History of the colonization of the Kazakh steppe by the Russian Empire (XVIII-XIX)

INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe by the Russian Empire (XVIII-XIX)* Historia de la colonización de la estepa kazaja por el Imperio Ruso (XVIII-XIX) GANIY KARASSAYEV Institute of State History, 020000, 4 Beybitshilik Str., Astana (Kazakhstan) [email protected] ORCID: 0009-0000-2572-7482 AMAN RAKHMETULLIN Alikhan Bokeikhan University, 071400, 11 Mangilik El Str., Semey (Kazakhstan) a.rahmetulli[email protected] ORCID: 0009-0005-7297-1476 BEKMURAT NAIMANBAYEV South Kazakhstan State Pedagogical University, 160012, 13 A. Baitursynov Str., Shymkent (Kazakhstan) [email protected] ORCID: 0009-0007-3265-0074 AIMAN ZHUMANOVA Karaganda Buketov University, 100024, 28 University Str., Karaganda (Kazakhstan) [email protected] ORCID: 0009-0003-7068-3150 BAGLAN BAINAZAROVA Central Asian Innovation University, 160000, 80 Baitursynov Str., Shymkent (Kazakhstan) [email protected].edu.kz ORCID: 0009-0007-3438-3176 Recibido/Received: 16/05/2024. Aceptado/Accepted: 02/09/2024. How to cite: KARASSAYEV, Ganiy, RAKHMETULLIN, Aman, NAIMANBAYEV, Bekmurat, ZHUMANOVA, Aiman, BAINAZAROVA, Baglan, “History of the Colonization of the Kazakh Steppe by the Russian Empire (XVIII-XIX)”, en Investigaciones Históricas, época moderna y contemporánea, 44 (2024), pp. 503-528. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24197/ihemc.44.2024.503-528 * Research was prepared as part of targeted program financing with the financial support of the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan “Evolution of political institutions and structures in the history of Kazakhstan (XIX-XXI centuries)” (IIN No. BR21882308). 504 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 Artículo de acceso abierto distribuido bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Internacional (CC-BY 4.0). / Open access article under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC-BY 4.0). Abstract: The coloniza�on of Kazakh lands by the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries had a determining influence on the forma�on of modern Kazakhstan. A deep understanding of the colonial past is important for comprehending modern problems of Kazakhstan. The aim is to give a holis�c picture of the process of coloniza�on of Kazakh lands, with a focus on the view and role of the Kazakh people. The strategic, geopoli�cal and economic mo�ves of the expansion are revealed, and the periodiza�on of the coloniza�on of Kazakh lands is given. The methods of establishing control, coloniza�on, and management strategies are analysed. Keywords: Central Asia; military advancement; khan dynas�es; Kazakh resistance; Russifica�on. Resumen: La colonización de las �erras kazajas por el Imperio ruso en los siglos XVIII y XIX tuvo una influencia determinante en la formación del Kazajstán moderno. Una comprensión profunda del pasado colonial es importante para comprender los problemas modernos de Kazajstán. El obje�vo es ofrecer una imagen holís�ca del proceso de colonización de las �erras kazajas, centrándose en la visión y el papel del pueblo kazajo. Se revelan los mo�vos estratégicos, geopolí�cos y económicos de la expansión y se da la periodización de la colonización de las �erras kazajas. Se analizan los métodos de establecimiento de estrategias de control, colonización y ges�ón. Palabras clave: Asia Central; avance militar; dinas�as khan; resistencia kazaja; rusificación. Sumario: Introduc�on. 1. Theore�cal overview. 2. Materials and methods. 3. Results. 4. Discussion. Conclusions. References. INTRODUCTION The colonization of the Kazakh steppe by the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries is one of the defining periods in the history of Kazakhstan. For many centuries, the nomadic Kazakh people inhabited vast steppe meadows, uniting into three hordes. Which roamed together with their livestock. This way of life was fundamentally disrupted by the expansion of Tsarist Russia into Central Asia. The colonization of the Kazakh steppe eventually led to the Kazakhs’ loss of sovereignty and radical changes in society and culture. Given such profound consequences, the study of this period is crucial to understanding modern Kazakhstan. However, the most common narratives often fail to take into account Kazakh perspectives and experiences. Russian primary sources contain extensive documentation but present a one-sided imperialist view. Western scholarship has also largely focused on Russian motives and policies, while the role and history of Kazakhstan remains understudied. This study aims to address these gaps by focusing History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 505 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 on the role and influence of Kazakhs during the colonization period. Primary sources include Russian archival documents, but particular attention is paid to identifying Kazakh testimonies, records, and scholarly views. Several key questions underpin the study: what was the impetus for Russian expansion into the Kazakh steppe? What were the main economic, political and military motivations? How did Russia establish control over the region? What colonization strategies and governing policies were imposed? How did the Kazakh tribes and chiefs initially respond? What forms of negotiation, concessions and resistance took place? How did Russian colonization change Kazakh society, culture, economy, and sovereignty over time? What are the long-term consequences and legacies of Russian imperialism in Kazakhstan? By exploring these questions from a Kazakh perspective, this study provides a more balanced picture. It emphasizes the ability and resilience of the Kazakh people to respond to colonial subjugation. The study draws on scholarship on Russian and Central Asian colonialism, while at the same time challenging prevailing Russian-centred narratives. The findings provide new insights into the contentious process of colonization, the strategies of negotiation and resistance of the Kazakhs, and the formation of a unified Kazakh national identity. Ulan Zhangaliev and Kalamkas Bolatova examine the influence of the policy of tsarist Russia on the structure of traditional Kazakh society in the 18th-19th centuries1. The authors show that this policy had a significant impact on various spheres of life of Kazakh society. However, the article does not sufficiently consider the regional peculiarities of this influence in detail. In the study by Galina Ksenzhik and Dosaly Salkynbek review and classify Russian cartographic materials on the history of Kazakhstan in the XVIII-XIX centuries2. The authors reasonably argue that these materials are an important historical source. However, the article does not indicate specific problems associated with the use of these cartographic materials. 1 ZHANGALIEV, Ulan Kurmetkalievich, BOLATOVA, Kalamkas Bolatovna, “In the XVIII-XIX century and the policy of tsarist Russia in Kazakhstan, consequences of influence on the structure of traditional Kazakh society”, in Bulletin “Historical and Socio-Political Sciences”, vol. 1, 64 (2021). DOI: https://doi.org/10.51889/2020-1.1728- 5461.10 2 KSENZHIK, Galina Nikolaevna, SALKYNBEK, Dosaly Isakhanuly, “Overview and classification of Russian cartographic materials of the XVIII-XIX centuries. By the history of Kazakhstan”, in Bulletin “Historical and Socio-Political Sciences”, vol. 1, 64 (2021). 506 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 Saule Kaldybayeva considers the resettlement policy of tsarist Russia in Kazakhstan in the late XIX – early XX century3. The author shows that this policy had both positive and negative consequences for Kazakhstan. However, the article pays insufficient attention to the reaction of the Kazakh population to the resettlement policy. In the article, Alim Beisembayeva analyses the reasons for the weakening of the institution of khan’s authority in Kazakhstan in the late 18th-early 19th century4. The author convincingly shows that the weakening of the khan’s power was the result of the policy of the Russian Empire. However, the article does not give enough detail about the role of the Kazakh khans themselves in this process. Gulmira Sultangalieva et al. consider the social status and role of the Kazakh nobility in the Russian Empire5. The authors prove the privileged position of the Kazakh nobility. However, the article does not pay due attention to the influence of Russian colonization on the social structure of Kazakh society. Thus, previous studies have not examined in sufficient detail the regional and local features of the colonization policy of the Russian Empire in Kazakhstan, the reaction of the Kazakh population to this policy, as well as the impact of colonization on the social structure of Kazakh society. Еhis study aims to deepen the academic and public understanding of the era that significantly shaped modern Kazakhstan. The long-term effects of colonization are still felt today in issues such as changes in land use, ethnic tensions and infringement of sovereignty. By examining the complex dynamics between Russian imperialism and Kazakh reactions, this study provides historical context for contemporary society. It also brings deserved attention to Kazakh experiences and narratives that have often been overlooked. This revisionist account of the colonization of the Kazakh steppe will enrich the interpretation of the past and collective 3 KALDYBAYEVA, Saule, “The settlement of Russian peasants in Kazakhstan by the tsarist government in the late XIX-early XX century”, in Bulletin “Historical and Socio- Political Sciences”, vol. 1, 68 (2021). DOI: https://doi.org/10.51889/2021-1.1728- 5461.07 4 BEISEMBAYEVA, Alim, “The reasons for the weakening of the institution of the Khan’s power in the Kazakh Steppe in the context of the regional policy of the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century”, in Bulletin of Karaganda University, vol. 101, 1 (2021), pp. 6-14. 5 SULTANGALIEVA, Gulmira, TULESHOVA, Ulzhan, WERTH, Peter, “Nomadic Nobles: Pastoralism and privilege in the Russian Empire”, in Slavic Review, vol. 81, 1 (2022), pp. 77-96. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/slr.2022.78 History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 507 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 memory. Ultimately, it aims to demonstrate how revisiting this contentious history can help shape national identity and a shared vision for the future of Kazakhstan. 1. THEORETICAL OVERVIEW The reviewed studies analyse the process of the Russian Empire's colonisation of the Kazakh steppe in the XVIII and XIX centuries. These studies provide different viewpoints on the reasons behind the colonisation, the important factors involved, and the outcomes that resulted from it. Ulan Zhangalieyev et al. thoroughly examine the policies implemented by the Russian Empire in Kazakhstan and their profound influence on traditional Kazakh society6. They determine that these policies resulted in substantial transformations in the economy, political framework, social framework, and culture of the Kazakhs, with uncertain consequences – contributing to modernisation while also causing a decline in national identity. Paolo Sartori emphasises that the Russian government considered Kazakhstan to be under its control in the early XVIII century, even though they did not possess enough knowledge about the region7. The lack of knowledge and understanding influenced the colonial policy of Tsarist Russia, resulting in conflicts and misunderstandings, and causing Russia to overestimate its strength and influence. Jeff Eden examines the 1803 assault on a Russian caravan, exposing it as a sophisticated, well-planned military manoeuvre rather than an impromptu act of desert piracy8. This event served as a pivotal moment in Russian policy, prompting the implementation of more ruthless measures to safeguard commercial interests. Charles Weller examines the utilisation 6 ZHANGALIEYEV, Ulan Kurmetkalievich, MUSABALINA, Gulnara, ABENOVA, Gulnur Atymtaevna, ADILBAEVA, Aigul Serikkanovna, KARIYEVA, Talzhan, “The policy of tsarism in Kazakhstan in the XVIII-XIX centuries: Consequences of its impact on traditional Kazakh society”, in Palarch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, vol. 17, 6 (2020), pp. 601-609. 7 SARTORI, Paolo, “A sound of silence in the archives: On eighteenth-century Russian diplomacy and the historical episteme of Central Asian hostility”, in Itinerario, vol. 44, 3 (2021), pp. 552-571. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0165115320000340 8 EDEN, Jeff, “Anatomy of a caravan raid: Peril and possibility in the Kazakh steppe, 1800-1860”, in Journal of Central Asian History, vol. 2, 1 (2023). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/27728668-20230011 508 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 of the notion of “vestiges of the pre-Islamic era” in colonial ethnography, contending that it bolstered colonial ideology and provided a rationale for Russian hegemony9. Willard Sunderland examines the 1867 eradication of serfdom in Kazakhstan, highlighting its adverse effects such as heightened social disparity and the imposition of Russian culture10. Chinpulat Kurbanov et al. provide a comprehensive account of Russia's strategic and economic objectives in Central Asia11. These objectives are primarily motivated by competition with the British Empire and a need to safeguard their southern borders while also gaining access to new trade routes. Russia pursued an imperial policy through military campaigns and the imposition of unequal treaties, which allowed it to gain control over important territories by the end of the 19th century. Myrzantay Zhakyp analyses the process of colonisation, asserting that Russia sought to exert complete control over Kazakh society and economy12. The implementation of Russian policies resulted in significant environmental degradation, demographic changes, and cultural suppression, which had a profound impact on traditional Kazakh life. Although there are variations in the approaches taken, the authors concur that Russian colonisation had a profound impact on Kazakh society, although there is uncertainty regarding the exact nature and outcomes of this influence. The studies collectively demonstrate the extensive and diverse influence of Russian colonisation on Kazakh society. Although the authors acknowledge that Russian colonisation brought about substantial changes, their evaluations of the characteristics and outcomes of this process 9 WELLER, Charles, “‘Pre-Islamic survivals’ among the Kazakhs in tsarist Russian and Kazakh colonial ethnography, 1770-1917”, in ‘Pre-Islamic Survivals’ in Muslim Central Asia, Singapore, Palgrave Macmillan, 2023, pp. 49-64. 10 SUNDERLAND, Willard, “The imperial emancipations: Ending non-Russian serfdoms in nineteenth-century Russia”, in Shifting Forms of Continental Colonialism, London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2019, pp. 437-461. 11 KURBANOV, Chinpulat Minasidinovich, SHANIYAZOV, Sharif Safarovich, NURFAYZIEV, Jaloliddin Bakhromovich, SHERBOBOEV, Mukhriddin Azimmurodugli, “Geopolitical and economic interests of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th century in Central Asia”, in Palarch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology, vol. 17, 7 (2020), pp. 8521-8546. 12 ZHAKYP, Myrzantay, ASHENOVA, Altynay, TOIBEKOVA, Saltanat, ZHUNISSOVA, Kamshat, KHUSSANOVA, Akbota, “Coverage in the periodical press of tsarist Russia of the colonial policy on the Kazakh land”, in Scientific Herald of Uzhhorod University. Series Physics, vol. 55 (2024), pp. 2516-2524. History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 509 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 frequently lack clarity. The implementation of Russian policies aimed at modernisation resulted in the erosion of national identity, exacerbated social inequality, and the stifling of cultural expression. The analyses demonstrate the intricate nature of colonial interactions, emphasising the influence of lack of knowledge, deliberate opposition, and ideological justifications in shaping colonial policy and its results. The studies also highlight the geopolitical incentives driving Russian expansion and the enduring ramifications of colonial governance. To summarise, the literature review offers a thorough comprehension of the Russian Empire's colonisation of the Kazakh steppe, highlighting the importance of adopting a nuanced and multifaceted approach when studying colonial processes and their effects. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS This study uses a multifaceted approach to the study of primary and secondary source materials on the colonization of the Kazakh steppe by the Russian Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. As a historical study, it relies primarily on qualitative analyses of archival documents, published materials, and scientific views. Where appropriate, quantitative data are used, in particular, demographic and economic statistics that shed light on the consequences of colonization. Sources and methods of analysis are chosen to foreground the views and experiences of the Kazakhs as a counterbalance to prevailing Russian-centred narratives. Extensive archival materials are drawn from the holdings of the Russian State Historical Archive and the Omsk Regional Historical Archive. These previously classified government documents provide a glimpse into the motives, policies, and actions of the Russian imperial state throughout the colonization period. The documents analysed include official correspondence, reports, statistics, maps, and plans relating to the Kazakh steppe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Reflecting Russian imperial interests, the archival sources contain candid information on colonization strategy, administration, military operations and attitudes towards the local population. In dealing with such diverse sources, the study employs several analytical techniques typical of historical research. Detailed analyses of the sources allow for a critical evaluation of the background, context, biases, and viewpoints reflected in the various texts and records. Cross-referencing and corroboration of details between 510 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 sources allows for more informed conclusions. Showing the chronology and location of events, politics, settlements, and changes of power illustrates wider patterns and relationships. Synthesizing different primary and secondary sources provides a more holistic account than relying on a single point of view. Historical and genetic method. This method allows identifying the origins, preconditions, causes of historical events and processes, tracing their evolution and change of states. Within the framework of this study, the historical-genetic method was applied to analyse the preconditions and dynamics of colonization of Kazakh lands by the Russian Empire. Such issues as the origin of Russia’s interest in the Kazakh territories, gradual advancement deep into the steppe, stages of establishing control and administrative-territorial structure were considered. Historical and comparative method. This method involves the comparison of two or more historical events, phenomena, processes in order to identify similarities and differences. In the study it was used to compare the colonial policy of Russia in Kazakhstan and other outskirts of the empire (for example, in Central Asia, the Caucasus). This made it possible to identify Russia’s general imperial approaches and regional specifics. Historical-typological method. With the help of this method, historical phenomena are classified by the presence of typical, recurring features. In this paper, it was used in analysing typical features of the colonial policy of the Russian Empire in Kazakhstan in comparison with other colonial powers. Thus, the use of a set of traditional historical methods within the framework of a systematic approach allowed for a comprehensive study of the phenomenon of colonization of Kazakhstan by Russia, taking into account the preconditions, dynamics and comparative context. By integrating materials and methods that foreground the Kazakh experience, the study aims to construct a revised historical narrative. Instead of a standard narrative of progress and domination by the Russian Empire, it reveals the contested nature of colonization due to the competing interests of Russia and Kazakhstan. This revised narrative demonstrates Kazakh strategies of accommodation, resistance, identity preservation and cultural continuity in the face of profound political, economic and social change under Russian rule. This approach is consistent with recent methodological shifts in colonial studies that seek to incorporate subaltern voices and challenge hegemonic assumptions. Applied in this context, it allows for a clearer understanding of how colonization transformed and shaped Kazakh society over two centuries. History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 511 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 3. RESULTS The colonization of the Kazakh steppe by the Russian Empire in the 18th-19th centuries was conditioned by a complex of strategic, geopolitical, economic and military-political factors. Russia’s main imperial ambitions of that period were to expand its territory and strengthen its geopolitical position. The entry of the vast Kazakh steppes opened access to new regions of Central Asia, bordering the possessions of China and the sphere of influence of the British Empire in India. This allowed Russia to strengthen its position in the southern strategic direction, where colonial powers were competing. In addition, the annexation of sparsely populated Kazakh territories provided a resource of space to accommodate the excess population of the central provinces of the Russian Empire13. There was an active migration of peasants to the southern regions of the European part, the Volga region, the Urals, and Siberia. The inclusion of vast fertile steppes into the empire opened new prospects for resettlement policy. The vast expanses of the Kazakh steppe had long served as pastures for millions of herds of nomads14. Their agricultural potential, if properly organized, could be realized for the needs of the growing population of European Russia. The reorientation of the steppe to grain production was seen as the most important task. The richest mineral resources in the east of the Kazakh steppe – in the mountains of Altai and East Kazakhstan – were also of great interest to Russian industry. The development of the deposits could give an impetus to the development of the mining industry. Finally, the advance to the south was dictated by considerations of strengthening the security of the southern borders of the empire. Nomadic raids from Western Kazakhstan posed a constant threat to the Urals, Western Siberia and the Urals. The subjugation of Kazakh tribes allowed moving the borderline far into the steppe and secures the rear areas. Thus, the combination of geopolitical, economic and military-strategic goals determined the persistence of the Russian Empire’s expansion into the 13 Qazaqstan Tarihy, Revolt of 1837-1847 under the leadership of khan Kenesary. 01/06/2017. URL: https://e-history.kz/en/history-of-kazakhstan/show/9571. Accessed 30 May 2024. 14 BARTH, Grzegorz, “Solidarity in the Context of Migration: A Philosophical Perspective”, in Historia i Swiat, vol. 12 (2023), pp. 481-494. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34739/his.2023.12.31 518 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 the Russian administration to strengthen colonial rule in the region. The author examines in detail the RGS expeditions to Kazakhstan, noting that they provided valuable knowledge about the region, but this knowledge was used for more effective control over the local population and the Russification policy. Thus, in the opinion of the researcher, the RGS objectively contributed to the realization of the Russian Empire’s colonial aspirations in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. At the same time, it combined scientific research with the collection of practically useful information for the administration. The analysis of the role of the RGS presented in the article is very interesting and useful for understanding the mechanisms of implementation of Russian colonial policy in the periphery of the empire. However, it does not give a full and comprehensive view of the phenomenon of colonization of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The study examines the colonization of Kazakhstan comprehensively, taking into account a wide range of factors – geopolitical, economic, military, religious and cultural. The activities of the RGS were only one component of this multifactorial process, along with economic development of the territory, migration policy, military pressure33. Thus, despite the interesting analysis of the role of the RGS, the article by David Schimmelpenninck van der Oye highlights only one aspect of the complex and multifaceted process of colonization of Kazakhstan by the Russian Empire34. A holistic understanding of this process requires a comprehensive approach, taking into account the variety of internal and external factors that determined Russia’s imperial expansion in the Central Asian region. It is this approach that has been realized in this study. The book by Toru Akiyama makes an important contribution to understanding the role of local elites in the process of colonization of Kazakhstan by the Russian Empire35. The strength of the work is the detailed coverage of the biography of Shabdan Zhantai uulu – a representative of the Kazakh nobility, who had to manoeuvre between the interests of the indigenous population and the demands of the colonizers. The author managed to demonstrate the difficult situation of local elites 33 VOLKOV, Vladislav, “Ethnic minorities of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in academic research”, in Etnograficeskoe Obozrenie, vol. 2017, 2 (2017), pp. 5-8. 34 Ibid. 35 AKIYAMA, Toru, The Qїrghїz Baatïr and the Russian Empire: A portrait of a local intermediary in Russian Central Asia, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2021. History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 519 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 under the conditions of colonial expansion by means of a concrete example. However, one cannot but agree that the researcher pays insufficient attention to other aspects of Russia’s colonial policy in the region – migration, Russification, and economic development. For a holistic picture, it is necessary to take into account the whole complex of political, social, economic and cultural factors of the colonization of Kazakhstan. In general, the book by the researcher is of undoubted value, supplementing knowledge about a separate aspect of the complex multifaceted process of colonization of Kazakhstan by the Russian Empire. At the same time, a full understanding of this phenomenon requires consideration of its other facets, which was done in this study. Iner Neumann and Wiger Einar consider the Kazakh steppe as an example of the influence of steppe nomadic traditions on the development of statehood and international relations in Eurasia36. This is important for understanding the peculiarities of Kazakhstan’s geopolitical position. The authors analyse in detail the steppe traditions of the Kazakhs, such as mobility, militancy, and cattle-breeding culture. They show that these traditions served as the basis of Kazakh resistance to Russian colonial expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries. Particularly valuable is the geopolitical approach of the researchers, which allows considering Kazakhstan as an important factor in the struggle between the Russian and British empires in Central Asia. However, insufficient attention is paid to the economic reasons for Russia’s advancement into the Kazakh steppe. The study also emphasizes the importance of Kazakh steppe traditions in their resistance to Russian conquest. It is noted that the mobile cattlebreeding way of life and militancy of the Kazakhs served as a basis for their struggle against the colonizers. However, this work considers not only the geopolitical confrontation between Russia and Kazakhstan. The complex of economic, social, cultural and religious factors of Kazakhs’ resistance to colonial conquest is analysed. The role of Islam in the consolidation of Kazakh society in the face of external threat is shown. Thus, the work of the researchers contributes to the coverage of the geopolitical context of the colonization of Kazakhstan. And this study complements it by analysing other important factors of Kazakh resistance, which allows creating a more complete picture of this historical 36 NEUMANN, Iner, EINAR, Wiger, The steppe tradition in international relations: Russians, Turks and European State Building 4000 BCE-2018 CE, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018. 520 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 phenomenon. It also contributes to understanding the role of geopolitical, cultural and historical factors in the confrontation between Kazakhstan and the Russian Empire. It helps to explain the Kazakhs’ stubborn resistance to colonial conquest. Adeeb Khalid offers a new comprehensive approach to the history of Central Asia, taking into account not only external but also internal factors of the region’s development37. This allows a better understanding of the causes and peculiarities of the Russian colonization of Kazakhstan. The author analyses in detail the process of conquest of Central Asia by the Russian Empire, paying special attention to the resistance of local peoples, including Kazakhs. The researcher shows that the colonial expansion of Russia encountered stubborn opposition of the indigenous population of the region. Particularly valuable is the researcher’s use of a wide range of diverse sources is particularly valuable, which gives his work objectivity and scientific reliability. The lack of coverage of the consequences of colonization for the development of Central Asia within the Russian Empire is noteworthy. However, this study considers in more detail the long-term consequences of colonization for Kazakhstan. It is shown that the colonial past influences the modern development of the country in the economic, political, social and cultural spheres. In general, the researcher’s work makes an important contribution to the study of the history of Kazakhstan’s accession to Russia, demonstrating the complex and contradictory nature of this process. Rico Isaacs and Erica Marat consider the uprising of Khan Kenesary Kasymov in Kazakhstan in 1837-184738. This allows a deeper study of the forms and methods of resistance of Kazakhs to Russian colonial expansion. The authors analyse in detail the preconditions, course, and results of this largest anti-colonial performance in the history of Kazakhstan in the 19th century. They show the scale and organization of the Kazakhs’ struggle under the leadership of Kenesary Kasymov. Particularly valuable is the involvement of a variety of sources, including archival documents and folklore. It gives objectivity and reliability to the work. But there is an excessive emphasis only on the confrontation with Russia, without taking into account the internal causes of the uprising. 37 KHALID, Adeeb, Central Asia: A new history from the imperial conquests to the present, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2021. 38 ISAACS, Rico, MARAT, Erica, Routledge handbook of contemporary Central Asia, New York, Routledge, 2022. History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 521 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 However, this work analyses other forms of resistance alongside the armed struggle – the Kazakhs’ preservation of their culture, traditions, and language. It is shown that despite colonial pressure, the Kazakhs managed to preserve their cultural identity. Overall, the study is important for understanding the scope and intensity of Kazakh resistance to the colonial conquests of the Russian Empire. It introduces new data on this rebellion as an important episode in the history of Kazakhstan. Jin Noda gives an overview of the political history of Kazakhstan in the 16th-19th centuries, paying special attention to the resistance of Kazakhs to Russian colonial expansion39. This allows tracing the evolution of Kazakh statehood in the period under consideration. The author covers in detail the process of the loss of independence of the Kazakh Khanate, showing the various forms of resistance of the Kazakhs to the advance of the Russian Empire. Reliance on a wide range of historical sources gives the work objectivity. At the same time, it is possible to note insufficiently deep analyses of socio-economic and ethnocultural processes in Kazakh society during this period. This does not allow fully explaining the reasons for colonial conquests. This study also devotes considerable attention to analysing the resistance of the Kazakh people to the Russian colonial regime. Both the armed struggle of khans and sultans and the partisan resistance of ordinary Kazakhs are considered. However, this work analyses more deeply the socio-economic prerequisites of resistance. It is shown that in addition to political motives, the struggle of the Kazakhs was caused by the seizure of land, destruction of traditional economy and way of life. In addition, this study pays more attention not only to the armed struggle, but also to other forms of resistance – preservation of cultural traditions, language, religion. Nevertheless, the work of the researcher is valuable as a generalizing study of the political history of Kazakhstan during the loss of state independence. Jennifer Keating analyses the influence of the environment and natural and climatic conditions on the process of conquest and incorporation of Central Asia, including Kazakhstan, by the Russian Empire40. This allows a deeper understanding of the difficulties and peculiarities of the colonization of the region. The author shows how climate, landscape, 39 NODA, Jin, “The Kazakhs, 16th-19th centuries”, in Asian History, 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.317 40 KEATING, Jennifer, On arid ground: Political ecologies of empire in Russian Central Asia, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022. 522 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 water scarcity and other environmental factors influenced the course of military operations and the administrative structure of the region. A new and original approach to the study of these issues is proposed. At the same time, insufficient attention to the political and economic aspects of Russia’s expansion in the region can be noted. However, this study comprehensively analyses the whole range of colonization factors, not limiting itself only to the environmental aspect. This does not allow assessing the complex of causes and factors of colonization. Nevertheless, the work of J. Keating is valuable in that it introduces new data on the role of natural and climatic conditions in the development of vast territories of Central Asia, including Kazakhstan, by the Russian Empire. Olzhas Kuanbay, on the basis of archival documents, analyses the features of the colonial policy of the Russian Empire in the West Siberian Governor-General’s Office in relation to the Kazakh population in the 19th century41. This allows a deeper understanding of the mechanisms and consequences of the colonization of Kazakh lands. The author examines in detail such aspects as the resettlement of Russian peasants, the introduction of Russian legislation and administration, and the infringement of traditional Kazakh institutions. Of great value is the involvement of new archival data. At the same time, there is a one-sided interpretation of the events, with an emphasis on the negative consequences for the Kazakh people. The reaction and position of the Russian administration is not sufficiently covered. This study also devotes considerable attention to the analysis of Russia’s colonial policy in Kazakhstan – administrative transformations, resettlement policy, infringement of the rights of Kazakhs. However, a more balanced approach is realized in this work. Along with the negative aspects of colonization, some positive phenomena are also noted – the development of education, medicine, improvement of living standards of part of the Kazakh population. The views of the Russian administration are also analysed. In addition, this study more deeply analyses the long-term consequences of colonization for the development of Kazakhstan. Nevertheless, the study by the researcher is important because it introduces 41 KUANBAY, Olzhas, “The colonial policy of the Russian Empire in relation to the Kazakhs of the West Siberian governorship in archival documents (II half of XIX c.)”, in Otan Tarikhi, vol. 3, 95 (2021), pp. 67-80. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.51943/1814- 6961_2021_3_67 History of the coloniza�on of the Kazakh steppe 523 INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 new archival materials on the history of the annexation of Western Kazakhstan to the Russian Empire. The reviewed studies make an important contribution to the study of religious, social, political, economic and geopolitical aspects of interaction between the Russian Empire and Kazakh society. A common strength of the works is the use of an extensive source base, including archival documents, periodicals, ethnographic and folklore sources. This ensures the scientific reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, one can note the predominantly one-sided approach of the authors, who emphasize either the Kazakhs’ resistance to colonization or Russia’s imperial policy. A comprehensive systemic analysis of the process of interaction and mutual influence of Russia and Kazakhstan is insufficiently presented. Nevertheless, in general, the historiography of the topic has a solid source base and makes a significant contribution to the study of complex and contradictory processes of annexation of Kazakh lands to the Russian Empire. CONCLUSIONS This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the process of colonization of the Kazakh steppe by the Russian Empire in the XVIIIXIX centuries, and formulates the following key conclusions. The first thing that should be emphasized is the complexity of factors that determined the colonization of Kazakhstan. The research confirms that in addition to Russia’s geopolitical, economic and military-strategic interests, cultural, religious and ethnic aspects played a significant role in shaping this process. The second important conclusion is the two-stage nature of colonization. At the first stage, starting from the 30s of the 18th century, Russia resorted to the creation of fortified lines and the gradual establishment of its presence in the Kazakh steppes. These fortified lines served not only to ensure security and control, but also to establish contacts with the local population. During this period, Russia actively interacted with the Kazakh khanates and tribes, explored the territory and assessed the potential for future colonization. However, in the 19th century, a more active stage of colonization began. At this time, Russia introduced administrative-territorial management in the occupied territories and began mass colonization by Russian settlers. This phased approach was an important stage in colonization, as it brought about a change in the social and economic structure of the region. Russian settlers introduced new 524 Ganiy Karassayev, Aman Rakhmetullin, Bekmurat Naimanbayev, Aiman Zhumanova and Baglan Bainazarova INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS. ÉPOCA MODERNA Y CONTEMPORÁNEA, 44 (2024): 503-528 ISSN: 2530-6472 cultural and economic elements into the Kazakh steppe, which significantly affected the local population. Understanding this two-stage dynamic of colonization allows analysing the process and its consequences in more depth, and assessing the influence of the Russian Empire on the development of Kazakhstan during the period of colonial expansion. The third conclusion concerns the socio-cultural changes that occurred as a result of colonization. The destruction of the traditional nomadic economic system, changes in social structures and the weakening of the national elite in Kazakh society were observed. These changes have formed a special socio-cultural heritage that continues to influence modern Kazakhstan. The fourth conclusion is related to the active resistance and preservation of the cultural identity of the Kazakh people. Despite colonial pressures, Kazakhs were able to preserve their cultural uniqueness and actively resist colonial takeovers. This demonstrates the strength and resilience of the Kazakh nation. In conclusion, the colonization of Kazakhstan had a profound and multifaceted impact on the region and its society. Its historical legacy remains relevant and influences contemporary life in Kazakhstan. Further research could focus on a more in-depth study of the regional specificities of colonization and the role of Kazakhstan in the context of Russian imperial expansion. REFERENCES AKIYAMA, Toru, The Qїrghїz Baatïr and the Russian Empire: A portrait of a local intermediary in Russian Central Asia, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2021. 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