stevens’], la obra de Stevens es (en una proporción que llega al 90%) una mera copia de la de Minsheu.” In his study of the sources of Stevens’ dictionary, Steiner (1970, 60 ff.) establishes Stevens’ dependence on Minsheu (1599) and oudin, with the etymologies taken from Covarrubias’ Tesoro de la lengua castellana o española and Bernardo José Aldrete’s Del origen y principio de la lengva castellana o romance qve oy se vsa en Espana (1674)(209) (a work mentioned by Stevens in the Catalogue of Authors) in the Spanish-English part. In the case of the English- Spanish part, Steiner (1970, 71) considers Minsheu 1599 to be the main source “although available in his time [Stevens’] were monolingual English hard-word dictionaries.” Steiner (1970, 105) sums up his opinion as follows: “The 1705 English-Spanish work is an almost verbatim copy of Minsheu, while the 1706 Spanish-English work is an amalgamation of Minsheu (1599) and oudin (1607) with a bit of Aldrete (1606) and Covarrubias (1611) […].” our sample from the Spanish-English part contains a series of identical or quasi-identical entries in Minsheu 1623 and Stevens 1706. Such series are rare, but they clearly illustrate the derivative relationship. Noland (1989, 251-2) says that Stevens also consulted the Spanish word list of Minsheu’s Most Copious Spanish Dictionarie, with Latine and English (1617). In the following examples we see that Stevens (1706) was closer to Minsheu (1623): HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 259 (209) Stevens may have used the 1673-74 edition, in which Aldrete’s book was bound together with Covarrubias’ Tesoro . For bibliographical data, see Niederehe, (1999, 24-5 and 221-2); there is a facsimile of the 1674 edition available online from the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes . Minsheu (1617): Most Copious Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie Stevens (1706): A Spanish and Spanish Dictionarie in Spanish and English English Dictionary Ø *Abraçáda, f. an embracing, Abraçáda, an embracing, hugging, or clasping in the armes. hugging, or clasping in the Also a fathome.Arms. Abraçáda. [...] A. a mingled wine.Ø Ø Abraçada. […] A. the vine embrased *Abraçáda vid, a vine wreathed one Ø or wreathed one within another.with another. Abraçadéras. […] A. Braces of Iron ØØ or wood to hold fast or embrace any worke or building made of wood or stone. Ø Abraçádo, m. embraced, hugged, Abraçádo, embrac’d, hugg’d, or clasped in armes.or clasp’d in the Arms. Ø *Abraçadór, m. one that embraceth, Abraçadór, one that huggeth, or claspeth in his armes.embraces, huggs, or clasps in the Arms. Ø *Abraçamiénto, m. an embracing, Abraçamiento, embracing, hugging or clasping in his armes.hugging, or clasping in the Arms. Abraçár. […] A. to Embrace. […] Abraçar, to embrace, hug, or claspe Abraçar, to embrace, to hugg, in armes.or clasp in the Arms; also to encompass or hem in. From Braços, the Arms. […] […] […] Lavadéro, vt Lavatório. Lavadéro, m. a washing place.Lavadéro, a Washing place. [Lavatório. L. lavatorium. a washing *[Lavatório, m. a lauer to wash at, [Lavatório, a Laver to wash place,…] a bathe.] at, a Bath, a Cistern.] Lavádo, part: à Lavár. *Lavádo, m. washed.Lavádo, wash’d. Lavadór. […] A. a washer. Lavadór, m. a washer.Lavadór, a Washer. Lavadúra. […] A. a washing Lavadúra, f. washing.Lavadúra, a Washing. Lavajál, vt Cenadál. *Lavajál, Lavajo, wallowing in water Lavajal, a Puddle, a or durt, to wash as swine doe, aSlough, a place full of Mire. puddle. Lavájo, idem.*Lavájo, idem.Lavájo, idem. Identical entries do occur in Minsheu (1623) and Stevens (1706), but the following set of examples show that Stevens did not borrow blindly in the Spanish- English section from Minsheu (1623): Minsheu (1617): Most Copious Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie Stevens (1706): A Spanish and Spanish Dictionarie in Spanish and English English Dictionary Abotonádo part. de Abotonár. *aBotonádo, m. buttoned, clasped, Abotonádo, button’d, as a hooked.Man’s Coat, in Trees it is budded. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 260 Ø aBotonadúra, f. a button or claspe.Abotonadúra, buttoning, or the Place on which the Buttons are fastned. Abotonadúra de los arboles, […] ØØ A. the bud of a tree […] Abotonadúra de oro o plata. […] A. aBotonadúra de óro o pláta, a claspe, Buttons or buckles of gold or silver.or button of siluer or gold.Ø […] Abotonár o Abrochár la vestidúra. aBotonár, to button, to claspe, &c. to Abotonár, to button a […] A. to button, buckle, or clasp. bud.Garment, in Trees to bud. v. Botón. From Botón, a Button, or a Bud of a Tree. Abotonár los árboles, o Brotár. i. q. aBotonár los árboles, to bud, sprout, [s. v. Abotonár] Botár o echár fuéra botones. […] A. to or begin to blossome as trees and bud forth. […] herbes doe. Abouár vi Abolár. *Abovádo, vide Abobádo. Abovádo, vid. Abobádo. ØØAbovedádo, vaulted, or arched. Abovedár. […] A. to vault, or make ØAbovedár, to vault, or arch. in manner of a vaulted roofe. Abovílla vt Abubílla. […] ØØ Abrá, vi. Abré. *Abrá, i. Avrá, shall or will haue: Abrá, or Aurá, there will be, or the future tense of the Infinitiue Avér. shall be, the Future Tense of Avér, to have; also it will come, but in this Sense Obs. Abra […] A. an opening. *A’bra, a place in Antwerpe so called, Abra, any opening, a Creek where is a hauen comming from sea.of the Sea, or an Inlet into the Land. From Abrír, to open. Note in the previous examples that entries are added and others deleted or modified, and that Stevens may have borrowed from the Spanish-Latin-English of Minsheu (1617) to modify entries. The following examples from letter Fof the three dictionaries confirm these features: Minsheu (1617): Most Copious Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie Stevens (1706): A Spanish and Spanish Dictionarie in Spanish and English English Dictionary Fiádo, part: de fiár. *Fiádo, as dár en fiádo, to deliuer Fiádo, trusted, credited. vpon trust, to credit with. Fiadór. […] a suretie, […] à criance, Fiadór, m. a surety that vndertaketh Fiadór, a Surety, or Bail; he for a hawke. Item à ribon, to stay a to see another mans debt answered, that is bound for another. In cloake on ones shoulders.or that baileth one out of prison.Faulconry it is the small long Line that is fastned to the Hawk’s Lease, when she is first Lur’d, to bring her back HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 261 at Pleasure, and is call’d a Creance. [s.v. Fiadór] Ø Fiadór, is also the Loop of a Cloak that comes about the Neck to button, that it may not fall off. Fiámbre. […] A. cold meate, […] *Fiámbre, f. cold meat.Fiámbre, Cold Meat, Quasi Friambre. Fiámbréras. […] A. a safe to set ØFiambréra, a large Hamper, cold meate in. in which Great Men when they travel, carry Cold Meat. Fiánça. L. sponsio. Fiánça, f. credit, putting in sureties Fiança, Bail, Surety. for debt, bailing of prisoners, any assurance. Fiár. […] A. to trust, also to put in Fiár, to trust another, to become Fiár, to trust, to credit, to bail, a suretie […] surety for another, to put in baile to be bound for, to confide in, for other.to relie on. Prov. Ni fies, ni porfies, ni apuéstes, ni préstes, y vivirás éntre las gentes. Do not trust, nor contend, nor lay Wagers nor lend, and you’ll live among Men. That is, you will live peaceably, because those things often breed ill Blood. ØØFicár, in Cant, to play; Ficánte, in Cant, a Gamester. There is an increase of approximately 19 per cent in Stevens’ English-Spanish part in comparison to that of Minsheu. According to Steiner (1970, 71), Stevens copied Minsheu for the English-Spanish part and did not consult the English hardword dictionaries. For his additions, Stevens may have turned to Minsheu’s polyglot dictionary; to the Latin and English dictionaries, such as the Linguæ Latinæ Liber Dictionarius Quatripartitus of Adam Littleton (1678, 1684); to the Great French Dictionary of Guy Miège (1688) or the Royal Dictionary of Abel Boyer (1699); or even to the English-Italian part of Giovanni Torriano’s Dictionary Italian & English […] whereunto is added a Dictionary English & Italian (1659).(210) Stevens may have also reversed entries from Minsheu’s Spanish-English part, just as Minsheu himself had done to develop his English-Spanish part starting from the Spanish-English of Percyvall. The following examples show that, in the English-Spanish part, Stevens relied more heavily on Minsheu (1623) than in the Spanish-English section. They DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 262 (210) For a study of the potential sources of Stevens (1705), see Cormier and Fernandez (2004). More often than not Stevens introduced changes in the microstructure, for example a reduction in the number of equivalents: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1706): Spanish and English A Spanish and English Dictionary Fastidiádo, m. loathed, despised much, set at naught.Fastidiádo, loath’d. Fastidiár, to be tedious or loathsome, to trouble, to Fastidiár, to loathe. molest, to importune, to cloy. Also to loath or abborre. Fastídio, m. loathing or loathsomnesse, disdaine, Fastídio, a loathing. Lat. abhorring, setting at naught. Also molestation, trouble, vexation, wearisimnesse, tediousnesse Fastidióso, one giuen to loathing, disdainfull, Fastidióso, loathsome. scornfull, abhorring much. Also troublesome, importuning, tedious, irkesome. *Fastío, vide Hastío, m. loathing, disdaine.Fastío, Vid. Hastío. Fásto, or Faústo, m. pride, arrogancie, insolency, Fásto, Vid. Faústo. hautinesse of heart. Fatál, fatall, that the destinies haue appointed, such as Fatál, Fatal. Lat. his fortune is. Fatíga, f. wearines, griefe of mind, vexation, Fatíga, Weariness, Fatigue. Lat. discouragement. Fatigádo, m. wearied, vexed, grieued, out of comfort.Fatigádo, fatigu’d, wearied. Stevens’ changes went further than abridging the microstruture. Besides the additions to the word list, Stevens took some equivalents from Minsheu (1623), reworded the microstrutural information, added other equivalents and/or short explanations: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1706): Spanish and English A Spanish and English Dictionary Abreviadúra or Abbreviatúra, f. an abridgement, a Abreviadúra, or Abreviamiénto, an Abridgment, cutting off short of the matter, a drawing of it into a Retrenchment, cutting off, or shortning, or short course.writing with Abbreviations. Abreviár, to abridge, to cut short, to draw into a briefe Abreviár, to make short, to be brief, to abridge, to course. cut off short. From Bréve, short. ØAbréyro, a Town in Portugal in the District of Villareal, 3 Leagues from Villaflor. It contains but 120 Houses. *Abrí, m. a sunne shining place, a shadowie place from Ø extremitie of heat. Abridór, m. one that openeth.Abridór, one that opens, also an iron Tool used to starch Bands on. […] […] HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 269 Fervorosaménte, hotly, ardently, hastily, eagerly.Fervorosaménte, earnestly, eagerly, zealously. *Fervoróso, vide Herveróso, hot, in a chase, hasty, Fervoróso, fervorous, earnest, eager, zealous. eager, earnest. ØFesteár. Vid. Festejár. Festijádo, feasted, made merry, well entertained.Festejádo, made much of, well entertain’d, feasted. ØFestejadór, one that makes much of, or kindly entertains others. Festijar, to make good cheere, to feast, to entertaine. Festejár, to make much of, to entertain kindly, to treat lovingly. Festivál, of a feast, or belonging to a feast, or to good Festivál, Festival, Joyful, belonging to a Feast. cheere. *Festividád, f. the festiuall day.Festividád, a Festival Day, or the solemnizing of it. […] […] Lechúga, f. a lettuce.Lechúga, a Lettice. Lat. Lactúca. So call’d from being milky, and good to fill Nurses with Milk. There are many Sorts, which see in Ray verb. Lactúca. Lechúga créspa, a curled or ragged leafed lettuce.Lechúga créspa, Curl’d, or Ragged-leav’d, or Endive-leav’d Lettice. ØLechúga Murciana, the Cabbage-Lettice. * Lechúga parráda por el suelo, a Cabbage lettuce, a Lechúga parráda, Broad-leav’d Lettice. leafed or headed Lettuce. ØLechúga Romána, the Roman Lettice. *Lechugílla, f. the ruffe of a ruffe band. Also a little Lechuguílla, a little Lettice; also the scolloping of Lettuce.a Rush, or the like. […] […] Tapiár, to make a mud wall.Tapiár, to make a Mud-wall; to Wall up a Place. *Tapiár los médios cuérpos, to set one and ram him fast Tapiár el medio cuérpo, an old cruel Punishment, in the ground vp to the middle, and so let him die.to stick a Man half way in the Earth, and so let him die. *Tapiçádo, hanged with Arras.Tapiçádo, hung with Tapistry, or the Ground cover’d with Carpets. Stevens continued the diachronic identification of the headword, which Minsheu had begun by indicating the etymology of Arabic words. Stevens extended the indication of etymology further using Aldrete, Covarrubias and, according to Noland (1989, 252), Minsheu’s Most Copious Spanish Dictionarie: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1706): Spanish and English A Spanish and English Dictionary Abiltár, vide Aviltár, to make vile, to debase, to cast Abiltár, or Aviltár. to debase, to make mean, vile, downe, to set at nought, to cast off, to hold scorne of. or abject. From the Lat. Vilis. […] […] DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 270 ØFálto, deficient, wanting. Gothick. […] […] Fárro, or Escándia, bran, the cribble of meale that is Fárro, obs. Bran. Some will have it to be any boulted or sifted out: some say it signifieth any hard Corn; It is also Barley that has the Husk just taken corne, or bread corne. off, which serves to make Ptisan for sick People. From the Latin Far, Corn. […] […] ØLegón, a Spade. Lat. Lígo. […] […] ØTabahóla, a confuse Noise of many People talking, or otherwise. Arab. […] […] * Tacáño, a lewd villanous fellow.Tacaño, a Knave, a sly deceitful Fellow. From the Hebrew Tacach, fraud. Stevens also included cant significations in the Spanish-English part, for instance: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1706): Spanish and English A Spanish and English Dictionary ØAbispedár, in Cant. to gaze steadily. […] ØFaldúdo, that has great Skirts, or Hanging-Coats. In Cant, a Target. […] ØFarabusteár: In Cant, to look out sharp. ØFarabusteadór, In Cant, a sharp Thief. […] ØFilár: In Cant, to cut a Purse. ØFilatéro: In Cant, a Cut-Purse. […] Lándre, f. kernels in the necke or thigh, the blaines, Landre, a pestilential sort of Swelling, […] In botches, the pestilence.Cant, it is Money ty’d in the corner of a Handkerchief, or such like place. […] ØTablámes, in Cant, a Table-cloth. […] ØTaquín, in Cant, a Pick-pocket. […] ØTarasáda, in Cant, a Cheat. ØTarásas, in Cant, Dice. Together with cant significations, there are other instances that show how Stevens took pride in stressing “semantic accuracy”, as Malkiel (1959-60, 118, footnote 46) indicates. Examples of these are the indication of metaphorical and poetical usage: HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 271 Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1706): Spanish and English A Spanish and English Dictionary Abismo, a bottomlesse pit, a deepe gulfe where many Abísmo, an Abyss, a bottomless Pit, a deep Gulph, seas or waters meet, a place in the Sea so deepe as it a deep Valley. Met. Hell, or any profound thing that cannot be sounded, a whirle-poole, a place in hell. cannot be comprehended. Lat. Abyssus. […] […] Fealdád, f. foulenesse, filthinesse, shamefull dealing, Fealdád, Deformity, Ugliness. Met. scandalous, or dishonest doing. dishonest Dealing. *Feaménte, fowly, shamefully, filthily.Feaménte, uglily, deform’dly. Met. scandalously, dishonestly. […] […] *Fémina, vide Mugér. Fémina, a Woman, poetical. Latin. […] […] *Fenéstra, vide Ventána. Fenestra, Poetical for a Window. From the Latin. The right Spanish Name being Ventána. […] […] ØLambicár, To distil from a Limbeck or Still. Met. To strain, […] […] […] ØMetér la lánça hásta el regatón, to thrust in the Lance up to the thick part of the Hand. Met. To press a Man hard. […] […] ØTálpa, a Mole, Lat. and only us’d in Spanish by Poets, the Spanish Name being Tópo. other entries show a diachronic usage mark for obsolete or old Spanish: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1706): Spanish and English A Spanish and English Dictionary ØAbemolár, Obs. to soften, to supple. […] […] ØAbéso, bad, naught. Obs. […] […] Abondóso or Abundánte, plentifull, abundant.Abóndo, or Abondóso, Obs. plentiful, abounding. […] […] ØFáca, Obs. vid. Háca. ØFacanéa, Obs. vid. Hacanéa. […] […] ØFárpa, in Old Spanish is a Rag, or Rent, or a loose Piece hanging from a Garment. In the old Laws of Spain, call’d Lyges de las partidas, Part 2. Law 13. they call the Points of the Standards, cut like Streamers, Farpas. […] […] DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 272 ØFelonía, an Old Spanish word, signifying Treachery, Disloyalty, Treason; but not what we vulgary call Felony. From the Latin Fallere, to deceive. […] […] ØLamín, Obs. a dainty, liquorish Fellow. […] […] ØLazdrádo, Obs. for Lazerádo. Also a Labourer, but out of use. […] […] Talantóso, wilfull, desirous, lustfull, giuen to voluptuous Talantóso, Obs. Desirous, Wilful. pleasure. […] […] ØTardáme, Obs. a Vessel that is Row’d with oars. These procedures indicate that Stevens’ general method in relation to Minsheu was to change the microstructure altogether, to add numerous entries and to delete others. Stevens carried out this method extensively in the Spanish-English part; as a result, the number of identical entries is very small. In other words, in the Spanish- English part Stevens is not a mere copy of Minsheu because the changes are too frequent and too numerous. Was that also the case in the English-Spanish part? Steiner (1970, 58) remarks that in this part “it is readily obvious that there are additions and subtractions from Minsheu. Stevens removes the word vide or its abbreviation v. from the borrowed entries; he does not use black letter; he eliminates certain particularizing phrases […].” Let us take a closer look at the English-Spanish part. Whereas the additions Stevens made to the Spanish-English part are encyclopedic in nature, the changes in the English-Spanish part are limited to the addition of entries as well as some phrases and equivalents. Stevens also left out equivalents from Minsheu (1623): Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1705): English and Spanish A Dictionary English and Spanish ØAn Adage, Adagio. an Adamant stone, vide Ymán, Calamíta.an Adamant, Diamánte. ØAdamantine, Diamantíno, Adamantíno. to Adde, vide Añadír. to Add, Añadír. Added or ioyned, v. Añadído. Added, Añadído. an Addition, or putting to of any thing, v. Addición, an Addition, Añadidúra. Añadidúra. an Adder, v. Culébra. an Adder, Bívora. […] […] Øto Fall away in ones flesh, Enflaquecér. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 273 Øto Fall down plum, Caér de plómo. Øto Fall on ones face, Caér de búzes. Øto Fall backwards, Dar de espaldas. Øto Fall out with another, Reñír. […] […] to Teach, vide Amaestrár, Disciplinár, Enseñár. to Teach, Amaestrár, Disciplinar, Enseñár. a Teacher, v. Ensenadór, Maéstro. a Teacher, Ensenadór, Maéstro. Teaching, v. Enseñánça, Diciplína. Teaching, Enseñánça, Disciplína. to Teame horses together, v. Atár cavállos júntos.to Team Horses together, juntar los cavállos al cárro. to Teare the haire, vide Mesár cabéllos. to Tear the Hair, Mesár cabéllos, Desgreñárse, Arrancárse los cabéllos. Tearing or renting, v. Mesadúra. Tearing or renting, Mesadúra, Desgreñadúra. to Teare or rent in peeces, v. Despedeçár, Destroçár. to Tear or rent in pieces, Despedaçár, Destroçar, Hazér pedaços, Rompér, Rasgár. The series of entries between to Lead and Light, or nimble in our sample from Stevens (1705) is interesting, since it confirms the above mentioned procedures. This series covers 273 entries, of which 55 do not appear in Minsheu (1623) and from which 13 entries were omitted (a plucking off of the Leaues, to giue License to doe a thing, to Leauell by line, a Leauelling line, one that hath leauelleth by line, to Leauell or make euen, aLecterne or deske, Lees, Leisure, or leasure, to Lepe, Lewsed, a Lewser, and I had Leyser). Stevens added new entries (Learning is an exceptional entry as Stevens gives the grammatical category): Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1705): English and Spanish A Dictionary English and Spanish ØLearning, Subst. Sciéncia, Sabiduría. […] […] ØLegionary, or belonging to a legion, Legionário. ØLegitimate, Legítimo. […] […] ØLevell’d, or made plain, Allanádo, Arrasádo. Øa Leveller that takes aim, Apuntadór, Asestadór. Øa Leveller that makes plain, Allanadór, Arrasadór. ØLevelling, Apuntamiénto, Asestamiénto, Allanamiénto, Arrasamiénto. […] […] ØLibra, the constellation, La balánça. […] […] Øto Light upon, or find a thing, Dár con úna cósa. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 274 He also added phrasal entries: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1705): Spanish and English A Dictionary English and Spanish ØLed aside, Desviádo. ØLed into, Introducído. […] […] Øto Let to hire, Alquilár. Øto Let alone, Dexár, Desamparár. Øto Let go, Soltár. And new equivalents: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1705): English and Spanish A Dictionary English and Spanish Length, v. Larguéza, Longúra. Length, Larguéza, Longúra, Largúra. […] […] Letting, v. Embaráço, Embárgo. Letting, Embaráço, Embárgo, Estórvo, Impediménto. […] […] Liberalitie, v. Larguéza, Franquéza, Liberalidád. Liberality, Larguéza, Franquéza, Liberalidád, Generosidad. Liberall, v. Liberál. Liberal, Liberál, Fránco. […] […] a Liege man or subiect, v. Subjéto. a Liege man, or subject, Subjéto, Súbdito, Vasállo. Moreover, Stevens changed equivalents found in Minsheu (1623), his main source for this part: Minsheu (1623): A Dictionarie in Stevens (1705): English and Spanish A Dictionary English and Spanish to Leuie, tax or sesse, v. Taxár, Empadronár. to Levy, Levantár. Leuied, v. Empadronádo, Taxádo. Levy’d, Levantádo. […] […] to live Lewdly, v. Bivír mál. a Lewd person, Un perdído. a Lewd person, v. Mal hómbre. to live Lewdly, Vivír úna vída perdída. […] […] Lewdly, v. Malaménte. Lewdly, Perdidaménte. Lewdnesse, v. Maldád. Lewdness, Dishonestidád. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 275 Further aspects of the contents and organization of the dictionary are discussed by Steiner (1970, 59 ff.). Nevertheless, it seems clear that Steiner’s statement as to the “slavish” dependence of Stevens upon Minsheu needs revision. In the Spanish- English part, Stevens reduces the synchronic information by omitting the part of speech and keeping only the inflectional irregularities of verbs and the accent on the Spanish headword for pronunciation. Moreover, he does not follow Minsheu’s use of a capital letter for paradigmatic information, that is, to indicate word formation. Stevens considerably expands the diachronic information (with more etymologies) and the explanatory information (with encyclopedic descriptions). He provides additional semantic information for the headword (cant, poetical and metaphorical significations; obsolete usage) and adds proverbs for syntagmatic information. It is in the English-Spanish part that Stevens is closer to his predecessor, sometimes keeping long phrasal headwords resulting from Minsheu’s reversal method with the lemma capitalized and the synchronic information limited to marking the accent on Spanish equivalents. When reworking Minsheu’s dictionary, Stevens followed the common practice at that time, adding such new material as he saw fit from other dictionaries and books on a variety of subjects, especially to the Spanish-English part. 7.1.4 The second edition of 1726 7.1.4.1 Introduction The second edition of Stevens’ dictionary is, in the words of Steiner (1970, 61), “the first dictionary in the history of Spanish and English bilingual lexicography not to share the volume in which it is contained with some other work such as a grammar or dialogues.” Steiner, however, is not able to explain how this change took place. Stevens (1726) is a revision of the previous edition in a smaller format, with the corresponding increase in the number of pages. The publication of the New Dictionary, Spanish and English, and English and Spanish in 1726 was a shared enterprise involving nine publishers: J. Darby, A. Bettesworth, F. Fayram, J. Pemberton, C. Rivington, J. Hooke, F. Clay, J. Batley, and E. Symon.(214) DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 276 (214) For information about these publishers, see the corresponding entries in Plomer (1968), and Plomer, Aldis, et al. (1968). 7.1.4.2 Megastructure 7.1.4.2.1 Outside matter The dictionary is organized as follows:(215) 1. Title page in English and Spanish 2. The “Prologo” or “Preface”, in two columns, with the Spanish text on the left and the English on the right (pp. iii-vii, that is, 5 pp.) 3. “A New Spanish and English Dictionary” (unpaginated) 4. “A New Dictionary English and Spanish” (unpaginated) 7.1.4.2.2 Macro- and microstructures Concerning the number of entries, our calculation determined an average of 69 entries per page in the Spanish-English part, for a total of approximately 44,000 entries, and an average of 144 entries per page for the English-Spanish part, or some 25,000 entries in this section. For the Spanish-English section of 1706 the total was evaluated at approximately 43,600 entries, and for the English-Spanish part of 1705 at 22,500 entries. It would seem from these calculations that Stevens did not add as many entries to the first part as he did to the second, and that the two editions are not, strictly speaking, identical. The number of entries added to the Spanish-English part in 1726 may seem negligible, but it is worth exploring this matter briefly by examining the samples themselves. In his description of the dictionary, Steiner (1970, 62) says that the two editions are almost identical: The 1726 edition has been reset in a typeface different from that of 1706. The guide letters at the top of each column refer to the subdivisions in the body of the text. Catchwords are used in 1706. […] The total number of entries remains about the same although a few new vocabulary entries have been added in the 1726 edition […]. But these changes are far and far between. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 277 (215) Viñaza (1978, 748-9) transcribes the second part (in Spanish) of the title page, adding a brief description of the work and an excerpt from the “Prologo”; a brief description of the work and complete transcription of the title page can be seen in Niederehe (2005, 63). As in the case of the first edition, the estimated number of pages varies. Microfilm reel 5318: 2 ( English Short Title Catalogue , Record Id ESTC T153614) describe the dictionary as having seven pages of preliminaries (including a blank page between the title page and the body of the dictionary) plus 945 pages. Steiner (1970, 62) gives 640 pp. and 176 pp. for the first and second parts respectively. The complete pdf version that we also consulted from the Eighteenth Century Collections Online , and on which our collation is based, contains six pages of preliminaries (there is no blank page between the title page and the body of the dictionary), 632 pp. in the first part and 174 pp. in the second part, for a total of 812 pp. In our sample from the Spanish-English part, 51 out of the 991 entries are new, an increase of approximately 5 per cent with respect to the 1706 edition. The additions are normally short entries, such as Abacáres, Abánco, Abechúcho, Abissínia, Fáço, Fanático, Fastuóso, Fatíble, Ladrilléro, Lançón, Langór, Lapíz, Tacón, Tajadúras, Talégo, and Tamborear; some derivations, such as Abdicación, Abdicádo,Abdicar, Familiarizádo, Familiarizárse, Farmacía, Farmacopéa; and some phrases and cant vocabulary as follows: Stevens (1706): Stevens (1726): A Spanish and English Dictionary A New Spanish and English Dictionary ØDe Diós abáxo, Under God. […] […] Ø Fáço, in cant an handkerchief. […] […] ØDar lamedór, among gamesters is a cant word to let a man win as first to draw him in to play deep, and win all he has. The words signifying to give him syrrup, that is, to sweeten him. […] […] ØTabáco en pólvo, snuff. ØTabáco de húmo, smoking tobacco. ØUn polvillo, o una présa de tabáco, a pinch of snuff. […] […] ØTábla de pan, or tábla de hórno, the eight of diamonds at cards, so call’d formerly, because those we call diamonds were then represented on the Spanish cards like loaves, and call’d Panes. Fiél desengáño contra la ociosidád, y los juegos, fol. 21. p.2. ØTábla del tocíno, a cant word among gamesters, for a table where there is much noise, and little or very low play. ØTábla de la ovéja, a cant word for a table where they play, and give sparingly to the box. […] […] ØTáça penáda, a cup that is uneasy to drink out of. ØTaça llána, a flat cup. In our sample from the English-Spanish part, 237 out of 2097 entries are new, an increase of 11 per cent with respect to the first edition. These new entries, such as Ablegation, To accost, An adept, Advowson, To falter in speech, Fare in carriage, To ferment, Finical, The laity, To leer, A lieutenant-general, A life-rent, Tainted, To tantalize, To teaze, A thesis, and many others, generally follow the same structural DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 278 7.1.5.2 The edition of 1726 In the topical tradition, Felix Alvarado (1717, 1718) included title pages in Spanish and in English with his vocabulary; the second edition of Stevens (1726) is the first dictionary to divide the title page in English and in Spanish, which means that at this point in time alphabetical dictionaries were being conceived of for a larger public, English and/or foreign. The 1726 title page is shorter that of 1706, containing no mention of the sources of the dictionary, but only of the expansion of the macrostructure: “Much more Copious than any other hitherto Extant.” It should be remembered that most of the additions went into the English-Spanish part. Likewise, there is no mention of accentuation, only of the encyclopaedic character of the dictionary: Laying Down The true Etymology of Words, with their various Significations; Terms of Arts and Sciences, Proper Names of Men and Women, Surnames of Families, Titles of Honour, the Geography of Spain and the West Indies, and principal Plants growing in those Parts. To all which are added, Vast Numbers of Proverbs, Phrases, and Difficult Expressions, all literally explained, with their Equivalents. Reduction also affected the front matter; this edition contains only a preface (bilingual English and Spanish) in addition to the title page. The opening sentences of the preface indicate that Stevens was probably accused of plagiarism: Dictionaries of all sorts are so numerous, and the respective Prefaces to them so various, that it will be next to an impossibility to say any thing in this, that has not been said in some other, for which those ill-natur’d persons, who would be thought Criticks, at the expence of the reputation of such as endeavour to be some way serviceable in their generation, by imparting what they know to the rest that have not yet attain’d the same knowledge, will be ready to revile the Writer with the title of a Plagiary. (our italics) The preface takes on a bitter tone when Stevens comes to the genesis of the book. As Steiner (1970, 61) remarked, Stevens makes it clear in the preface that the edition of 1726 was not published thanks to the support of friends: The first thing the compiler of this Work thinks fit to acquaint the Reader with is, that he has not the vanity to impose upon the publick, by telling them, the commands of great men, and the importunity of friends have oblig’d him to undertake this work, those motives have been remote from him, he is a stranger to HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 285 any mighty persons who have so much generosity as to encourage such an undertaking, and would not easily comply with such pretended friends as should take the liberty to put him upon such a laborious task, without showing him what account it would turn to. on the contrary, commercial reasons were at the origin of the second edition: The only inducement he has had, has been from Booksellers, who finding a demand for a Spanish Dictionary, concluded it would be for their advantage to print one, and for several reasons judg’d him capable of answering their expectation, and accordingly propos’d to him such terms as he thought fit to accept of. This is plain dealing, all other pretences are but empty notions inspir’d by vain glory, when whatsoever falsehood they give out to palliate their avarice, all that the greatest men really aim at is nothing but their interest, and the most celebrated patriots would suffer their country to perish, did they not raise themselves by that which they would have thought a zeal to support it. This preface is considerably shorter than that of 1706. Stevens makes some comments on the additions to the dictionary, emphasizing its comprehensiveness: This may be asserted with truth, and without incurring any censure, viz. that it is the most copious of any yet extant, in regard that all those which were publish’d before in several languages, and could be purchas’d, have been consulted, to make the improvements, as may appear upon perusal, their several authors being quoted, where any words are liable to be call’d in question. Besides, the compiler has read many Spanish authors of late, which he had not seen before, and omitted nothing he could find in them, that was proper to be added, mentioning them particularly where the terms they use seem to deviate very much from the stile of the more modern authors, or what occurs in common conversation. Again, note the method of compiling from dictionaries as well as from other sources, although there is no explicit mention of any particular work, as there was in 1706. In the 1706 preface, Stevens mentioned the borrowings of French words into Spanish and twenty years later this was the language with the most influence on Spanish: Wherein it is to be observ’d, that the Spanish language has receiv’d greater alteration since the erecting of academies in that nation [Spain], and the great and familiar intercourse with France, upon their admitting of a French king, than it did in two hundred years before that time, so that there is now a multitude of new fram’d Spanish words, which were utterly unknown before this present century. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 286 In 1700 began a period of political, commercial and linguistic influence of France upon Spain, when Philip V, a Bourbon and grandson of Louis XIV of France, became King of Spain. A large number of gallicisms entered the Spanish language, and Stevens refers to this influence in the previous quotation. (217) He also refers to the foundation of the Spanish Academy in 1713 and the influence it started to have on Spanish with the publication in 1726 of the first volume of the Academy’s dictionary. The overview of the history of Spanish is here reduced to a few sentences on the Latin origins of Spanish and the historical influence of Gothic, Arabic, French and Italian. The last paragraph contains two interesting remarks. The first, on the declension of irregular verbs, leads to Stevens’ approach, according to which grammatical rules do not belong in a dictionary: “The irregular verbs are all conjugated, as far as their irregularities extend, which is a considerable help to all that have occasion to make use of them; other things that are according to the establish’d rules, must be learnt either by grammar or use, as not appertaining to this work” (our italics). This may explain why the grammar was left out of the 1726 edition. The second remark highlights with more emphasis than in 1706 the idea of a standard variety in Spanish. As seen before, Stevens was the first to speak of a prestige variety (that of Castile) in the 1706 preface. Although he probably did not have a chance to consult the first volume of the Academy’s dictionary (which appeared in the same year as the second edition of his own) and did not follow a normative approach in bilingual lexicography, in 1726 he made it clear that the variety spoken in the Court of Spain, which is according to him the one used by the best authors, should be considered standard Spanish: The language of this Dictionary is the same that is spoken at the court of Spain, and by all the polite persons of that nation, and consequently the same that is found in all their most celebrated authors; for where other words occur, they are always noted as obsolete, or peculiar to some provinces; and it is to be observ’d, that the same is universal throughout that great monarchy, that is, in all parts of the West Indies, the Philippine Islands, &c. only allowing some small difference in the pronunciation in remote provinces, as is usual in all other countries. This section indicates that Stevens was conservative in linguistic matters and more concerned with the language used by classic Spanish authors. HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 287 (217) For an overview of the Spanish language and the influence of French in the eighteenth century, see Diez et al. (1980, 217 ff.), Lapesa (1984, 414 ff.), and San Vicente (1996, 636 ff.). On Bourbon Spain, see Lynch (1989). 7.1.6 Concluding remarks Let us remember that Minsheu enlarged Percyvall’s dictionary “for the learners ease and furtherance” and, likewise, added the English-Spanish part “for the further profite and pleasure of the learner”. The addition of a grammar and dialogues completes Minsheu’s effort to provide the learner with a handbook of Spanish: the dictionary provides the contents, the grammar gives the rules, that is, the form, and the dialogues offer samples of language in use. Stevens follows this structural pattern, which might seem to indicate that he shared Minsheu’s approach. However, the front matter and the word list reveal a different approach: that of a translator and an antiquarian who compiled an encyclopaedic dictionary. At the end of the chapter he devotes to Stevens, Steiner (1970, 67) says that “[c]ertainly Stevens did not compile a work which affords a useful record of the inevitable linguistic changes which occur during a whole century.” Although Stevens does not say it explicitly, he compiled a dictionary for translators, bringing into the dictionary his vast knowledge of literature, history and geography. This is easier to understand from the picture that emerges from Stevens’s prefaces to his dictionaries and translations. The dictionaries, in particular, are the works of an antiquarian and a translator following an encyclopaedic approach. 7.2) Félix Antonio de Alvarado’s Spanish and English Dialogues. With […] the Construction of the Universe, and the Principal Terms of the Arts and Sciences (1718, 1719) 7.1.1 Introduction In the discussion of the Spanish Schoole-master by William Stepney (1591), the typological classification of reference works during the Middle Ages established by Buridant (1986) was mentioned. Topically arranged word lists were one of the components of that classification, and the anonymous Book of English and Spanish (1554?) and Stepney’s Vocabvlario, included in the Spanish Schoole-master, belong to this tradition. Such vocabularies had been helpful in teaching the vernaculars during the Middles Ages and continued to be of use during the Renaissance, as Buridant (1986, 16-7) explains: Le classement onomasiologique et la confection des Nominalia, répondant à des impératifs pratiques de mémorisation, sont loin de s’éteindre après le Moyen Age: le développement du polyglottisme au XVIesiècle en particulier, les dictionnaires DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 288 et plus particulièrement les méthodes pratiques d’apprentissage des langues emploient volontiers les regroupements onomasiologiques parfois intégrés dans des dialogues ou modèles de conversation. The third word list in the Spanish and English topical tradition, in this case a nomenclator, is included in the work of a Spaniard who emigrated to England for religious reasons, Félix Antonio de Alvarado, whose Spanish and English Dialogues appeared in London in 1718 and 1719. Very little is known about Alvarado’s life. In the title page of the 1719 edition of his Spanish and English Dialogues he introduces himself as follows: Naturál de la Ciudád de Sevílla en España; más Tiempo ha Naturalizádo en éste Réyno; Presbýtero de la Yglésia Anglicana; Capellán de los Honorábles Señóres Ingléses Mercadéres, qué Comércian en España; è Intérprete de la Litúrgia Inglésa en Español, ô Castellano. Like Antonio del Corro, Alvarado was from Seville and a Protestant. At the end of the previous quotation, Alvarado refers to his translated book La liturgia ynglesa, o el libro de oración commun y administracion de los sacramentos, y otros ritos y ceremonias de la iglesia, según el uso de la iglesia de inglaterra: […] Hispanizado por D. Felix Anthony de Alvarado, Ministro de la Palabra de Dios, published in 1707 in London. According to Menéndez Pelayo (1880, 3:101), Alvarado became a Quaker two years later and by March 1710 he had finished translating the Apologia de la verdadera theologia cristiana, como ella es professada, y predicada, por el pueblo, llamado en menosprecio los tembladores: […] escrita en latin è ingles, por Roberto Barclay, […] Y ahora en castellano por Antonio de Alvarado (London, 1710). (218) Additional information about Alvardo’s life can be found at the very beginning of the dedication of the Spanish and English Dialogues to John Carteret, where Alvarado describes himself as “[u]n Forastéro, ya de Edád, y sin ótros Médios, con qué mantenérse, à si, y à su Familia, qué su Indefatigáble Trabájo, è Indústria, qué ha dexádo su Pátria, y huýdo de la Persecución por el Testimónio de úna buéna Consciéncia […].” Finally, at the end of the 1719 edition there is an “Advertisement”, which is actually a brief biographical note: “The Author of this Book teaches in Gentlemen’s Houses, and at Home: He liveth in James-Street, over against the Rainbow Coffee-House, in Covent-Garden.” HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 289 (218) A list of Alvarado’s books, with a short description and transcription of the title pages, can be seen in Aguilar Piñal (1981, 1: 177-8); this list, however, does not include the 1719 edition of the dialogues. 7.1.2 Sources only a few scholars have briefly discussed Alvarado’s work: for instance, Martín-Gamero (1961, 133-7), Ayala Castro (1992b, 146-8), and Sánchez Pérez (1992, 172-7). The section on Spanish orthography of the Dialogues was studied by Amado Alonso (1951e, 288), who says that Alvarado “[n]o añade ninguna aportación personal; todo es refrito de manuales anteriores, incluyendo el de Juan de Miranda, 1565 […].” Sáez Rivera (2002, 16) says that the “orthographía Española” actually comes from one of Alvarado’s main sources, the Diálogos nuevos en español y en francés by Francisco Sobrino (1708). As for the dialogues, Alonso (1951e, 288) believes Alvarado copied them from William Stepney. Concerning the sources of the dialogues, there is consensus among scholars that Alvarado copied his first thirteen dialogues from Sobrino (1708) and provided the English versions (Martín-Gamero 1961, 136; Ayala Castro 1992b, 147; and Sánchez Pérez 1992, 174). The ultimate source of seven of Sobrino’s dialogues is Minsheu (1599), and Minsheu is also the source of Stevens’ six dialogues. Consequently, there is a link between Stevens and Alvarado; in fact, dialogues one, two, three, five, eight, and nine in Alvarado’s work correspond to dialogues one to six, respectively, in Stevens (1706). Alvarado introduced some modifications, however, that show that his model was the version by Sobrino. In this way, both the dialogues by Stevens (1706) and by Alvarado belong to the tradition of dialogues derived from Minsheu, and not from Stepney, as Sáez Rivera (2002, 18-22) explains. The chain of copied material that began in the late sixteenth century involved not only dictionaries, but dialogues and grammars as well. The work by Sobrino (1708) also included, besides the dialogues, a nomenclator.(219) However, for his nomenclator (“Fourteenth Dialogue” or “An Easy Method of Learning the Spanish Tongue […]”) Alvarado turned to another of Sobrino’s works. In fact, according to Ayala Castro (1992b, 147), the fourteenth dialogue was taken from Sobrino’s Diccionario nuevo de las lenguas francesa y española (1705): Alvarado ne nous propose rien de nouveau, puisque la nomenclature qui constitue le “Diálogo catorce” est une copie exacte de celle que Francisco Sobrino publiait en 1705, incluse dans le Diccionario Nuevo de las lenguas Francesa y Española.(220) DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 290 (219) See the edition of these dialogues with an introduction on the life and work of Sobrino by Sáez Rivera (2002). Sáez Rivera did not include the nomenclator although it is possible to have an idea of its topical arrangement from the table of contents of the dialogues. About the work of Sobrino, see the overviews by Niederehe (1987b, 20-1), Verdonk (1991, 2978-9 and 1994), Ayala Castro (1992b, 143-5), Alvar Ezquerra (1993, 283-4 and 1995, 180), and Cazorla Vivas (2002). (220) See the full title page, description, and excerpts in Viñaza (1978, 747-8) and in Niederehe (2005, 25-6). Même le titre en tête de la classification thématique et l’ “Aviso al lector” sont copiés littéralement de l’ouvrage de Sobrino, auxquels Alvarado ajoute la version anglaise, faisant de même avec le reste de l’ouvrage. The compilation by Sobrino (1705) is a bidirectional Spanish-French, French-Spanish dictionary in two volumes, published in Brussels. In his record of the book, Viñaza (1978, 748) transcribes the title of the appendix to the second volume: “Methode Facile pour aprendre la langue espagnole; Par l’avangement [sic] des mots selon la construction de l’Univers, avec les principaux termes des Arts & des sciences.” on that same page, Viñaza also gives the following description of this “Methode Facile”: Redúcese á tres partes, divididas en capítulos, donde se hallan, respectivamente, clasificadas las palabras que corresponden á un mismo orden de ideas, primero la francesa, después la castellana. Primera parte. Del mundo: su creación. – Segunda parte. Del hombre y su división. – Tercera parte. De una ciudad y de sus partes. Es, en resolución, un inventario de aquéllos que los antiguos llamaban nominalia. The “Methode facile pour aprendre la langue espagnole” is a lengthy nomenclator in form of dialogue that, according to Ayala Castro (1992b, 144), Sobrino (1705) in turn borrowed from François Pomey: Le répertoire de Sobrino n’est pas original, il s’agit d’une copie exacte du Indiculus Universalis du Jésuite François Pomey, ouvrage qui parut pour la première fois à Lyon en 1667. Celui-ci est rédigé en français et en latin, et Francisco Sobrino s’est borné à rassembler le texte français et à y ajouter la version en espagnol. Ayala Castro (1992b, 147) also explains that Alvarado preferred the dialogue or “Methode facile” in Sobrino (1705) to the nomenclator in Sobrino (1708). In other words, Pomey’s work found its way into Spanish and English bilingual lexicography via Sobrino (1705) and from there to Alvarado (1718). The Indiculus Universalis (or L’univers en abregé, 1667) is a nomenclator for the teaching of Latin. As the reader will see below in the description of Alvarado’s fourteenth dialogue (section 7.2.3.2), the Indiculus has a systematic and detailed classification of subjects based on the philosophical ideas of the time and follows what Quemada (1968, 366) calls “[u]n classement logique, ‘philosophique’. C’est celui qui rend compte d’une vision organisée du monde. Il est à l’origine des futurs classements notionnels ou analogiques. C’est celui qui a été le plus souvent utilisé dans les nomenclatures développées comme la Sylva de Decimator ou l’Indiculus Universalis du Père Pomey […].” In the preface,(221) Pomey HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 291 (221) These quotations are taken from the English, Latin and French edition of 1679 available in pdf format from the Eighteenth Century Collections Online ; see Pomey (1679). explains that he originally intended to compile a word list for teaching Latin to elementary school students: “Ma premiere pensée n’avoit esté que de travailler pour les Ecoliers de Grammaire; & c’est pour cela que je n’ay rien dit en Latin dans tout ce Livre, que je n’aye mis la vulgaire devant.” Searching for the best way to present his topical word list, he chose the dialogue: “C’est aussi pour cette fin, que je me suis servy, sur tout au commencement, de la maniere la plus methodique, & la plus propre à insinuer & faire comprendre les choses; qui est celle du Dialogue […].” This explains the hybrid, so to speak, form of the work, which contains dialogues intermixed with word lists arranged according to the logical or philosophical order mentioned above, typical of nomenclators. In the end, Pomey produced an encyclopaedic work not only for students but also for scholars: “Mais apres savoir composé ces listes, je me suis pris garde, que j’estois allé plus loin que je ne voulois; & qui n’ayant en dessein que d’obliger les petits Disciples, j’avois fait quelque chose, qui peut-estre ne seroit pas desagreable aux Maîtres, ny inutile aux plus scavans.” The Indiculus Universalis has been described by Ayala Castro (1996, 52), who mentions the mixture of dialogues and topical word lists included in the book and that sets it apart from other topical compilations: La característica más notable que presenta esta obra en relación con otras de su género es que las partes en las que está dividida presentan una introducción dialogada y, en muchas ocasiones, también aparecen diálogos dentro de los apartados que constituyen los capítulos, combinándose las preguntas y respuestas con los textos en prosa y con series de vocablos. This remark also applies to the contents and structure of Alvarado’s fourteenth dialogue. Another characteristic mentioned by Ayala Castro (1996, 55) is that the Indiculus was not published as part of another work for the teaching of languages, as it is generally the case with this compilations. In this case, Alvarado placed the topical dictionary by Pomey among other dialogues and varied material in spite of its lenght.(222) As for the sources of the Indiculus, Ayala Castro (1996, 55) is of opinion that it is an original work; this scholar compared Pomey’s work to other topical dictionaries and did not discover any derivative relationship: “[N]i en la ordenación de los apartados que la componen, ni en el contenido de los mismos, se encuentra ninguna semejanza significativa con otras nomenclaturas anteriores, por la que se pueda deducir cuál fue la fuente utilizada por François Pomey para componer la suya” (Ayala Castro 1996, 56). on the other hand, the Indiculus Universalis did serve as source for other compilers, such as Sobrino and Alvarado. DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 292 (222) The first edition of 1667 has 276 pages and, according to Ayala Castro (1996, 50) some 5,700 entries. The WorldCat database records several editions of François Pomey’s Indiculus Universalis. The Indiculus was a popular work: after the first edition of 1667 in Lyon, and up to 1705, at least a dozen editions were printed in Europe. Some of them included, in addition to Latin and French, entries in German, Italian, English, or Spanish. A trilingual edition (English, Latin, and French) was published in London in 1679, while another, containing Spanish, Latin, and French, appeared in 1705 in Lyon.(223) This suggests that the relationship between the works of Pomey, Sobrino, and Alvarado need further study, since Alvarado may have had access to the editions of Pomey’s Indiculus that contained Spanish and/or English. Ayala Castro says (1992b, 158) that she consulted the fourth edition of Pomey’s Indiculus published in Lyon (1684) and does not mention the London edition of 1679. Unfortunately, she does not provide a comparison of the entries to support her assertion that Alvarado copied literally from Sobrino (1705), adding only the English version. A comparison of some examples is indicated here. Pomey (1705): Sobrino (1705): Alvarado (1719): Universo abreviado Methode facile […] An Easy Method […] Primera Parte. Capitulo Quarto. Premiere Partie. Chapitre Quatrieme. First part, Fourth Chapter, Animales Domesticos. Animaux Domestiques. Domestick Animals […] […] […] Jumento. Asinus, i. Asne. Asne, Borrico, Asno, Jumento, Borríco, Ásno, Jumentíllo, An Ass, An Asses Colt, Jumentillo. Asellus, i. Asnon. Asnon, Borriquillo, Asnillo, Jumentillo. Ø […] […] […] Bestia brava. Ferox bellua. Bête Bête farouche, Bestia feroz,Béstia feròz, A Beast of prey, farouche. […] […] […] Bestia domestica por industria humana. Bête aprivoisée par l’industrie des Béstia mánsa, A Beast tame by Animans cicurata, mansuefacta, hommes, Bestia mansa, Art, domita. Bête apprivoisée par l’industrie des hommes. […] […] […] Haquilla. Mannus, i. Bidet. Bidet, Haca,Háca, A Teat, ØPetit bidet, Haquilla, Haquílla, A little Teat, […] […] […] Búfano, ò Bùfalo. Bubalus, i. Bufle. Bufle, Búfalo, Búfalo, A Buffalo, […] […] […] Pòtro. Equulus. Petit Cheval. Petit cheval, Cavallito.Cavallíto, A little Horse, […] […] […] HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 293 (223) See the data of the 1679 edition in Alston (2002, 151); see also the titlepage and description of the 1705 edition containing Spanish in Niederehe (2005, 25). Cavallo de regalo. Equus honorarius. Cheval de main, Cavallo de mano.Cavállo de máno, A Led Cheval de main. Horse, […] […] […] Cavallo de retorno. Veredus recens. Cheval de relais. Cavallo de muda.Cavállo de múda, A Hackney Cheval de relais. Horse, Caballo de Carroça. Equus carrucarius. Cheval de carrosse. Cavallo de Cavállo de cóche, ô de Cheval de carrosse. coche, ò de caroça. carróça, A Coach Horse, […] […] […] Cavallo de coche, ò para tirar barcas. ØØ Equus essedarius. Cheval de coche. Cavallo restrivo. Equus rafractarius. Cheval retif. Cavallo rebelde.Cavállo rebélde, A restive Cheval retif. Horse, […] […] […] Cavallo falso. Equus calcitrosus. Cheval qui ruë, qui regimbe. Cavallo Cavállo, que tíra cózes, A Cheval qui ruë qui regimbe. que tira cozes. kicking Horse, […] […] […] Cavallo consumido. Strigosus Equus. ØØ Cheval amaigri. […] […] […] Cavallo de color vayo. Equus badius. Cheval bay, de couleur rouge obscur. Cavállo báyo, A Bay Horse, Cheval bay, de couleur rouge obscur. Cavallo bayo. Cavallo vayo-castaño. Equus ex badio Cheval bay chatein. Cavallo bayo Cavállo báyo castáño, A fuscus. Cheval bay chatin. castaño Chestnut Bay, Cavallo vayo-escuro. Equus ex badio Cheval bay brun. Cavallo bayo escuro. Cavállo báyo escúro, A Brown nigricans. Cheval bay brun. Bay, Cavallo vayo-dorado. Equus Cheval bay doré. Cavallo bayo dorado. Cavállo báyo dorádo, A Yellow spadiceus auratus. Cheval bay doré. Dun, […] […] […] Ventador, (termino de monterìa). Chien de haut nez, en termes de Perro ventór, término de Naris patulæ canis. Chien de haut Venerie, qui flaire aisément la bête. Montería, A Finder, nez, (en termes de Venerie, qui flaire Perro ventor, término de Montería. aisément la bête. Very often the Spanish parts (headwords or equivalents) of Pomey (1705), Sobrino (1705), and Alvarado (1719) are identical, as is to be expected in works with such a brief microstructure. Nevertheles, the above sample shows a number of differences. First, there are two entries in Pomey (Cavallo de coche, ò para tirar barcas and Cavallo consumido) that do not appear in Sobrino or Alvarado. Likewise, one entry appears in both Sobrino and Alvarado (Petit bidet, Haquilla, and Haquílla, A little Teat, respectively) but not in Pomey. In other words, when entries do not appear in Sobrino, they do not appear in Alvarado either, even if they can be found in Pomey. Moreover, when an entry is found in Sobrino, it also appears in Alvarado, even if it does not appear in Pomey. Second, there are a number of cases in which the Spanish equivalents in Sobrino are identical to the Spanish headwords in Alvarado, but are different from the corresponding Spanish headwords in Pomey. This is easier DICTIoNARIES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH FRoM 1554 To 1740: THEIR… 294 As in the case of Stepney’s Spanish Schoole-master, most of the content of Alvarado’s dialogues is bilingual: the title of a particular section is in Spanish and then in English and the texts are in two columns on a page, with the Spanish to the left and the English to the right. The only exceptions are the preface “To The Reader”, the errata, the sections of “Titles” and “Superscriptions”, and the “Advertisement”, which are only in English, and the poem, which is in Spanish. 7.2.3.2 Macro- and microstructures As mentioned above, dialogue number fourteen by Alvarado follows the structure of Pomey’s Indiculus, combining dialogues in the strict sense with a lengthy topical word list in Spanish and English. This nomenclator is entitled in English An Easy Method of Learning the Spanish Tongue; by the Placing of Words According to the Construction of the Universe; with the Principal Terms of the Arts and Sciences and is divided into three parts, each part in turn containing a number of chapters, under which a variable number of headings are arranged. There is a title page in Spanish and one in English, plus a prefatory text, the whole organized as follows: 1. Title pages in Spanish and English 2. The “Advertisement to the Reader” (in Spanish and English, 2 p. each) 3. The First Part. of the World and its Parts (pp. 230-93), divided as follows: 3.1 The First Chapter. of the Parts of the World (twelve headings) 3.2 The Second Chapter. of the Air (four headings) 3.3 The Third Chapter. of Fire (three headings) 3.4 The Fourth Chapter. of the Earth (forty-two headings) 3.5 The Fifth Chapter. of Water (fifteen headings, three subheadings). 4. The Second Part. of a Man, and his Parts (pp. 294-324), divided as follows: 4.1 The First Chapter. of the Humane Body (eight headings, three subheadings) 4.2 The Second Chapter. of the Defects of Humane Body (two headings) 4.3 The Third Chapter. of Cloaths (six headings) 4.4 The Fourth Chapter. of Victuals (nine headings) 4.5 The Fifth Chapter. of the Soul (seven headings, twelve sub-headings) 4.6 The Sixth Chapter. Bad Actions, which produce Vices, and Irregular Passions (one heading). 5. The Third Part. of a City, and its Parts (pp. 325-486), divided as follows: 5.1 The First Chapter. of the Inhabitants of a City (eight headings) 5.2 The Second Chapter. of a House, and its Parts (thirteen headings) HEBERTo H. FERNáNDEz URDANETA 301 [Document text truncated for crawler view.]