Dreams and needs: The application of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s

Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Francesc X. Barca-Salom Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. [email protected].es Dynamis Fecha de recepción: 22 de febrero de 2008 [0211-9536] 2009; 29: 307-336 Fecha de aceptación: 13 de junio de 2008 SUMMARY: 1.—Introduction. 2.—Dreams. 3.—Advantages of collaboration. 4.—Courses on isotopes applied to industry imparted by the JEN. 5.—Early activities of the Section of Isotopes of the JEN. 6.—Promotion of needs. 7.—The food industry. 8.—The era of tracers. 9.—Exempted products. 10.—Culmination of the phase. 11.—Conclusion. ABSTRACT: The efforts to change the bleak image of the atom bomb galvanised the discourse on the peaceful applications of nuclear energy. This contributed to a utopian vision of nuclear energy, especially of the uses of radioactive isotopes in the immediate post-war period. Desire for peace engendered dreams of a better future based on the use of radioactivity. These dreams were first converted into reality using isotopes in medicine. These advances were subsequently applied to industry and agriculture. This article gives an overview of the peaceful applications of isotopes in industry and agriculture in Spain. It describes a period in which the initial dreams, sometimes fantastic and other times down-to-earth, gave rise to the first applications to meet the needs of economic growth in the 1960s. PALABRAS CLAVE: Isótopos, industria, agricultura, energía atómica, España. KEY WORDS: Isotopes, industry, agriculture, atomic energy, Spain. 1. Introduction The dropping of the atom bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which hastened the end of World War II, brought about great consternation in the world because of its awesome destructive power. After the War, the victorious nations endeavoured to change the image of atomic energy by highlighting its peaceful uses. These efforts were rewarded after the Atoms for Peace program promoted by the USA, which enabled friendly Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 308 countries to gain access to information and receive economic help to construct reactors for research. There were two peaceful applications of nuclear energy following WW II: nuclear power to generate electricity and the application of isotopes to medicine 1, food and industry. In the post-war period, the dearth of information in many countries without nuclear energy such as Spain gave rise to an idyllic image of these applications not only in the public mind but also among scientists albeit to a smaller degree. This paper describes the image created by some scientific journals in the promotion of the desire of peaceful uses of nuclear energy. However, the situation changed with the passage of time. The creation of research centres, special training centres and reactors for research encouraged development and transformed these initial dreams into a policy that promoted needs. An attempt is made to trace the development of isotopes for industrial applications in Spain from the creation of the Nuclear Energy Board (Junta de Energía Nuclear or JEN) until the end of the decade of 1960-1970. In this period the applications of isotopes to the productive processes in industry and agriculture underwent a considerable increase due mainly to the activities of the JEN and to the needs created by economic growth. An overview of the development of isotope applications to industry through the activities of the JEN is presented. Our approach is based on the information obtained from articles in technical journals and reports, and it is hoped that it will provide an incentive for further research to complement the study. 2. Dreams The first information on isotopes reached Spain via technical journals from the industrialized countries. In Spain, whose population had lived in isolation in an autarchy imposed by the Franco dictatorship, the news of the 1. The applications of isotopes in medicine and biology in Spain were studied in Santesmases, Maria Jesús. Peace propaganda and biomedical experimentation: Influential uses of radioisotopes in Endocrinology and Molecular Genetics in Spain (1947-1971). Journal of the History of Biology. 2006; 39: 765-796. A comparative perspective between US, England, France and Spain is included in Creager, Angela. N. H. Radiobiology in the atomic age: Changing research practices and policies in comparative perspective. Journal of the History of Biology. 2006; 39: 637-647. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 309 significant advantages of isotopes in medicine and agriculture was received with something akin to awe. However, the uses of isotopes in industry were less known although they were appreciated by those industrialists who realised their potential for business. The image created around the peaceful uses of atomic energy was full of optimism. This, however, was not spontaneous; but sprang from the desire to replace the bleak image of the atom bomb by the argument that peaceful uses of atomic energy could benefit mankind. The first uses considered were isotopes in medicine although greater emphasis was being simultaneously laid on the production of cheap electricity to ease the shortage in some countries in the post-war period. However, the application of isotopes to industry encountered a major obstacle. The purchase of the necessary equipment could not be offset by the economic benefit derived from its use, which delayed its application. Joaquín Catalá professor of Physics of the University of Valencia summed up the 1947 situation in the following words: «In any case when calculating the commercial value of these radioactive substances (isotopes), obtained from the pile, it may be concluded that at the present time the cost of its production and use cannot be offset, which means that it is not feasible to purchase these products and make a living from them» 2. Nevertheless some journals for scientists and technicians continued to present an excessively optimistic image of the applications of isotopes to industry. Thus the publicist José Barceló in an effort to highlight the advantages of isotopes proclaimed that special radioactive sand had been developed in the USA, which killed insects that were harmful to crops. Articles in foreign journals claimed that it would not be long before isotopes were applied to the metallurgic industry to eliminate the impurities from alloys 3. However, those responsible for the applications of atomic energy in Spain continued to be optimistic albeit more cautious. Thus, José Miguel Gamboa, director of the section of isotopes of the JEN affirmed in 1952 that the applications of isotopes in industry were almost as important as 2. Catalá, Joaquín. La energía atómica en la industria. Ion. 1947; 7: 669-761, 764-767, 829-833. 3. Hubert Plant, C. La metalurgia y la energía atómica. Acero y Energía. 1948; Jul-Aug: 318-322. Aplicaciones industriales de la energía nuclear. Physicalia. Boletín de la Asociación Nacional de Físicos de España (ANFE). 1950; 2 (3): 19-22. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 310 the production of electricity and that in the future we would see which of the two applications was more profitable 4. This idea of educating the scientific and technical community as well as the general public was not a phenomenon peculiar to Spain but formed part of a pre-conceived strategy on the part of the US government as John Krige writes: «The education of desire for the peaceful atom was not achieved by diffusion, but by a deliberate policies of the hegemonic authority, the United States in this case, policy which subverted the openness of the utopian project and restricted the agency of those who were embarking along it» 5. Applications of isotopes were not entirely unknown in Spain. Since the start of the XX Century natural isotopes had been used at the Instituto de Radiactividad (Radioactivity Institute). This centre was set up by José Muñoz del Castillo, professor of chemical mechanics and inorganic chemistry at the University of Madrid, in 1903 in order to carry out research into noble gases and to measure radiation. However, this Institute declined after 1920 and was annexed to the Instituto Nacional de Geofísica del CSIC (the National Institute of Geophysics of the High Council of Scientific Research) in 1940 6. The first references to nuclear energy appear in Spain in scientific reports, e.g. in the journal Ibérica 7 and in a lecture delivered by the Jesuit teacher Ignacio Martin Artajo at the ICAI (Catholic Institute of Arts and Industries) in 1945 8. Nevertheless, the preliminary steps were taken in the field of mining given that the government had reserved all the uranium deposits for the State. Spain possessed considerable deposits of uranium. Thus, in October 1945 the Minister of Industry laid claim to the uranium 4. Gamboa Loyarte, José Miguel. Las investigaciones nucleares y sus repercusiones [Lección inaugural del curso 1952-1953]. Universidad de la Laguna. 5. Krige, John. Techno-utopian dreams, techno-political Realities. The education of desire for the peaceful atom [Unpublished paper]; 2008. 6. Herran, Néstor. Aguas, semillas y radiaciones. El Laboratorio de Radiactividad de la Universidad de Madrid, 1904-1926. Madrid: CSIC; 2008. 7. Maldonado, Francisco. La bomba atómica. Ibérica. 1945; 32: 180-182,188. 8. The title of the lecture was: Energía atómica. Sus características y aplicaciones para fines militares. See Ordoñez Javier; Sánchez Ron, José M. Nuclear energy in Spain. From Hiroshima to the sixties. In: Forman, Paul; Sánchez Ron José M. National military establishments and the advancement of science and technology. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1996, p. 185-213. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 311 deposits of fourteen provinces 9. Some months before the Geological and Mining Institute had set up a commission to study the deposits of uranium in Spain, and at the end of 1945 they organised a cycle of lectures on this subject with the collaboration of the Association of mining engineers. One of these concerned the discovery of an important deposit of uranium by A. Carbonell in the Sierra de Albarrana (Cordoba) in 1936 10. Mining also played a crucial role in the Spanish nuclear research project. In April 1948 Francesco Scandone, from the University of Florence, delivered a lecture at the CSIC (Council for Scientific Research) in Madrid 11. During the break, Scandone enquired about uranium deposits in Spain. Armando Duran, professor of physics, who had attended the lecture, introduced Scandone to General Juan Vigon. This meeting led to a secret collaboration on nuclear training between Italy and Spain. In September 1948 Franco passed a secret law setting up the Atomic Research Board (Junta de Investigaciones Atómicas). This Board, which consisted of José Maria Otero Navascués, Manuel Lora Tamayo, Armando Durán Miranda and José Ramon Sobredo Rioboo, took on the outward appearance of a company known as Estudios y Patentes de Aleaciones Especiales (EPALE) under the supervision of the eminent scientist Esteve Terradas. The EPALE initially sent scientists abroad for training. First, Ramon Ortiz Fornaguera went to Milan, and then Carlos Sánchez del Rio and Maria Aranzazu Vigon travelled to Rome and to Milan. At the same time José M. Otero Navascués visited professor Scherrer at the Polytechnic of Zurich, and met professors Heisenberg and Karl Wirtz at the Max Planck Institute in Gottingen. He also made contact with Samuel K. Allison at the University of Chicago, professors Bolla and Amaldi at the Polytechnic Institute in Milan and with other distinguished scientists from Belgium, 9. Decree October 4th, 1945. Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE); nº 278: p. 2133. 10. Memorias del Instituto Geológico y Minero de España. Uranio. Curso de Conferencias. Madrid: Tip-Lit. Coullant; 1946. 11. Francesco Scandone was director of the Galileo House in Milan, which made scientific instruments for optics, and was a member of the board of the CISE (Centro di Informazioni, Studii ed Esperience). Romero de Pablos, Ana.; Sánchez Ron, José M. Energia Nuclear en España. De la JEN al CIEMAT. Madrid: CIEMAT; 2001, p. 15. The authors consider that Scandone came to Spain under the pretext of dealing with some aspects of optics but in fact he contacted the Spanish authorities with a view to establishing collaboration between Spain and Italy in nuclear energy. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 312 France, and Britain. Some of these scientists were invited to Madrid to give courses or lectures 12. The activities of the first period (1948-1951) were shrouded in secrecy. In 1950, following the death of Esteve Terradas, General Vigon became the new director of the EPALE. This marked the beginning of a new and crucial period during which secrecy gave way to discretion. The Spanish Nuclear Agency (Junta de Energía Nuclear, JEN) was set up in 1951. The JEN was conceived with grandiose designs. It sought to establish full control over all the fields related to nuclear energy: mining, training, research, radioactive protection, advice on nuclear matters, and the production and sale of isotopes. As regards isotopes, the JEN was responsible for nuclear medicine and radioactive protection and for the manufacture and distribution of isotopes in their different applications in medicine, industry or agriculture 13. Artificial isotopes were first employed, in gammagraphy, in Spain in 1950 just before the creation of the JEN. In early 1950, the company ENCASO (Empresa Nacional Calvo Sotelo) requested the Instituto de la Soldadura (Soldering Institute) for some help to carry out radiography surveys in the soldering of boiler pipes at the thermal power station under construction at Puertollano. However, this Institute underestimated the magnitude of this task and was obliged to offer the work to Solus Schall Ltd, an English company, which subsequently shipped staff and equipment (one transmitter of gamma rays with an Iridium 192 source) to Spain 14. On the completion of the survey, the equipment was acquired by the Soldering Institute, which used it to set up a service of industrial gammagraphy. In late 1954, a research worker from the Institute was sent to the Isotope School at Harwell for training. The Institute purchased three new instruments of Iridium 192 in 1955 and another one of Cobalt 60 in 1957 15. Meanwhile, in 1951 the JEN was set up with the following aims: to produce and distribute isotopes to the medical, industrial and agricultural sectors, and to provide protection against radiation 16. 12. Three trips made by Otero Navascués in 1949, 1950 and 1951 have been recently documented. Romero; Sánchez Ron, n. 11, p. 30-40. 13. Law October 22, 1951. BOE. 24 Oct., 1951: 4778-4779. 14. Domínguez Rodríguez, Germán. Isótopos. Energía Nuclear. 1976; 20, 103: 407-419. 15. Ruiz Rubio, Angel. La gammagrafía, su estado actual y posibilidades futuras. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 48: 309-318. 16. Decree October 22, 195. BOE. 24 Oct., 1951: 4778-4779. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 313 In the period 1951-1955 the activity of the JEN was supervised by General Vigon and was characterised by impressive projects such as the building of a large research centre and a facility for uranium treatment. Nevertheless, these ambitious projects ran into difficulties because of the isolation of Spain and the secrecy surrounding the activities of the nuclear powers. The project of the research centre was conceived at the same time as the creation of the JEN and was advised by the German scientist Karl Wirtz, who travelled to Madrid to discuss the details. General Vigon wished to build a large centre in accordance with the ambitious objectives of the JEN but Wirtz was more pragmatic and recommended the creation of universities for the training of future scientists and technicians 17. The construction of the uranium treatment plant at Andújar, the other achievement of the JEN in this period, began in 1956. This village in Jaén was chosen because of its location midway between the uranium mines: Cardeña in Córdoba and Virgen de la Cabeza in Jaén. This construction benefited from the considerable experience gained at the chemical laboratory of the University of Madrid and at the new pilot plant at the Centre of Nuclear Studies in Madrid 18. 3. Advantages of collaboration In 1953 President Eisenhower proposed the Atoms for Peace Programme with the aim of controlling the nuclear activities of other countries in exchange for help in developing nuclear energy for peaceful purposes 19. To this end, an international conference was held in Geneva in 1955. This conference was attended by delegates from more than seventy countries including Spain. Among the subjects discussed were the applications of Carbon 14 for dating objects and Cobalt 60 for treating disease in place 17. Presas Puig, Albert. La correspondencia entre José M. Otero Navascués y Karl Wirtz un episodio de las relaciones internacionales de la Junta de Energía Nuclear. Arbor. 2000; 659-660: 527601. 18. Requena, Eduardo. La Junta de Energía Nuclear. XXV aniversario. Madrid: Junta de Energía Nuclear; 1976, p. 68. 19. Parsons R.M. History of technology policy-commercial nuclear power. Journal of Professional issues in Engineering Education and Practice. 1995; 121 (2): 85-98; Hewlett, Richard G. Atoms for peace and war 1953-1961. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1989, p. 209-271. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 314 of Radium. More than six hundred hospitals and laboratories in forty six countries received isotopes from the Atomic Energy Commission. This number indicates the widespread use of isotopes in the world 20. However, at that time, the main subject of nuclear applications was the generation of electricity. Consequently, the JEN reached an agreement with the USA whereby Spain received the Uranium necessary for a research reactor (purchased from General Electric and inaugurated in 1958). This paved the way for the JEN to construct a new research centre at Moncloa near Madrid. Another result of the First Conference was the creation of a chair of nuclear engineering —The Ferran Tallada Chair. On the initiative of Joaquin Ortega Costa, the Industrial Engineering School of Barcelona inaugurated the Ferran Tallada Chair for nuclear engineering after the First International Conference at Geneva in 1955. As in the case of other chairs, the name of a prominent engineer was chosen 21. The time of the creation of this special chair was opportune given that at the beginning of 1955 the General Direction of Technical Education had begun to study the reform of Engineering Studies in order to adapt them to modern technologies. The syllabus applicable at that moment was the one of 1948, which was very inflexible and uniform and did not allow the addition of any new specialities to the existing ones of: Mechanics, Electricity, Chemistry, and Textiles. The teaching activity of the Ferran Tallada Chair also included isotopes. Nevertheless, the first course started modestly with only two teachers and a short syllabus: an introduction to nuclear engineering and an elementary theory of reactors 22. In 1957 the Ferran Tallada Chair organised three 20. Átomos para la paz. Los resultados de la Conferencia de Ginebra. Metalurgia y Electricidad. 1956; 220: 150-153. 21. Ferran Tallada Cumella (1881-1937) had previously occupied the chair of integral calculus and rational mechanics at the Engineering School. In 1932 Tallada obtained a grant to go to Paris to study physics and quantum mechanics with León Brillouin, Louis de Broglie and Eugene Bloch. The following year he joined the Maurice de Broglie laboratory near Paris, but he fell ill and was obliged to return to Barcelona, where he died in 1937. Roca Rosell, Antoni. Los científicos catalanes pensionados por la Junta. In: Sánchez Ron, José M., coord. 1907-1987. La Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas 80 años después. Simposio Internacional. Madrid 15-17 Diciembre 1987. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas; 1988, p. 349-379. 22. Programa para el curso 1955-56. Cátedra Fernando Tallada. Barcelona: Escuela Especial de Ingenieros Industriales; Oct 1955. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 315 courses with the collaboration of foreign teachers. The first course was supervised by scientists from the JEN, the second, directed by Thomas Reis from the French École Normal Superieur du Pétrole, and the third course was given by Leon Jacques from the École Polytechnique in Paris and dealt with isotopes The first session was devoted to explaining the difference between natural and artificial isotopes, and to production and separation. The second concerned the applications of the isotopes in the industry, metallurgy, chemistry and mechanics. And the third course focused on the applications of isotopes to biochemistry and on safety measures 23. The following year these topics were incorporated into the regular course. The implementation of isotopes to industry in Spain was not only due to the First Congress of Geneva but also to the creation of some schools of isotopes at Harwell (Great Britain) and at Saclay (France), where some of the teachers of the Ferran Tallada Chair received their training. Other influences were the development of these techniques in Europe and their diffusion and circulation in the late 1950s 24. The year 1957 marked a turning point given that the courses imparted in Madrid concerned the application of isotopes exclusively to science and medicine. 25 The JEN set up the Section of Isotopes to supply and promote the use of isotopes and also to train users. This Section was initially housed in the Instituto Nacional de Oncología (National Institute of Oncology) and the first measure it took was to authorize those persons or institutions that had used isotopes previously. Twenty seven authorizations were conceded but none were granted for industrial applications 26. The 23. Ciclo de conferencias sobre isótopos. Cátedra Fernando Tallada. Barcelona: Escuela Especial de Ingenieros Industriales; Mar 1957. The title of lectures was: 1) Isotopes naturels et artificiels. Moyens de production et de séparation. 2) Applications des isotopes naturels. Applications des radio isotopes aux industries métallurgiques, chimiques, mécaniques. 3) Emplois biochimiques des radio isotopes. Applications dans la recherche des laboratoires. Précautions d’emploi. 24. Herran, Néstor. Spreading nucleonics: the Isotope school at the atomic energy research establishment 1951-67. BJHS. 2006; 39 (4): 569-586. 25. Barca-Salom, Francesc X., Els inicis de l’Enginyeria nuclear a Barcelona. La Càtedra Ferran Tallada (1955-1962) [PhD dissertation]. Barcelona: Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 2002. See: http/www.tdx.cbuc.es/. Barca-Salom, Francesc X. Nuclear power for Catalunya: The role of the official chamber of Industry of Barcelona (1953-1962). Minerva, 2005; 43 (2): 163-181. Barca-Salom, Francesc X. Aplicacions dels isòtops a la indústria durant el franquisme. Quaderns d’Història de l’Enginyeria. 2005; 7: 1-44. 26. Gamboa Loyarte, J.M.; Del Val Cob, M. El Centro Nacional de Energía Nuclear «Juan Vigón»: La Sección de Isótopos. Energía Nuclear. 1960; 15: 5-19. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 322 The JEN realised that the situation was favourable in the medical sector and that it was necessary to implement these techniques in industry 42. The increase was progressive and was related to the construction of research reactors such us those of JEN, the ARBI and the Argos. The steady development of industry, the confidence in the applications of isotopes and the number of trained users of isotopes accounted for the surprising growth of applications in industry from 1962 onwards. 6. Promotion of needs The applications of radioactive isotopes to industry underwent a sharp increase after 1963. Gammagraphy, which was the first application in this field, was restricted to a single centre in 1957. In 1967, forty five installations were in operation with Iridium 192, which had been produced by the JEN since 1963 43. Another application, which experienced a sharp rise during this decade, was the instruments of industrial control equipped with isotopes. These instruments constituted a radioactive test consisting of a small activity source, a detector and an electronic device to convert the signal into a digital or analogical one. This equipment was designed to measure physical properties such as thickness of materials, levels of liquids, density or humidity. In all these cases, rays were beamed across the material and alterations were detected by the variations in the flux. From 1963 to 1967 there was a threefold increase in the number of instruments of industrial control. Table 2 gives the distribution of these instruments in accordance with the different industries. The chemical sector emerged as the main user of these instruments with the result that installations increased from 14 to 40. The paper and wood, and the construction sectors showed a similar rise. However, there were no applications in the food, textile, cement and machinery sectors. In 1961, Spain was lagging behind the 23 pioneering countries that used nucleonic equipment of control. This could be due to the fact that 42. Domínguez, n. 27, p. 53. 43. Ruiz, n. 15, p. 312. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 323 the industrial structure was deficient and to the fact that the radioisotope techniques were not sufficiently widespread. But the end of the decade marked a radical change. In 1963 the JEN had authorized 18 facilities of this type, whilst in 1967 the number had trebled. Thus, this resulted in a considerable development and implementation of these techniques in industry. Table 3 shows the distribution of the facilities of industrial control according to the type of industry where they were applied and according to the type application to which they were destined. Overall, all these innovations represented a profit of 98 millions of PTA. (589.000 €) in 1967 —similar to that of Austria or Portugal but amounting to less than 1% of the USA profits 44. Most users were located in Catalonia and the Basque country (Manhusa, Coromina Industrial S.A., and Glucosa y derivados S.A. from Barcelona, J. Boncompte i la Forestal d’Urgell from Lleida or the Compañía Española de Plásticos S.A. and ICOA S.A. from Basauri, Vizcaya). Table 2: Number of nucleonic instruments in relation to industries. From 1963 to June 1967 Industries 1963 1967 Installations authorized No. Instruments Total Installations authorized No. Instruments Total EDNV EDNV Tobacco 1 2 2 1 2 2 Wood and paper 2 4 4 10 12 12 Rubber 1 6 6 2 7 7 Chemistry and Plastics 5 12 2 14 17 21 6 13 40 Petrol and coal 2 4 1 5 Basic metals 7 12 12 13 14 4 18 Construction 1 2 2 6 14 14 Others 1 1 1 4 2 1 3 TOTAL 18 34 4 2 1 41 55 54 22 23 2 101 E = thickness, D= density, N = level, V= others (p. ex. analysis) Souce: Del Val, n. 44, p. 330. 44. De Val Cob, M. Los radioisótopos en el control industrial. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 48: 319-339. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 324 One area in which the Section of Isotopes of the JEN had a direct participation was the construction of the building for Critical Experiments at the National Centre of Nuclear Energy in Madrid. Isotopes were incorporated in tools to measure ground density. To this end, the JEN designed and patented some tools: one in the form of a U, another in the form of a cross and another for backscattering. This patent was one of the forty that the JEN obtained between 1955 and 1966. As can be seen in the Graphic 1, the distribution of patents reached a maximum in 1957 and a minimum in 1961. The average was about four patents a year. Most of the patents corresponded to improvements in the procedures of preparation of elements such as Iodine 131, radioactive sulphites, carbides of uranium and phosphor 32. The General Spanish Registration of Patents contains a «Device for the measure of the density of grounds by transmission of the gamma radiation« of the year 1963 corresponding to the aforementioned instruments. Graphic 1. Distribution of the number of patents (1955-1966) All these instruments were also employed to measure soil compaction and were used regularly in the courses on isotope applications to industry. Moreover, at the request of some industrialists for girders and columns, the JEN carried out some tests to detect the iron in the reinforced concrete 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 Patents Source: Spanish Office of Patents and Marks. Historical Archive. Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Marks. Prepared by the author. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 325 with gammagraphy and nucleonic control. This enabled the detection of 4 mm of iron in concrete 20 cm thick 45. At the same time, the Chemistry Division of the JEN continued the policy of reducing imports of isotopes. Accordingly, an automated plant was built to produce Nitrogen 15 in order to prepare marked compounds such as ammonium chloride or ammonium nitrate 46. A high activity Chromium 51 by means of irradiation of potassium chromate was obtained for use as a tracer to protect living organisms from contamination 47. To this list may be added other isotopes already in production —Carbon 14, Sulphur 35 and Iridium 192— and the ones to be prepared —Manganese 54, Iron 50 and Iodine 131 48. These isotopes were produced in excess and exported with the help of the Commissariat de l’Energie Atomique 49. The United States, Canada and France were the main importers 50. Owing to this overproduction, Gregorio Lopez Bravo (minister of Industry) highlighted the need to use isotopes and proposed information campaigns during the closing ceremony of the I Symposium of isotope applications held in the JEN in 1967 51. Henceforth, the phase of dreams became transformed into a phase of promotion of isotopes to absorb overproduction. 7. The food industry As for the applications of isotopes in agriculture (as in the case of industrial applications) the phase of dreams in which isotopes were regarded as the solution to all the major problems of mankind, such as hunger, had come to an end in Spain. Thus, in 1955 there were already articles on the applications 45. Del Val Cob, M.; Plata Bedmar, A. Utilización de isótopos radiactivos en problemas de construcción. II. Medida de la densidad de tierras y localización y medida de armaduras de hierro en hormigón. Energía Nuclear. 1966; 40: 115-124. 46. Producción en la JEN de compuestos marcados con N-15. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 47: 246. 47. Novedades en la producción de isótopos radiactivos en la JEN. Energía Nuclear. 1966; 41: 265. 48. Domínguez, G.; Del Val Cob, M. Consumo y aplicaciones de los radioisótopos en España en 1965 y 1966. Papel de la Junta de Energía Nuclear. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 48: 389-401. 49. Producción y consumo de isótopos radiactivos en España en 1964. Energía Nuclear. 1965; 37: 377-389. 50. Noticiero. Energía Nuclear. 1968; 52: 117-133. 51. I Simposio sobre aplicaciones de los radioisótopos. Acto de clausura. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 48: 267-269. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 326 of isotopes to improve harvests and increase food production. There were even reports on the first radioactive eggs laid by hens fed with previously irradiated seaweed 52. Moreover, references were made to the use of tracers to determine the metabolism of plants, the action of insecticides and the diseases of animals due to incorrect feed 53. The possibility of subjecting seeds of different plant species to radioactive cobalt before sowing in order to obtain more disease resistant varieties was also considered 54. Articles were published on experiments that used insecticides and fungicides marked with isotopes to better understand the life cycle of insects and fungi and to devise more effective ways to combat them 55. In 1960, there were reports on the irradiation of potatoes in the USA to eliminate shoots 56, and on the cultivation of «Golden delicious» apples and peanuts with irradiated seeds 57. If these experiments were regarded as fantastic in Spain this was not the case in other countries given that these techniques had first been developed in 1954 when the Quartermaster Corps of the US Army had embarked on a program of food sterilisation with the aim of prolonging its shelf life. Subsequently, other countries such as England, Canada and France followed suit. From 1960 onwards this program was adopted by civil authorities, taking advantage of this military experience. In early 1962, there were 12 laboratories in Europe that were engaged in the irradiation of meat and 9 in that of fish. There were 20 labs engaged in irradiating fruit and vegetables and 10 in that of miscellaneous products. Moreover, there were 60 irradiation units and 100 researchers employed in this sector 58. 52. La puesta de los primeros huevos radioactivos. Ibérica. 1955; 314 (22): 294. 53. Rocasolano, Cándido. La energía atómica en agricultura i ganaderia. El Cultivador Moderno. 1955; 38: 86. 54. Juscafresa, Baudilio. La energía atómica y la agricultura. El Cultivador Moderno. 1955; 38 (11): 407-408. 55. Rocasolano, Cándido. La energía atómica en agricultura. El Cultivador Moderno. 1955; 41 (1): 20-22. 56. Efectos de los radioisótopos en la conservación de las patatas. Ibérica. 1960; 421, vol. 31, 15 Mar: 213. 57. Obtención de nuevas variedades de frutas por medio de la energía nuclear. Ibérica. 1955; 31: 168. 58. Del Val Cob, Manuel; Ortín Suñé, Nicasio. Conservación de alimentos por irradiación. I. Evolución y estado actual en el mundo. Energía Nuclear. 1965; 34: 95-111. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 327 In Spain, by contrast, activity in this field had not yet got under way. Nevertheless, the construction of the Naiad unit irradiation was once again to play a providential role. Since its inauguration, the JEN began to undertake studies on irradiation with the collaboration of the Institute of Agronomic Research. There were three reactors in Spain in 1964: JEN-1, Argos and ARBI. However, it became necessary to have one unit available to carry out irradiation with gamma rays. The JEN adapted the basement of the Section of Isotopes to build this unit known as Naiad —the mythological nymph who lived in fountains, rivers and lakes. Naiad took the form of a well filled with water at the bottom of which was the radioactive source of Cobalt 60 of 7.700 curies of activity. The source was placed in a circle in the middle of which was the sample to be irradiated. After its inauguration in December 1964 this unit was used for irradiating different kinds of materials such as food, wood and paint. It was also used to carry out research into solid state physics, chemistry of radiations and permeability changes of cells for research centres of the JEN or the CSIC such as the «Rocasolano» Institute of Physical Chemistry or the «Alonso Barba» Institute of Chemistry and also for the Service of Forest Plagues and Nuclear Applications of Barcelona 59. Naiad marked the beginning of the agricultural studies in the JEN. This research was conducted together with the Agricultural Research Institute (Instituto de Investigaciones Agronómicas). Subsequently, some tests were carried out on irradiation of potatoes, onions, strawberries, lemons, oranges and wheat. The first study (December 1965) concerned two native varieties of potatoes —Álava and Gineke. The test sought to determine the optimum dosage needed to prolong storage and delay sprouting. On this occasion the Section of Isotopes of the JEN collaborated with the Animal Physiology Laboratory of the Pharmacy Faculty of Granada University in an attempt to ascertain whether the irradiated potatoes were eatable and to determine the effects of the rays on nutrition. 60 Four years later this 59. Fornas, E.; Del Val Cob, M.; De la Cruz, F. La unidad de irradiación «Nayade» de cobalto-60. Energía Nuclear. 1966; 43: 376-388. 60. Rivas, A.; García de Mateos, A.; Ortín Suñé, N.; Del Val Cob, M. Conservación de alimentos por irradiación. V. Estudio económico del mercado de patatas en España y posibilidades de su conservación por irradiación. Madrid: Junta de Energía Nuclear; 1967; García De Mateos A.; Rivas García, A.; Ortín Suñé, N.; Del Val Cob, M. Conservación de alimentos por irradiación. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 328 research began to have repercussions in the food industry. The Ministerio de Gobernación (Home Office) authorised the company Ansa-Radiaciones S.A. in Barcelona to use gamma rays to commercialise irradiated potatoes for human consumption. This was the first time isotopes were authorised in Spain for food conservation 61. The research was accompanied by legislation and a ministerial decree in 1966 to promote and regulate installations for food preservation by irradiation 62. There is no evidence to support the transfer of technology between the JEN and the company of potatoes but it seems very likely that the research of the JEN had implications for the creation of the company of Barcelona, for the authorisation issued to undertake this kind of nuclear activity and for the subsequent legislation. In addition to the work of the Naiad unit, this research received a fresh impetus in 1965 when the JEN participated in the Seibersdorf Project. This international programme was sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission of Austria, the European Organisation for Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the International Organisation of Atomic Energy (OIEA), and undertook the study of food preservation by irradiation. One of the first research subjects was to analyse the aroma of fruit juice. The JEN was responsible for apple and grape juice. The Naiad unit examined irradiated samples of different varieties of Austrian grapes and apples and only two types of Spanish apple. This grape juice gave off a nauseating smell with the result that this method of conservation was invalidated. As for the apple juice, there was no substantial change in the aroma despite a strong smell of stale juice. It was concluded that irradiation modified the aromatic compounds by degrading the volatile compounds 63. This research paved the way for further studies. Thus in 1968 the Direction of Chemistry and Isotopes signed two contracts with the OIEA VII. Investigaciones realizadas con dos variedades (Alava y Gineke) de patatas españolas. Madrid: Junta de Energía Nuclear; 1967. 61. Noticiero. Energía Nuclear. 1969; 62: 620. 62. Order of the Minister of Industry, September 8, 1966 and Decree October 6 1966 (BOE 31-101966). Ortin Suñé, N. Estado actual, posibilidades futuras e impacto económico potencial de la conservación de alimentos por irradiación a escala comercial. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 48: 379-387. 63. Barrera, R., Gascó, L. De la Cruz, F. Alteraciones de aroma en zumos de frutas irradiadas. Energía Nuclear. 1968; 52:117-133. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 329 to compare fish microflora with the residual flora following irradiation and to determine the volatile compounds (smell) of irradiated fish. Hake was selected given that it was the most common fish in the local diet 64. Subsequently, in late 1969 the JEN agreed to construct a Research Centre of Irradiation equipped with laboratories for the analysis of irradiated foods 65, Spain signed an international agreement on irradiated foods and Ricardo Fernández Cellini was appointed vice-president of the council to regulate this subject 66. 8. The era of tracers The I Symposium of applications of isotopes held in Madrid in 1967 also established the lines of research on the applications of tracers in hydrology, agriculture and industry 67. Tracers had a long application in the field of medicine and radiobiology even in Spain. In the words of Maria Jesús Santesmases: «The use of iodine-131 for experimental endocrinology in research on endemic goitre was introduced by Gabriela Morreale and Francisco Escobar from Granada in the late 1950s. From the mid 1960s onwards Margarita Salas and Eladio Viñuela began using Phosphorus 32 and Carbon 14 in their laboratory of molecular biology in Madrid» 68. But the applications of tracers in industry and agriculture continued to lag behind. The technique of tracers consists in using the isotope not as a radioactive source but in a mixture to subsequently detect radioactivity in another phase or place. In hydrology, tracers have been used to measure the flow of rivers in Spain since 1964 following the agreement between the JEN and the OIEA. 64. De la Sierra Serrano, Daniel. Conservación de alimentos por irradiación. Irradiación de productos de la pesca. Energía Nuclear. 1970; 68: 483-493; Barrera, R.; Gascó, L. Compuestos radiolíticos volátiles en pescado irradiado. Energía Nuclear. 1971; 69: 21-33. 65. Fernández, J; Ortín, N. Métodos nucleares para reducir la pérdida de los alimentos. Energía Nuclear. 1972; 76: 191-195. 66. Noticiero. Proyecto internacional de irradiación de alimentos. Energía Nuclear. 1971; 69: 6869. 67. Fernández Cellini, R. I Simposio sobre aplicaciones de los radioisótopos. Energía Nuclear. 1967; 48: 261-266. 68. Santesmases, n. 1, p. 775. Francesc X. Barca-Salom Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 330 Methods and instruments were first developed and then Bromine 32 was used to determine the flow of the river Tagus 69. This application allowed the JEN to be integrated into the Hydrology Institute and to participate in projects concerning the detection of leaks in urban water pipes or in dams 70. The food industry exploited the use of tracers to improve crops and to analyze the effects of pesticides. Thus the JEN experimented with Phosphorus 32 to determine the quantity absorbed by the soil. Also, in 1965, the evolution of Iron and Manganese in fertilising two kinds of soils (calcareous or non calcareous), using Manganese 54 and Iron 59 as tracers, was determined 71. In the early 1960s the use of pesticides was so widespread that it posed a risk of contamination. The OIEA and the FAO entrusted one group of experts to study some alternatives. These experts recommended research into marked pesticides to determine their evolution and reduce their effects 72. To this end, the JEN prepared and sold more than eighteen kinds of marked pesticides 73 and undertook research into herbicides. Marked herbicides could be used as tracers. This would facilitate the study of herbicide residues and their effect on the following harvest. One of these studies —which became a model for subsequent studies— was carried out by the JEN on one herbicide common in wheat fields: (2,4 dichlorphenoxy) acetic acid known as 2,4-D marked with Carbon 14. It was agreed that in a normal dosage (1kg/Ha) the herbicide that remained for one year was insignificant because of microbial degradation and the effect of rain 74. The application of isotopes as tracers in industry involved the JEN in a study for the SEAT automobile company (Sociedad Española de Automóviles de Turismo) in collaboration with students from the Industrial Engineering 69. Noticiero. Energía Nuclear. 1968; 52: 117-133. 70. Domínguez, n. 48, p. 390. 71. Costa Yagüe, F. Empleo de trazadores radioactivos en investigación agrícola. Energía Nuclear. 1965; 48: 363-377. 72. RADIOISÓTOPOS para la protección del peligro de los pesticidas. Energía Nuclear. 1965; 36: 322-323. 73. PRODUCCIÓN de insecticidas marcados con radioisótopos en la Junta de Energía Nuclear. Energía Nuclear. 1966; 43: 443. 74. Fernández González, J.; Ortín Suné, N. Empleo de trazadores radioactivos en el estudio de los residuos de herbicidas en el suelo. I. Aplicación al 2,4-D. Energía Nuclear. 1969; 51: 325-334. Dreams and needs: The applications of isotopes to industry in Spain in the 1960s Dynamis 2009; 29: 307-336 331 School from Madrid. This study concerned the wear and tear of the chrome piston rings of the engine of the SEAT 1500 CA automobile using Iron 59 and Chromium 51 as tracers. To this end, it was necessary to construct a test bench in the laboratory of the JEN. The test consisted of four stages: 1) the rings inside the nuclear reactor were irradiated; 2) the rings were assembled in the motor; 3) the motor was tested under different experimental conditions; and 4) the radioactivity of the metallic particles in the lubrication oil was measured to determine the degree of wear and tear of the rings 75. All the above activities of the JEN concerning tracers were developed between 1964 and 1971, between the third and fourth Geneva conferences. Subsequently, the JEN collaborated in evaluating turbines at a hydroelectric power station, in determining the movement of marine sediments at Orzan in Galicia, and in detecting leaks in a heat exchanger at an oil refinery 76. Everything seems to indicate that the research and application carried out in the JEN closely followed the research lines of the most advanced countries. Thus, the originality of the Spanish applications was considerably reduced and was limited to small improvements in the usual methods of application. 9. Exempted products Ten years after Roentgen discovered X rays, the first German Radiological Congress (1905) highlighted the need for regulation. It was recommended that the use of radiation be controlled by legislation to reduce the number of accidents, which at that time was high. In the following years, some professional associations started to elaborate rules and recommendations on safety. But it was not until 1928 that some guide lines on radiation were drawn up by the Prospection International Commission (known as International Commission of Radiological Protection, after 1950). 75. Del Val Cob, M.; Chul Yoo, B.; Fuentes Figuera de Vargas, J. Estudio del desgaste de segmentos de motor Seat 1500 CA mediante trazadores radiactivos. Madrid: Junta de Energía Nuclear; 1971. 76. Fuentes, J. Aplicaciones industriales para el estudio, la investigación y la explotación de recursos de los radioisótopos. Energía Nuclear. 1972; 76: 177-183.