Medical Translation English-Spanish. Theory, Difficulties and Translation Proposal for a Research Article

FACULTAD de FILOSOFÍA Y LETRAS DEPARTAMENTO de FILOLOGÍA INGLESA Grado en Estudios Ingleses TRABAJO DE FIN DE GRADO Medical Translation English-Spanish. Theory, Difficulties and Translation Proposal for a Research Article Diego Jiménez Calvo Tutor: Celsa Dapía Ferreiro 2018 - 2019 Universidad de Valladolid Diego Jiménez Calvo ABSTRACT The current era is characterized by the exchange of information between people around the world. In this way, medical translation is one of the essential tasks in the area of Health Sciences. For this reason, the purpose of this undergraduate dissertation is to study the field of medical translation by explaining the difficulties and translation processes applied in a practical case: a research article. The project uses the previous analysis of the text as a fundamental tool for the translation of scientific texts, as well as parallel texts in English and Spanish. The result of this project provides answers to several relevant questions that must be taken into account during the translation of medical texts. Finally, it can be observed how previous analysis and translation procedures are crucial in the proposed translation of the article Surgery for Drug- Resistant Epilepsy in Children. Keywords: Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), research article, translation problems, specialized terminology, English/Spanish, scientific language. RESUMEN La época actual esta caracterizada por el intercambio de información entre personas de todo el mundo. De este modo, la traducción médica es una de las tareas más importantes en el área de las ciencias de la salud. Por este motivo, el propósito de este trabajo de fin de grado es analizar el campo de la traducción médica exponiendo las dificultades y los procesos de traducción aplicados en un caso práctico: un artículo de investigación. Este trabajo utiliza el análisis previo del texto como herramienta básica para la traducción de textos científicos, así como textos paralelos en inglés y en español. El resultado de este proyecto aporta respuestas a varias preguntas relevantes que hay que tener en cuenta durante la traducción de textos médicos. Finalmente, el lector podrá comprobar cómo los análisis previos y los procedimientos de traducción son cruciales en la propuesta de traducción del artículo Surgery for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy in Children. Palabras clave: Lenguas para fines específicos, artículo de investigación, problemas de traducción, terminología especializada, inglés/español, lenguaje científico. Universidad de Valladolid Diego Jiménez Calvo Universidad de Valladolid Diego Jiménez Calvo TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….1 CHAPTER 1: LANGUAGES FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (LSP)…………….………3 1.1.How to identify a specialized text…………………………………………..5 1.1.1.Criteria for the classification of specialized texts…………………6 1.1.1.1.Jennifer Pearson’s classification…………………………7 1.1.1.2.Susanne Göpferich’s classification………………………8 1.2.Medical translation………………………………………………………….9 1.2.1.Terminology in medical translation………….………………..…11 1.2.2.The process of translating………………………………………..13 1.2.3.The difficulties in medical translation……….…………………..15 1.2.3.1.Differences in use…………………………………..….…..16 1.2.3.2.Terms of common language that acquire a new meaning…17 1.2.3.3.Pure terminological divergences……………………….….18 1.2.3.3.1.Problems with prefixes and suffixes…………18 1.2.3.3.2.Problems with synonymy……………………19 1.2.3.3.3.Problems with eponymy……………………..19 1.2.3.3.4.Problems with acronyms…………………….20 CHAPTER 2: PREVIOUS ANALYSIS………………………….…………………….23 2.1.Presentation of the journal’s website: NEJM….………………………..…23 2.2.Description of the selected text……………………………………………24 2.2.1.Structure of the text……….……………………………………..25 2.2.2.Communicative situation…….…………………………………..26 2.2.3.Classifications of the text………………………………………..27 CHAPTER 3: TRANSLATION COMMENTS…………..…………………………….29 3.1.Terminology…………..…………………………………………………..29 3.2.Translation procedures……..……………………………………………..32 3.3.Translating problems…..….………………………………………………33 CONCLUSION……………………..….………………………………………………37 REFERENCES…….………………..….…………………….………………………..41 Universidad de Valladolid Diego Jiménez Calvo LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Classification of the different types of terms..………………………………11 Figure 2. Ways of modification of existing sources and creation of terms……………12 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Comparison of erudite terms and popular extraction in English with its equivalent in Spanish……………….…………………………………………………..16 Table 2. Examples of translations of adjectives………………………………………..17 Table 3. Examples of synonyms in both English and Spanish…………………………19 Table 4. Examples of acronyms in both English and Spanish…………………………21 Table 5. Examples of different transpositions made in the translation…….…………..33 Universidad de Valladolid Diego Jiménez Calvo INTRODUCTION Throughout the ages, translation has allowed the transfer of information between peoples whose languages are different. The work of the translators has been and is fundamental to carry out the task of translation. However, perhaps the necessary effort has not been made in the field of scientific and technical translations. Even so, much of the progress in medicine is thanks to the translation of scientific texts. Thanks to medical translation, many researchers and doctors can transmit their knowledge and medical research to many other professionals around the world. This whole process has contributed to the global improvement of medicine. The constant need for significant advances in medicine that can save and improve the lives of many people around the world is the main reason that has led me to carry out this project. Medical translation is very complicated, but it can help make significant advances in medicine. Since English is the language considered as "universal" for medical research, I considered the translation of one of these texts into Spanish, which is the second most spoken language in the world. This project aims to disclose some of the most relevant theoretical aspects of medical translation, but also to prove these aspects in an applied way. After shuffling several options, I considered that the best example of a useful and relevant medical translation should be a research article, as it can be helpful to researchers and patients in different parts of the world. The project does not only include purely theoretical aspects but also includes some of the problems that translators of medical texts can encounter when carrying out their work. To carry out this project, I followed some steps that could be useful for future medical translation projects, since they can be familiar to any translator or translation. First, I reinforced my background knowledge with theoretical aspects that are fundamental for a standard quality translation. Afterward, I analyzed the problems that Universidad de Valladolid 1Diego Jiménez Calvo could arise in the translation process. Lastly, I decided to comment on some relevant aspects deriving from the translation. This paper has been divided into three sections to facilitate its structuring and reading. The first chapter includes the theoretical background; a general explanation about the languages for specific purposes, and medical translation. In the second chapter, the project includes an analysis of the text selected for the translation, along with some interesting comments that I considered necessary before the translation. Finally, in the last chapter, I commented on the translation process of the text and relevant issues. This final chapter includes comments on terminology and other problems arising in the translation. Universidad de Valladolid 2Diego Jiménez Calvo CHAPTER 1: LANGUAGES FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (LSP) According to Britt-Louise Gunnarsson, “language for special or specific purposes, LSP, is the traditional term for the various linguistic variants used in professional settings” (105). The history of languages for specific purposes begins in the interest in the description of different sublanguages from different fields. The difference between general language (which is the language used every day by everybody in the world) and LSP, language for specific purposes (which is the language used by the members of a particular subject field, using specific terminology and other specific linguistic means), has not an absolute borderline; they are interrelated. The main difference between them is the use of terminology, but they share syntax and grammatical structures, and also many words. Another significant difference between general language and language for specific purposes resides on the particular circumstances in which they are used. LSPs are used in particular teaching circumstances and particular language fields. On the one hand, LSPs make particular use of the vocabulary and use different techniques depending on the field in which it is used. Meanwhile, general language uses a more generic vocabulary adapted to more frequent applications, and it is also the joint base from which all sublanguages derive. According to Lehrberger, the following six factors may help to define a sublanguage or specialized language (19): 1. Specific theme. 2. Lexical, syntactic, and semantic restrictions. 3. "Anomalous" grammatical rules. 4. High frequency of appearance of certain constructions. 5. Text structure. Universidad de Valladolid 3Diego Jiménez Calvo The language that medical texts use belongs to the framework of the scientifictechnical language. Philologists estimate that there are more than half a million medical terms, a language that grows at the same time that science advances. In the case of medical language, the derived words arise mainly from Latin and Greek morphemes, as well as naturalized suffixes according to the target language (Newmark 143). The correctness of the scientific works depends on compliance with the current rules of writing and style, in a text with formal defects the interest of the findings may be diminished. In the magazine of the EFE health agency; Cristina González, a lexicographer of the Medical Terminology Unit of the Royal National Academy of Medicine -an institution that monitors its proper use-, argues that “medical language has always been more rooted in the common language than other specialized languages.” Medical language evolves due to the advances in the field of medicine, which gives rise to neologisms. The most common neologisms within a medical text are derived words, placements, eponyms, and acronyms (Congost 37-41). Among the most outstanding characteristics of scientific-technical languages, the search for clarity is crucial. In these languages, the meaning and the signifier of a word have a biunivocal correspondence (Blanco 76). The primary function of these languages is the referential one. Therefore, the syntactic and textual resources will be focused on getting objective and depersonalized information (Cabré 155). On the one hand, these languages resort to formulas such as description, definition, classification, argumentation, enumeration, reasoning, and calculation, which demonstrate objectivity. On the other hand, it resorts to the use of elements such as verb in the present, the first person plural of courtesy, impersonal formula and noun phrases, which demonstrate impersonality. (Blanco 76). Another essential feature is its syntactic complexity, which is reflected in a significant frequency of adjectival and sentence subordination. Finally, some more Universidad de Valladolid 10 Diego Jiménez Calvo features should be highlighted, such as its mysterious nature and the fact that users who use these languages are always specialists in the scientific and technical field. 1.2.1. Terminology in medical translation Terminology is one of the essential aspects of the translation of health sciences but, at the same time, it is the one that can present more problems. Hence, the terminology is a crucial element in the translation of medical texts. To understand this aspect is essential to study the origin of the terms since many of them can raise problems depending on their formation due to their origin. A term can be defined like any conventional symbol for a concept which consists of articulated sounds or their written representation; a term may be a word or a phrase (a string of words): Figure 1. Classification of the different types of terms. The terms already existing in the vocabulary have been created and modified over time to reach the current one. There are several ways to modify existing sources: creating new terms by combining two or more of them, converting some and compressing others, and also, creating new lexemes known as neologisms, which are essential: Universidad de Valladolid 11 Diego Jiménez Calvo Figure 2. Ways of modification of existing sources and creation of terms. Medical translation is one of the important types of translation since the historical beginning of translation, both because of its importance and because of its difficulty and need for use. For this reason, medical terminology has the purpose of expressing in precise terms the complex concepts and ideas of medicine, but it also aims to unify criteria. Each term must have a unique meaning accepted by the scientific community, thus facilitating the exchange of information at the international level. Medical terms are generally composed of radicals (root), which is the central part of the term, and supplemented with prefixes and suffixes derived from the Greek and Latin languages. According to Edwin Saldaña Ambulodegui, “los principales procesos de formación de nuevas palabras son por Derivación y Composición” (2). The terms coming from derivations can be produced by: - Prefixes: use Greek and Latin prefixes. - Suffixes: also called progressive, used to form nouns and verbs. - Parasynthetic: consists in the simultaneous use in a same word of a prefix and a suffix. The compound terms can be: - By juxtaposition: the words are joined with or without a script, without any of them suffering any modification. - By agglutination: modification of one or both words occur. Universidad de Valladolid 12 Diego Jiménez Calvo Most medical terms can be broken down into two or more parts, which are: - Root: is the primitive nuclear element of the word that prints its meaning or central idea. - Morpheme: is the part of the word devoid of suffixes, it can be the root itself or be linked to another element. - Prefixes: elements or particles that precede the radical by changing its meaning. Most are prepositions or adverbs. - Suffixes: element or particles that are postponed to the radical forming derivations of the same word. They can be nominal (nouns and adjectives) or verbal. - Defense: elements at the end of the word indicative of a nominal inflection (gender, number) or verbal (mode, time, number, person, etc.). 1.2.2. The process of translating Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber are two recognized linguists that affirm translation consists in “reproducing in the receptor language (TL) the closest natural equivalent of the source language (SL) message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (12). The process of translating specialized medical texts is complex, and it must follow some specific steps. This process needs a high precision due to the importance of medicine and the need to share this information in different languages. In 1981, the London translator and editor Ronald Bathgate said there are seven steps in the process of translation. These seven stages are those mentioned below, from the source language text before step 1, to the target language text after step 7 (25): Universidad de Valladolid 13 Diego Jiménez Calvo 1. Tuning: the process of situating the text and calculate how long it will take the translation. 2. Analysis: the step of reading and understanding the text, looking for dictionaries, encyclopedias, and parallel texts in the source language as an aid for the translation. 3. Understanding: the process of understanding the context and acquire some background knowledge about the field. 4. Terminology: use of documentation such as bilingual dictionaries, bilingual glossaries, and parallel texts to find equivalents in the target text looking for unknown terms. 5. Restructuring (drafting): production of the first draft, the first version of the translation. 6. Checking: revision of the translated text. 7. Discussion: consultation and proofreading while revising the translated text in order to find errors and correct mistakes. Translators of any text usually follow these steps, but they are also applicable to the translation of medical texts. A good question would be: what are the most critical steps in medical translation? Well, it would not be correct to say that there some steps more critical than others, but some indeed need more attention and a more significant investment in work time. Due to the full range of information and specializations that medicine implies, it would be essential for the translator to be specialized in one of these branches of medicine since the vocabulary can vary a lot from one to the other. Therefore, the documentation (e.g., bilingual medical dictionaries, glossaries, parallel texts, etc.) from Universidad de Valladolid 14 Diego Jiménez Calvo which the translator will help is relevant to get a target text as similar as possible to the original, but in the target language. Finally, the recommendation is to let the first version of the translation rest for a few days and then re-read it again. This process will help to correct mistakes and give it an aspect of accuracy and originality, similar to the original text. 1.2.3. The difficulties in medical translation Medicine is a field of knowledge in continuous scientific and technological development; each year, a large number of new terms are incorporated into its lexicon. Due to the need to quickly update their knowledge, health professionals learn directly in the language of the publication and keep it in daily use, including congresses and articles. The characteristics of the texts and the technical and medical languages will define the difficulties that may appear when translating a text of these characteristics. The independent translation professional Malcolm Marsh stated in 1999 that 1 when dealing with a medical text, for the translator the most crucial problem, after understanding the original text, lies in the technical terminology. In addition to what could be designated explicitly as medical, it will encompass terms from related disciplines such as biochemistry or microbiology, as well as devices of advanced technology, often used in laboratory experiments or hospital therapeutics. According to Henri Van Hoof, the main problems of medical translation can be divided into three major groups according to their origin: (i) different uses in the linguistic communities involved, (ii) use of terms of the common language in the medical language by one of the two communities involved, and (iii) pure terminological divergences (147). Marsh, M. (1999). "Algunas consideraciones sobre la traducción". Approaches to translation [online]. 1 Instituto Cervantes. Available at: https://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/aproximaciones/marsh.htm [Accessed date: 04/20/2019] Universidad de Valladolid 15 Diego Jiménez Calvo 1.2.3.1. Differences in use The medical language is based on an essentially erudite lexicon. However, English and Spanish do not use the same erudite lexicon. For many of the commonly used terms, English has the erudite term and a term of popular extraction, or even in some cases, it has only one popular extraction term for all cases (Van Hoof 147). The following table shows some of these examples: Table 1. Comparison of erudite terms and popular extraction in English with its equivalent in Spanish. Another case that may present problems for the translator is the derivation of adjectives, which is more erudite in Spanish. In English is provided with endings employing a simple adjectival of the appropriate noun. When a Spanish adjective is translated into English by another adjective, it prefers the less erudite form. Besides, another typical case involves the compound adjectives, which are frequent in medicine and are always of the erudite type in Spanish; they follow this rule less frequently in English (Van Hoof 150). In the following table appear some examples of this translation of adjectives: ENGLISH SPANISH Coagulation, clotting Coagulación Lordosis, hollow back, saddle back Lordosis Tetanus, lockjaw Tétanos Tophus, chalkstone Tofo ENGLISH SPANISH Taste buds Papilas gustativas Sweat gland Glándula sudorípara Water-borne infection Infección a través del agua Universidad de Valladolid 16 Diego Jiménez Calvo Table 2. Examples of translations of adjectives. However, the consequences these differences of English have concerning Spanish for its translation are extensive. When a translator faces a specialized text in medicine, he should be wary of these descriptive terms when translating them, because although Spanish has a descriptive equivalent, it will stumble upon the most erudite tone expected by the Spanish reader. (Van Hoof 151). 1.2.3.2. Terms of common language that acquire a new meaning Henri Van Hoof states that every language offers examples of terms coming from the general language. These terms of everyday use also acquire new meanings within specialized technical languages, as in the case in question: medical language. The cause of this is the tendency of the English language to use terms of popular extraction (154). The translation of these words is not as simple as searching it in a dictionary and using its equivalent in the other language. Some words will involve complications when looking for a translation. The difference in the translation of these words depends entirely on the existence of existing differences between one language and another because of their different way of perceiving reality. For instance, the translation of the word history is an example explained in detail below: - The term history is known as the whole description of the patient before the visit to the doctor. This term must be translated into Spanish as anamnesis or Bald tongue Lengua depapilada Chalky gout Gota tofácea Giant cell sarcoma Sarcoma gigantocelular Blood-brain barrier Barrera hematoencefálica ENGLISH SPANISH Universidad de Valladolid 17 Diego Jiménez Calvo antecedentes. The term in English will always be the same, but in Spanish, there will be two possibilities depending on the context in which it is being used (Van Hoof 154). For example: a. No hay nada en la anamnesis del paciente para concluir que hay una úlcera. b. Un paciente con un antecedente dispéptico. 1.2.3.3. Pure terminological divergences Problems caused by differences in pure terminology are different from those mentioned above. This section points out representative parts that Henri Van Hoof mentions in his book: prefixes and suffixes, synonyms, eponyms, and acronyms (162). 1.2.3.3.1. Problems with prefixes and suffixes Medical suffixes do not follow a strict logic. For example, Greek suffixes such as -ite (Sp: -itis) are frequently linked to Latin morphemes: appendicitis (Sp: appendicitis). While a Latin suffix like -ism (Sp: -ismo) is joined to Greek morphemes as in gynandromorphism (Sp: ginandromorfismo). The most significant difficulty appears when the translator realizes that suffixes do not always coincide in both languages, such as gastroptosia and gastroptosis (Van Hoof 162). Something similar happens with prefixes, there are many words which in Spanish will have the same meaning using different prefixes while in English maintain a single prefix. An example of this appears in the translation of hyperalimentation, translated into Spanish as hiperalimentación or sobrealimentación. Universidad de Valladolid 18 Diego Jiménez Calvo 1.2.3.3.2. Problems with synonymy Medical language can have an almost infinite number of synonyms. Many concepts can be designated employing numerous expressions that may seem equivalent, but that is different depending on the vision they are given: anatomical, historical, or descriptive (Van Hoof 207). There are several cases in which may exist many synonyms to refer the same concept, but it is necessary to bear in mind that the correct Spanish translation will depend on the context in which they are used. The following table presents some examples of synonyms used both in English and their translation/s into Spanish: Table 3. Examples of synonyms in both English and Spanish. 1.2.3.3.3. Problems with eponymy Eponyms of two types exist in medical translation (Van Hoof 212); eponyms of one type are those in which the original proper name gives rise to a common name (addisonism>adisonismo). The other type is those in which the proper name is ENGLISH SPANISH 2 Synonyms in English but 1 term in Spanish Ankle clonus, foot clonus Clonus del pie Blackout, flight blindness Amaurosis fugaz More than 1 synonym in Spanish but 1 term in English Fold Pliegue, repliegue, fondo de saco, válvula, ligamento, surco, cresta Fossa Fosa, fosita, cavidad, surco, excavación, pliegue, ranura, agujero, escotadura, hueco, espacio, laguna, sinus, seno, canal Universidad de Valladolid 19 Diego Jiménez Calvo journals and it is used in most texts in the scientific and research fields. This structure was considered ideal at the beginning of the year 1900, but it was not until 1950 that the scientific community adopted IMRaD as the conventional structure of this type of texts. 2.2.2. Communicative situation The communicative situation is the framework in which the communication process takes place; it is a variable framework according to several aspects that may change. Every communicative situation has five essential components: the sender, the recipient, the message, the medium, and the context. The sender is the creator of the message, in the case of the selected text are the different expert authors of the research article. The recipients are those to whom the text is intended, the chosen text is an expert to expert text, and it is assumed that the reader will also be an expert in the subject of which is investigated. The message contains the subject and the purpose, and its objective is to inform, persuade, or entertain. In the selected text, the message is how neurosurgery improves seizures in children and adolescents with drug-resistant epilepsy. The medium by which the message is transmitted is written, and the context is what surrounds the message, as well as the date on which it is placed; in this case, the publication date is October 26, 2017. Another decisive aspect of the communicative situation that encompasses all the discourse is the tone, which is also characterized as one of the elements that determine whether it is a specialized discourse or not. As I have mentioned before, the text is a medical research article, so it could be considered as a medical material, which necessarily implies that uses a formal tone and aimed at professionals. Finally, the last factor in analyzing the communicative situation is the communicative context: the place and the circumstances in which the discourse takes place. This text comes from an initiative proposed jointly by the Departments of Universidad de Valladolid 26 Diego Jiménez Calvo Neurology (RD, BR, Manjari Tripathi), Neurosurgery (PSC), Pediatrics (SS, SG), Biostatistics (MK, SND), Neuro-Radiology (AG), Nuclear Medicine (CSB, Madhavi Tripathi), Psychiatry (RS), and Pathology (CS), from the All India Institute of Medical Sciences of New Delhi, India. The purpose of this research was to obtain additional data in different randomized trials in order to demonstrate that neurosurgical treatment may improve seizures in children and adolescents with drug-resistant epilepsy. However, the research article is addressed to other professionals in the field, so this text should be placed within a scientific context, more specifically in a research context on neurosurgery and epilepsy. 2.2.3. Classifications of the text As mentioned in a previous section called “Criteria for classification of specialized texts” (section 1.1 of Chapter 1), there are two main different ways to classify specialized texts. The first criteria, according to Jennifer Pearson, classify the texts in different categories according to the skill level of the sender and the recipient. According to Susanne Göpferich, the second criteria has to do with linguistic characteristics, topic, and style. According to Pearson’s classification of 1998, the text Surgery for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy in Children is carried out in an expert to expert communicative environment, something standard to all medical research articles. It is an investigation work, and both the author and the readers share a common specialized language with highly specialized vocabulary, and they are supposed to have the same level of expertise or a very similar one. Additionally, according to the 1995 Göpferich’s classification, the text belongs to the primary text type. Since it is a research paper, it is a progress-oriented actualizing text with a sophisticated presentation. Universidad de Valladolid 27 Diego Jiménez Calvo Universidad de Valladolid 28 Diego Jiménez Calvo CHAPTER 3: TRANSLATION COMMENTS 3.1. Terminology The objective of my translation proposal, like any other translation, is to be as similar as possible to the original version of the source text. To construct an accurate and correct translation, I considered necessary to take into account two crucial factors. The first one is that the translated version must accurately reflect the literal message that the original text intends to transmit; the second of the factors considers that the text must follow a series of characteristics that are standardized to every research article text in Spanish. As I mentioned previously, the type of text and the highly specialized terminology that it may contain implies that the translation must be more literal than other types of translations (e.g., Literary translation). For this reason, there are not too many syntactic changes, neither in form and structure, in the translated version (Available at Appendix 2). For the translation of the text, I have made use of different dictionaries and glossaries, as well as from English and Spanish parallel texts. In order not to make the reading of this project too dull, I decided not to mention every aspect and difficulties presented during translation of the selected text. The section below presents only some striking examples of a minimum relevance in the translation. The selected text contains a large number of specialized terms. It is not an excessively long text (research article composed of 9 pages), and the terms are quite concentrated and repeated several times in each of the different sections of the article. There is a term that stands out above the others since it is the main topic of the research: drug-resistant epilepsy. In Spanish exist two options to designate this disease, which is not so common among children with epilepsy; one is epilepsia farmacorresistente, and the other is epilepsia refractaria. After comparing the options in different parallel texts, Universidad de Valladolid 29 Diego Jiménez Calvo I realized that both were equally valid, but I decided to use farmacorresistente since it helps to understand its meaning. The second term I consider relevant in the translation of the research article is seizures. In this case, I also found two variants, one was the option of the Spanish term ataques, and another was convulsiones. Finally, I decided to use the second one, convulsiones, since I considered it more formal and adequate in the context of the article. In the text appear a considerable quantity of complex noun groups. I decided to mention the term long-term video EEG monitoring. Despite their length, which could imply to be more sophisticated, these groups of words have a very literal translation most of the times: monitoreo prolongado con vídeo-EEG. It was a simple task to find the equivalent in Spanish to these terms since they appear in several parallel texts easily accessible in medical texts databases. The use of letters and graphic symbols is frequent in this type of texts. Letters like P to refer to Power, or T to refer to Teslas, use the same letter in both languages, something understandable since they are usually part of the International System of Measures. The tables that appear in the research article use many graphic symbols, such as †, ‡, §, ¶, or ǁ. These symbols are not usually related to a common designation in every research article. These symbols are frequently used to indicate quotients, summations, or means. For my version of the translation, I decided to use precisely the same symbols to try to avoid unnecessary complexities. Moreover, every part which treats numbers, and also in other texts, the use of abbreviations is persistent. In one of the tables appear two abbreviations as no. and yr. The first refers to “number” and the second to “year." The decision in the first case was to use the most common form in Spanish: nº. In the second case, I decided to use the Universidad de Valladolid 30 Diego Jiménez Calvo complete form of the Spanish word (año) because it was a short word of only three letters. The use of acronyms is very extended in the specialized language. Acronyms, as I mentioned above, present one of the difficulties that Henri Van Hoof mentions in his book. In this case, I decided to mention two examples. The first is the abbreviation FLAIR, which corresponds to fluid-attenuated inversion recovery, which in Spanish uses precisely the same abbreviation although its name is recuperación de la inversión atenuada de fluido, which does not coincide with the initials. The second of the examples is MRI, whose letters correspond to magnetic resonance imaging. This abbreviation suffers a change of order in Spanish and an omission of the letter I: RM, which designates resonancia magnética. While terms themselves are essential, it is also how they are created. As mentioned in section 2.1 of Chapter 1, the modes of creating terms are affixation, compounding, conversion, compression, and neologisms. There are several terms created by conversion and compression, but they do not present relative importance in the text or in their translation, as well as the neologisms that usually appear in this type of texts. In the case of compound terms, I decided to classify them into three types: closed, open, and hyphenated. The terms baseline and malformation would be examples of the first type. The term baseline presented some difficulties, but I considered the best option to use the most frequently repeated term in Spanish parallel texts: período inicial. Instead, the terms like malformation are translated simply and literally: malformación. In the case of the open compound terms, those that are separated by a space but that regularly appear together, I want to mention two important ones: major joints and medical therapy. Thanks to dictionaries and online translators (such as Merriam- Webster and Linguee), it is easy to find their respective translation: articulaciones principales and tratamiento médico. The last type that I consider important are those compound terms united by a hyphen. In the text, there are several examples of this type, Universidad de Valladolid 31 Diego Jiménez Calvo such as intention-to-treat and seizure-free. For the translation of these terms, I consulted parallel texts and concluded that the best options were intención de tratar, and libre de convulsiones, respectively. Besides, I considered relevant to mention one of the most common types of creation of terms in both English and Spanish: affixation. The use of prefixes and suffixes is another problem that Henri Van Hoof mentions in his book. These prefixes and suffixes frequently have their origin in the Latin or Greek languages. For example, the prefix precomes from Latin, and it is used in presurgical and translated as prequirúrgica. The prefix anti-, comes from the Greek language, and means “opposition,” it is used in antibodies, and it is translated as anticuerpos. Moreover, in the case of suffixes, one relevant suffix in this text is -tomy. It proceeds from the Greek and indicates "cut or incision,” there is an example of it in callosotomy, and I decided to translate it as callosotomía. 3.2. Translation procedures This section contains some of the procedures followed during the translation of some issues of the text. I decided to focus on the explanation of three specific procedures: transposition, amplification, and explicitation. Transpositions are not a particular case of medical translation since they are used in any translation. In the following table appear some of the examples of this procedure that I considered necessary to use for my translation proposal: ENGLISH SPANISH Adjective to noun Written En un escrito Malformed Con malformaciones Universidad de Valladolid 32 Diego Jiménez Calvo Table 5. Examples of different transpositions made in the translation. The other procedure that I used is amplification. It is a convenient method in translation, but it is not very necessary in medical texts because the translation must be very literal. Even so, there is a case in which I decided to use it, along with the abbreviation FLAIR, I decided to include the explanation of the acronym that is recuperación de la inversión atenuada de fluido. The reason why I decided to explain this particular case is the little use of it that I have seen in parallel texts and research articles on other medical topics. Finally, another of the procedures that are frequently used in English-Spanish translations is explicitation. In my proposal, I did not need to use this method continuously since the source text is quite precise and repetitive. However, I used it in the following example: in the original text, the authors use we reported, while in my translation proposal I decided to use se notificó en este ensayo since I considered it necessary to mention the reference to which the verb was addressed. 3.3. Translating problems This section aims to comment on some of the difficulties that have arisen during the translation. Some of these problems are common to every medical text, but others are random and may depend on the decisions of the translator. Noun to verb Screening Examinados Noun to adjective Brain surgery Cirugía cerebral ENGLISH SPANISH Universidad de Valladolid 33 Diego Jiménez Calvo The section 2.3 of Chapter 1 mentions different problems in medical translation. The problems can be divided into three groups according to their origin: (i) differences in use, (ii) common language terms in the medical language, and (iii) pure thermal divergences (Van Hoof 147). In my case, I considered mentioning just some remarkable things, since to mention absolutely everything would be too tedious for the reader. One of the essential issues is the case in which a word in English has two or more equivalents in Spanish or the contrary. In this particular text, two terms are frequent in medical texts: history and background; these two terms are usually translated into Spanish as antecedentes. The problem of compound adjectives, which are very frequent in medicine, is another question that I considered relevant. To explain it, I wanted to use one significant example for the content of the text, which I have also used some lines before. The term is drug-resistant epilepsy, in which the adjective modifies the noun epilepsy. In Spanish, this term has two possibilities that I have already mentioned before: epilepsia refractaria or epilepsia farmacorresistente. It seems evident that either of the two options in Spanish may be more complicated to understand for non-expert readers than the English term, which resembles more commonly used language. The second question is related to the terms of the everyday language that are used in medical language, but that acquire another meaning. The same example that I used previously may also be used to explain this question: history, which instead of being translated as historia, is translated as antecedentes, or in a remote case, historial. Another good example of this case is blinding, which I translated as cegamiento. It would be logical to think that the term blinding refers to the action of depriving vision of something or someone. However, after consulting several sources from the field of medicine, I found out that blinding refers to the process of concealment or concealment of information from one of the protagonists; classified as simple, double or triple, depending on the number of protagonists, without the possibility of identifying the group in which the patient participates. Universidad de Valladolid 34 Diego Jiménez Calvo Another frequent problem that appears in this type of translation is synonymy. The translator usually faces the situation in which a word that has two synonyms that are possible equivalents. It is the case of scores, but after reviewing parallel texts, I decided to use the Spanish equivalent puntajes, but it would have been equally valid to use puntuaciones. The same happens in the case of deficits, for which I could have used deficits, but I decided to choose deficiencias. A particular case that usually presents some trouble is eponymy, and it can present problems even if they seem simple. In this text, several test names that appear in the text are eponyms. Sometimes, this eponyms cannot be translated literally, but it is not the case in this text, in which eponyms are translated. For example, the eponym Binet- Kamat intelligence quotient is translated into Spanish as cociente intelectual Binet- Kamat. Another common problem that appears in this type of translation is the use of the passive voice. For example, in the case of are needed, I preferred to use the impersonal form in Spanish: se necesitan. Instead, I translated were assigned also in the passive voice: fueron asignados. The reason for these decisions do not follow strict rules, but it is always appropriate to resemble parallel texts in Spanish. Prepositional verbs and the absence of articles are two questions that continuously appear in this text, but I do not consider it relevant enough to mention any specific case because they are familiar to every text. I consider mentioning one particular case since it appears in the title and can give rise to confusion. In the proposal text version, I translated Surgery for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy as Cirugía de la epilepsia farmacorresistente. On this occasion, the translator could choose para instead of de la. Once again, I used parallel texts to make a firm decision on one of the main terms in the research article. In medical texts, some terms usually appear initially in Latin. The term status epilepticus (SE), comes from the Latin and means state of epilepsy. It usually appears in Universidad de Valladolid 35 Diego Jiménez Calvo Hartshorn, Alendia, and Barbara Jobst. “Responsive Brain Stimulation in Epilepsy.” Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease, SAGE Publications, July 2018. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6009082/ Hutchinson, Tom, and Alan Waters. English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred approach. Glasgow: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Kittredge, Richard, and John Lehrberger. Sublanguage: studies of language in restricted semantic domains. Walter de Gruyter, 1982. Berlin, New York. López-Pisón, J. et al. “Epilepsias Refractarias En Pediatría. Diagnóstico y Tratamiento.” Acta Pediátrica Española, 2007. www.actapediatrica.com/index.php/secciones/ revision/392-epilepsias-refractarias-en-pediatr%C3%ADa-diagn%C3%B3stico-y- tratamiento#.XNA7CpP7TfZ Maher, John. “English for Medical Purposes.” Language Teaching, vol. 19, no. 2, 1986, pp. 112-145., https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800012003 Marsh, Malcom. Algunas consideraciones sobre la traducción médica. Aproximaciones a la traducción. Centro Virtual Cervantes. Instituto Cervantes, 2019. https:// cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/aproximaciones/marsh.htm Méndez Cendón, Beatriz. "Traducción de Lenguajes Especializados II (Inglés/Español): Ciencia y Técnica." Class Notes. Valladolid: Universidad de Valladolid, 2017-2018. Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster dictionary. 2019. https:// www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/corpus Navarro, Fernando A. Diccionario crítico de dudas inglés-español de medicina. Madrid: MacGraw-Hill Interamericana, 2005. Navarro, Fernando A. “Traducción y lenguaje en medicina.” Monografías Dr. Antonio Esteve. Barcelona: Ediciones Doyma, S.A., 1997. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall, 1988. Nida, Eugene Albert, and Charles Russell Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: The United Bible Societies, 1982. Pearson, Jennifer. Terms in Context Studies in Corpus Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co, 1998. Universidad de Valladolid 42 Diego Jiménez Calvo Saldaña, Edwin. "Manual de Terminología Médica.” Monografías, 2013. https:// www.monografias.com/trabajos98/manual-terminologia-medica/manualterminologia-medica.shtml Soteras, Ana. "Términos médicos: dudas, errores y usos del lenguaje.” EFE:Salud, 2015. https://www.efesalud.com/dudas-errores-y-usos-del-lenguaje-medico/ Van Hoof, Henri. Manual práctico de traducción médica. Trad. Emilio Ortega & Elena Echevarría. Albolote, Granada: Comares, 1999. Van Hooft, Andreu P.J.V. Textos y discursos de especialidad. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill | Rodopi, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401202893 Universidad de Valladolid 43 Diego Jiménez Calvo