Black-foot disease of grapevine: an update on taxonomy, epidemiology and management strategies

245 www. up ess.com/pm ISSN (p in ): 0031-9465 © Fi enze Uni e si y P ess ISSN (online): 1593-2095 Phy opa hologia Medi e anea (2013) 52, 2, 245−261 Co esponding au ho : J. A mengol Fax: +34 963879269 E-mail: [email p o ec ed].es REVIEW Black- oo disease o g ape ine: an upda e on axonomy, epidemiology and managemen s a egies Ca los aGUsTÍ-B IsaCH and Josep a MeNGol Ins i u o Ag o o es al Medi e áneo, Uni e sidad Poli écnica de Valencia, Camino de Ve a s/n, 46022-Valencia, Spain Summa y. Black- oo is one o he mos des uc i e g ape ine unk diseases in nu se ies and young ineya ds, causing nec o ic oo lesions, wood nec osis o he oo s ock base, and a g adual decline and dea h o g ape ines. Causal agen s o he disease a e included in o he gene a Campyloca pon, “Cylind oca pon”, Cylind ocladiella and Ily- onec ia. Recen axonomical s udies o Neonec ia and ela ed gene a wi h “Cylind oca pon”-like anamo phs based on mo phological and phylogene ic s udies, di ided Neonec ia in o i e gene a. Thus, he cu en axonomical po- si ion and classi ica ion o he causal agen s o black- oo disease, mainly “Cylind oca pon”/Ilyonec ia, comp ises one o he main opics o his e iew. The e iew also p o ides an upda e on geog aphical dis ibu ion, epidemiol- ogy and managemen s a egies o he disease. Key wo ds: Campyloca pon, “Cylind oca pon”, Cylind ocladiella, Ilyonec ia, Vi is ini e a. In oduc ion Black- oo disease o g ape ines is a se ious dis- ease in mos wine and g ape-p oducing egions o he wo ld, pa icula ly in nu se ies and young ineya ds (Halleen e al., 2006a). The causal agen s a e included in o he gene a Campyloca pon, “Cylin- d oca pon”, Cylind ocladiella and Ilyonec ia (C ous e al., 1993; Halleen e al. 2004; Halleen e al., 2006b; Sch oe s e al., 2008; Cha e i e al., 2011; Cab al e al., 2012a, c; Lomba d e al., 2012). This disease was i s desc ibed in 1961 (G asso and Magnano Di San Lio, 1975), and o e he las decade, i s incidence has inc eased signi ican ly in mos g ape ine p oduc- ion a eas o he wo ld (Halleen e al., 2006a; Alaniz e al., 2007). Al hough hese pa hogens usually mani es on ma u e g ape ines, hey ha e also been equen ly isola ed om symp oma ic o asymp oma ic oo - s ock mo he -plan s, oo ed oo s ock cu ings, bench-g a and young g a ed ines in di e en g ape ine p oduc ion a eas a ound he wo ld, be- ing conside ed he mos common pa hogenic ungi associa ed wi h young nu se y ines (Rumbos and Rumbou, 2001; Halleen e al., 2003; Fou ie and Hal- leen, 2004; Oli ei a e al., 2004; A oca e al., 2006; Dub o sky and Fab i ius, 2007; Halleen e al., 2007). Mo eo e , i is well known ha hese pa hogens a e common in he soil causing in ec ion o g a ed ines a e some mon hs o g ow h in nu se y soils (Hal- leen e al. 2003, 2007; Cha e i e al., 2011). Cha ac e is ic symp oms o black- oo disease in- clude a educ ion in oo biomass and oo hai s wi h sunken and nec o ic oo lesions (Rego e al., 2000; Halleen e al., 2006a; Alaniz e al., 2007, 2009; Ab eo e al., 2010). In some cases he oo s ock diame e o old- e ines is hinne below he second ie . To compen- sa e o he loss o unc ional oo s, a second c own o ho izon ally g owing oo s is some imes o med close o he soil su ace. Remo al o oo s ock ba k e eals black discolo a ion and nec osis o wood is- sue which de elops om he base o he oo s ock (Figu es 1A, 1B). The pi h is also compac ed and dis- Phy opa hologia Medi e anea 246 C. Agus í-B isach and J. A mengol colo ed (Scheck e al., 1998b; La ignon, 1999; Fou ie and Halleen, 2001; Halleen e al., 2006a). Ex e nal symp oms show educed igou wi h small-sized unks, sho ened in e nodes, une en wood ma u i y, spa se oliage, and small lea es wi h in e einal chlo osis and nec osis (Figu es 1C, 1D). Field symp oms o black- oo disease a ec ed ines a e equen ly indis inguishable om hose o caused by Pe i disease (Scheck e al., 1998b; Rego e al., 2000; Halleen e al., 2006a; Alaniz e al., 2007, 2009; Ab eo e al., 2010). When young ines a e in ec ed, dea h oc- cu s quickly, ne e heless as he ine ages, in ec ion esul s in a mo e g adual decline and dea h migh only occu a e a yea (Guble e al., 2004). Disease symp oms on ma u e ines (5 yea s and olde ) a e no iced ea ly in he g owing season. A ec ed ines achie e poo new g ow h, ail o o m shoo s a e win e do mancy, and die by mid-summe . O en shoo s also d y and die du ing he summe . Vines wi h educed ege a i e g ow h also die du ing he subsequen do man win e pe iod (Halleen e al., 2006a). Causal agen s Taxonomy and dis ibu ion The common name black- oo disease was p o- posed by Scheck e al. (1998b), o designa e he dis- ease caused by “Cylind oca pon” des uc ans (Zinnsm.)          B C D A Figu e 1. A, black discolo a ion and nec osis o wood issue which de elops om he base o he oo s ock, cha ac e is ic o black- oo disease; B, longi udinal sec ion o a oo s ock showing da k-b own o black discolo a ion; C, Un-sp ou ed g ape ine p opaga ion ma e ial in a g ape ine nu se y; D, g ape ine plan s showing s unded g ow h, educed igou and e a ded sp ou ing in a young plan a ion. 247 Vol. 52, No. 2, Augus , 2013 An upda e o black- oo disease o g ape ine Schol en and “C.” ob usispo um (Cooke & Ha kn.) Wollenw., which we e he wo species adi ionally epo ed as he causal agen s o basal o o oo ne- c osis on g ape ines. Ne e heless, his disease was al eady named as “pied noi ” in F ench language since 1969, because o he p esence o black nec osis on he base o diseased oo s ocks (Badou , 1969). The i s epo o “C.” des uc ans on g ape ine was made in F ance in 1961 (Malu a and La ignon, 1991). Since hen, i has been isola ed om diseased ines in I aly (G asso, 1984), Po ugal (Rego, 1994), Cali o nia (Scheck e al., 1998b), A gen ina (Ga ica e al., 2001), Ge many (Fische and Kassemeye , 2003), Pennsyl ania (Gugino and T a is, 2003), New Zea- land and Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2004), B azil (Ga ido e al., 2004) and Canada (Pe i e al., 2011). “Cylind oca pon” ob usispo um, has also been epo - ed o p oduce black- oo symp oms on g ape ine in Sicily (G asso and Magnano di San Lio, 1975) and Cali o nia (Scheck e al., 1998a). The gene ic name “Cylind oca pon” was in o- duced in 1913 by Wollenwebe o anamo phs be- longing o Nec ia sec ion Willkommio es Wollenw. This sec ion included species wi hou chlamydo- spo es. Few yea s la e , in 1917, Wollenwebe ex- panded he concep o “Cylind oca pon” o include species o ming mycelial chlamydospo es in cul u e, being “C.” des uc ans he mos impo an membe o his g oup (B ay o d, 1993). In 1966, Boo h spli he genus in o ou g oups based on he p esence o absence o mic oconidia and chlamydospo es: (i) “Cylind oca pon” magnusianum (Sacc.) Wollenw., which was he anamo ph o he ype species o Neo- nec ia, (ii) “C.” cylind oides Wollenw., which was he ype species o he genus “Cylind oca pon”, (iii) “C.” des uc ans, which was he anamo ph o Neonec ia adicicola, and (i ) membe s o “Cylind oca pon” spe- cies p edominan ly connec ed wi h eleomo phs o he ‘Nec ia’ mammoidea g oup (B ay o d, 1993; Hal- leen e al., 2006a). “Cylind oca pon” ob usispo um was o iginally desc ibed om he USA (Cali o nia) as oc- cu ing on Acacia sp., whe e i was obse ed o o m mac oconidia and chlamydospo es (Boo h, 1966). “Cylind oca pon” ob usispo um s ains iden i ied by Boo h (1966) o igina ed om a b oad ange o hos plan s in Eu ope, New Zealand, No h Ame ica, and, a leas pa ly, o med mic oconidia. T adi ionally, ep esen a i es o all ‘Nec ia’ g oups wi h “Cylind oca pon” anamo phs we e ans e ed in o Neonec ia (Rossman e al., 1999; Man i i e al., 2001; B ay o d e al., 2004). Man i i e al. (2001) and B ay o d e al. (2004) analyzed mi ochon- d ial small subuni (SSU) ibosomal DNA ( DNA) sequence da a o some o he species and concluded ha he Neonec ia/“Cylind oca pon” species g ouped oge he by his eclassi ica ion we e monophyle ic. Howe e , hese au ho s also ound ha his o e all Neonec ia/“Cylind oca pon” clade included dis inc subclades co esponding o a leas h ee o he ou g oups delinea ed by Boo h (1966). Signi ican mo- lecula a ia ion among axa wi h “Cylind oca pon”- like anamo phs was ound by Sei e e al. (2003) in a s udy on ungi causing oo o o ginseng (Panax quinque olius L.) and o he hos s. The dend og ams in his s udy, based on pa ial β- ubulin gene (TUB), and nuclea ibosomal in e nal ansc ibed space (ITS) egion sequences, sugges ed ha subclades including (i) Neon. adicicola, which consis ed o nume ous phylogene ically dis inc uni s, (ii) Neon. mac oconidialis (Samuels & B ay o d) Sei e , and (iii) a subclade comp ising wo dis inc isola es, one om V. ini e a in On a io, Canada and he o he om Pi- cea sp. in Quebec, Canada, we e monophyle ic. O h- e “Cylind oca pon” species appea ed o be excluded om his monophyle ic g oup (Halleen e al., 2006a). Signi ican a ia ion in cul u al and mo phologi- cal cha ac e s was obse ed among “Cylind oca pon” s ain isola es om g ape ines in nu se ies and ine- ya ds o Sou h A ica, New Zealand, Aus alia and F ance, which we e mo phologically and phyloge- ne ically cha ac e ized by Halleen e al., (2004). Thus, hese au ho s desc ibed a no el species, “C.” mac o- didymum Sch oe s, Halleen & C ous, also associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ines. Since hen, his species has been epo ed in Cali o nia (Pe i and Guble , 2005), Po ugal (Rego e al., 2005), Chile (Auge e al., 2007), Spain (Alaniz e al., 2007), U u- guay (Ab eo e al., 2010), no heas e n Uni ed S a es and sou heas e n Canada (Pe i e al., 2011) and Tu - key (Özben e al., 2012). “Cylind oca pon” ob usispo um and “C.” mac o- didymum had been conside ed as wo di e en spe- cies associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ines. Ne e heless, Halleen e al. (2004) sugges ed he pos- sibili y ha G asso and Magnano di San Lio (1975) and Scheck e al. (1998a) misiden i ied “C.” ob usispo- um and ha i was in ac “C.” mac odidymum. In his sense, Halleen e al. (2004) indica ed ha mac- oconidia o “C.” mac odidymum measu e [(26–)34– 36–38(–45)×(4–)5.5–6–6.5(–8) μm], whe eas hose o Phy opa hologia Medi e anea 248 C. Agus í-B isach and J. A mengol he ype o “C.” ob usispo um measu e (30–35×4–5 μm) (Cooke, 1884). Howe e , he shape o he mac- oconidia dis inguishes “C.” mac odidymum om he ype o “C.” ob usispo um, which Cooke (1884) de- sc ibed as ha ing conidia wi h ob use ends. Boo h (1966) desc ibed mac oconidia o simila shape in “C.” ob usispo um. Acco ding o Boo h, howe e , 2–3-sep a e mac oconidia o “C.” ob usispo um meas- u e (34–50×6–7.5 μm). “Cylind oca pon” ob usispo um isola es ob ained om Cali o nia o med pe i hecia when c oss-inocula ed wi h “C.” mac odidymum, gi ing u he e idence o suppo he misiden i i- ca ion heo y. This was also con i med by sequence compa isons (Halleen e al., 2006a). In 2005, Pe i and Guble con i med he p esence o “C.” mac odidymum in he USA, and concluded ha black- oo disease in Cali o nia is caused by “C.” mac odidymum and “C.” des uc ans (Pe i and Guble , 2005). Mo eo e , Halleen e al., (2004) es ablished a new genus, Campyloca pon Halleen, Sch oe s & C ous, which is “Cylind oca pon”-like in mo - phology, associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ines. Species o his genus and membe s o he o me “Nec ia” mammoidea g oup, a e ex- cluded om Neonec ia/“Cylind oca pon”, because phylogene ic analyses e ealed ha hese spe- cies a e phylogene ically no closely ela ed o Neonec ia/“Cylind oca pon” gene a (Halleen e al., 2004; Sch oe s e al., 2008). F om his genus, wo spe- cies we e included as he causal agen s o black- oo disease: Campyloca pon ascicula e Sch oe s, Halleen & C ous, which has been epo ed in Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2004), B azil (Co eia e al., 2012), and Spain (Alaniz e al., 2011b) and Campyl. pseudo ascicu- la e Halleen, Sch oe s & C ous, which has been e- po ed in Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2004), U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010), B azil (Co eia e al., 2012) and Pe ú (Ál a ez e al., 2012). As highligh ed be o e, “C.” des uc ans was o igi- nally iden i ied as he causal agen o black- oo dis- ease (Malu a and La ignon, 1991), bu he s a us o “C.” des uc ans as he causal agen o he disease was since hen ques ioned. In ac , Halleen e al. (2006b), compa ed “C.” des uc ans s ains isola ed om diseased g ape ines in F ance, New Zealand, Po ugal and Sou h A ica wi h “C.” des uc ans-like anamo phs ob ained om a ious he baceous o woody hos s. DNA analyses o hei ITS and TUB showed ha hese isola es we e gene ically iden i- cal wi h “C.” li iodend i J.D. MacDon. & E.E. Bu le , which was i s associa ed wi h oo o o ulip pop- la (Li iodend on ulipi e a L.) in Cali o nia by Mac- Donald and Bu le (1981). Thus, because hese spe- cies had iden ical sequences, “C.” des uc ans isola es collec ed om asymp oma ic o diseased g ape ines a ec ed by black- oo disease we e enamed as “C.” li iodend i, associa ing “C.” des uc ans only wi h oo o on o he he baceous o woody hos s (Hal- leen e al., 2006b). In addi ion, in o de o cla i y he axonomy o “C.” des uc ans causing black- oo in Cali o nia, Pe i and Guble (2007) also compa ed “C.” des uc ans isola es ob ained om g ape ines in Cali o nia wi h “C.” li iodend i isola es om Sou h A ica. All o hem we e iden ical, and consequen ly “C.” des uc ans isola es we e also enamed as “C.” li iodend i. This species has been la e epo ed as a black- oo pa hogen o g ape ine in Aus alia (Whi elaw-Wecke e al., 2007), Spain (Alaniz e al., 2007), B azil (Russi e al., 2010), I an (Mohammadi e al., 2009), Swi ze land (Casie i e al., 2009), U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010) and no heas e n Uni ed S a es and sou heas e n Canada (Pe i e al., 2011). The ele- omo phs o “C.” li iodend i and “C.” mac odidymum we e desc ibed as Neonec ia li iodend i Halleen, Rego & C ous and N. mac odidyma Halleen, Sch oe s & C ous (Halleen e al., 2004, 2006b). In 2008, a new species associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ines, “C.” paucisep a um Sch oe s & C ous, was desc ibed in New Zealand and Slo enia (Sch oe s e al., 2008). To da e, his species has been isola ed om a ec ed g ape ines in U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010), Canada (O’Go man and Haag, 2011), Spain (Ma in e al., 2011) and Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a). Phylogene ic s udies ca ied ou in New Zea- land and Slo enia by Sch oe s e al. (2008), indica ed ha “C.” paucisep a um is he closes phylogene ic sis e - axon o “C.” mac odidymum and bo h species a e closely ela ed o he “C.” des uc ans-complex, which also includes “C.” li iodend i. Thus, a his momen , “C.” des uc ans, “C.” li i- odend i, “C.” mac odidymum, “C.” ob usispo um, “C.” paucisep a um, Campyl. ascicula e and Campyl. pseu- do ascicula e we e conside ed as he main species associa ed wi h young ines showing symp oms o black- oo disease in mos o g ape ine p oducing a eas wo ldwide. In addi ion, o he “Cylind oca pon” species ha e been associa ed occasionally wi h black- oo disease o g ape ine: “Cylind oca pon” didymum (Ha ing) Wollenw. in Canada (Pe i e al., 2011), “C.” olidum (Wollenw.) Wollenw. in Spain (De F ancisco 249 Vol. 52, No. 2, Augus , 2013 An upda e o black- oo disease o g ape ine e al., 2009) and “C.” olidum a . c assum Ge lach in U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010). Cha e i e al. (2011) pe o med a phylogene ic s udy o Neonec ia, “Cylind oca pon” and ela ed gene a wi h “Cylind oca pon”-like anamo phs. Mo - phological and molecula phylogene ic analyses da a accumula ed o e se e al yea s ha e indica ed ha Neonec ia sensu s ic o and “Cylind oca pon” sensu s ic o a e phylogene ically congene ic, while Neonec ia sensu la o and “Cylind oca pon” sensu la o do no o m a monophyle ic g oup, sugges ing ha Neonec ia/“Cylind oca pon” ep esen s mo e han one genus. Thus, based on esul s o he phylogene - ic s udy, hese au ho s di ided Neonec ia in o i e gene a based on a combina ion o cha ac e s linked o pe i hecial ana omy and conidial sep a ion: Neonec ia/“Cylind oca pon” sensu s ic o (Boo h’s g oups 1 and 4), Rugonec ia, Thelonec ia (g oup 2), Ilyonec ia (g oup 3) and anamo ph genus Campy- loca pon. Acco ding o his, only Neonec ia has “Cylind oca pon” anamo phs, while he emaining gene a ha e “Cylind oca pon”-like anamo phs, and since hen a e e e ed o as “Cylind oca pon”. Con- sequen ly, “C.” li iodend i and “C.” mac odidymum we e included in o Ilyonec ia genus, wi h I. adici- cola as he ype species, and e-iden i ied as Ilyonec- ia li iodend i (Halleen, Rego & C ous) Cha e i & Salgado and I. mac odidyma (Halleen, Sch oe s & C ous) P. Cha e i & Salgado, espec i ely (Cha e - i e al., 2011). Mo eo e , Cab al e al. (2012a) we e able o deline- a e 12 new axa in he I. adicicola-complex, p e ious- ly known as he “C.” des uc ans-complex, by using a mul i-gene DNA analysis suppo ed by mo pho- logical cha ac e s. O he Ilyonec ia species wi hin I. adicicola-complex ha e been also ound associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ine: Ilyonec ia eu o- paea A. Cab al, Rego & C ous, I. lusi anica A. Cab al, Rego & C ous, I. pseudodes uc ans A. Cab al, Rego & C ous and I. obus a (A.A. Hildeb .) A. Cab al, Rego & C ous, epo ed in Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a, 2012c). Ano he Ilyonec ia spp., I. i is has also been desc ibed in Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a), and iso- la es belonging o Neonec ia mammoidea g oup ha e also been associa ed wi h he disease in Canada (Pe - i e al., 2011). Soon he ea e , ollowing his s udy, Cab al e al. (2012c), demons a ed he exis ence o polymo phism in o I. mac odidyma-complex. This hypo hesis was in ag eemen wi h he esul s ob- ained by Alaniz e al. (2009), who al eady de ec ed ele an gene ic di e si y in “C.” mac odidymum by using in e -simple sequence epea (ISSR) echnique. Howe e , p e ious phylogene ic analysis showed low a ia ion in he la ge subuni (LSU) ibosomal DNA ( DNA), TUB and ITS sequences o “C.” mac o- didymum isola es ob ained om g ape ine in di e - en coun ies (Halleen e al, 2004; Pe i and Guble , 2005; Alaniz e al., 2007). Thus, in o de o cla i y his hypo hesis, Cab al e al. (2012c) pe o med a phylogene ic s udy o I. mac odidyma-complex by using ITS, TUB, his one H3 gene (HIS) and ansla- ion elonga ion ac o 1-α (TEF) sequence analysis. Consequen ly, six new species o Ilyonec ia (I. al- cace ensis A. Cab al, Oli ei a & C ous, I. es emocen- sis A. Cab al, Nascimen o & C ous, I. no ozelandica A. Cab al & C ous, I. o esensis A. Cab al, Rego & C ous, and Ilyonec ia sp. 1, I. sp. 2,) and I. mac o- didyma, which a e mo phologically a he simila , we e ecognised in o he I. mac odidyma-complex. All hese species ha e been epo ed in Po ugal, wi h he excep ion o I. no ozelandica which has been e- po ed in Sou h A ica, USA, New Zealand (Cab al e al., 2012a, 2012c). Recen ly, I. alcace ensis, I. mac o- didyma, I. no ozelandica, and I. o esensis ha e also been ound on g ape ines in Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2013a, 2013b). Rega ding, “C.” paucisep a um, i is no clea in which gene a i has o be included, al hough i is e y simila in mo phology o I. an hu iicola A. Cab al & C ous (Cab al e al., 2012a). Finally, ano he genus, Cylind ocladiella Boesew., which is also Cylind oca pon-like in mo phology, has ecen ly been associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ines (Van Colle e al., 2005; Agus í-B isach e al., 2012; Jones e al., 2012). This genus was es ab- lished by Boesewinkel (1982) o accommoda e i e Cylind ocladium-like species p oducing small and cy- lind ical conidia. This decision was based on he ac ha species o Cylind ocladiella had di e en conidi- opho es b anching pa e ns, conidial shapes, dimen- sions, cul u al cha ac e is ics and eleomo phs om hose o Cylind ocladium (Van Colle e al., 2005; Lom- ba d e al. 2012). Since hen, se e al axonomic s ud- ies o hese ungi ha e elied on mo phologically and o lesse ex en on DNA sequence compa isons o he ITS and TUB gene egions, ecognizing nine species o Cylind ocladiella (C ous and Wing ield, 1993; Vic- o e al., 1998; Van Colle e al., 2005). Lomba d e al. (2012), ha e jus desc ibed 18 new Cylind ocladiella species based on mo phological and phylogene ic Phy opa hologia Medi e anea 250 C. Agus í-B isach and J. A mengol s udies employing ITS, TUB, HIS and TEF gene e- gions. Ne e heless, only wo species in o his genus ha e been ound associa ed wi h black- oo disease on g ape ines: Cylind ocladiella pa a (P.J. Ande son) Boesew., which has been epo ed in Sou h A ica (Van Colle e al., 2005), New Zealand (Jones e al., 2012) and Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2012) and Cyl. pe u iana (Ba ., J.L. Beze a & M.P. He e a) Boesew., which has been epo ed in Sou h A ica (Van Colle e al., 2005), Pe ú (Ál a ez e al., 2012) and Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2012). A lis o all “Cylind oca pon”/Ilyonec ia, Campylo- ca pon and Cylind ocladiella species, which ha e been epo ed associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape- ine and hei geog aphical dis ibu ion, is p esen - ed in Table 1. Mo phological and cul u al cha ac e iza ion “Cylind oca pon”/Ilyonec ia, Campyloca pon and Cylind ocladiella species ha e cha ac e is ic dis inc- i e mo phological and cul u al pa e ns (Figu es 2 and 3; Table 2). The anamo phs o “Cylind oca pon”/ Ilyonec ia p oduce abundan mic oconidia and chla- mydospo es. Mac o- and mic oconidia appa en ly a e p oduced om he same conidiopho es which a e 40–160 μm long, gene ally simple, unb anched o spa sely b anched, i egula ly o e icilla ely b anched, a ely densely b anched, and wi h cy- lind ical phialides. Mac oconidia a e s aigh o cu ed, hyaline, 1–3-sep a e, a ely > 3-sep a e [25– 50(–55)×5–7.5 μm], gene ally wi h a p ominen ba- sal o la e al abscission sca o hilum. Mic oconidia a e ellipsoidal o o oid, hyaline, 0–1-sep a e, wi h a la e al o basal hilum [3–15×2.5–5(–6) μm] (Figu es 2A, 2B). Chlamydospo es a e abundan , gene ally in e cala y, globose, single o in chains, becoming b ownish. In addi ion, colony mo phology on PDA is e y he e ogeneous (Figu e 2C). Ae ial mycelium is loccose o el ed, and he colou a ies om whi e o yellow o ligh o da k b own. The ma gin o he colony can be en i e, sligh ly lobula ed, o lobula ed (Figu es 3A–3H) (Boo h, 1966; Samuels and B ay- o d, 1990; Cha e i e al., 2011). Table 1. Fungal species which ha e been epo ed associa ed wi h black- oo disease o g ape ines and hei geog aphical dis ibu ion. Species Dis ibu ion Campyloca pon ascicula e Sch oe s, Halleen & C ous Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2004), Spain (Alaniz e al., 2011b) and B azil (Co eia e al., 2012). Campyloca pon pseudo ascicula e Halleen, Sch oe s & C ous Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2004), U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010), B azil (Co eia e al., 2012) and Pe ú (Ál a ez e al., 2012) “Cylind oca pon” des uc ans (Zinssm.) Schol en F ance (Malu a and La ignon, 1991), I aly (G asso, 1984), A gen ina (Ga ica e al., 2001), Ge many (Fische and Kassemeye , 2003), Pennsyl ania (Gugino and T a is, 2003), B azil (Ga ido e al., 2004) and Canada (Pe i e al., 2011) “Cylind oca pon” didymum (Ha ing) Wollenw. Canada (Pe i e al., 2011) “Cylind oca pon” ob usispo um (Cooke & Ha kn.) Wollenw. Sicily (G asso and Magnano di San Lio, 1975) and Cali o nia (Scheck e al., 1998a) “Cylind oca pon” olidum (Wollenw.) Wollenw. Spain (De F ancisco e al., 2009) “Cylind oca pon” olidum a . c assum Ge lach U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010) “Cylind oca pon” paucisep a um Sch oe s & C ous New Zealand and Slo enia (Sch oe s e al., 2008), U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010) Canada (O’Go man and Haag, 2011), Spain (Ma in e al., 2011) and Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a) Cylind ocladiella pa a (P.J. Ande son) Boesew. Sou h A ica (Van Colle e al., 2005), New Zealand (Jones e al., 2012) and Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2012) (Con inued) 251 Vol. 52, No. 2, Augus , 2013 An upda e o black- oo disease o g ape ine Campyloca pon is simila o “Cylind oca pon”/Ily- onec ia, al hough Campyloca pon spp. p oduce mac- oconidia mos ly cu ed, while mic oconidia a e absen and chlamydospo es a e a e o also absen . Conidiopho es appea a ising la e ally om single o ascicula e ae ial hyphae o om c eeping sub- s a e hyphae, singly o in loose o dense agg ega es (Figu e 2D). Conidial heads o m pionno es-like ag- g ega es. Conidiopho e show a s ipe base o 16 μm wide, which bea se e al phialides o a penicillus o i egula b anches wi h e minal b anches bea ing 1 o se e al phialides. Mac oconidia a e as in Ilyonec- ia, bu ypically cu ed, and wi h up o 6 sep a, [(24–)35–60(–62)×6.5–9 μm], apical cell ob use, basal cell ob use o wi h inconspicuous hilum (Figu e 2E). Rega ding colony mo phology on PDA, ae ial myce- lium is abundan , co e ing he whole o sec o s o he colony, whi e o o -whi e o sligh ly b ownish, hick- ly co ony o el y, in e mingled wi h o gi ing ise o e ec whi e o b own hyphal s ands. This s ands some imes a e pa ly co e ed by o -whi e slime (Fig- u es 3I, 3J) (Halleen e al., 2004; Cha e i e al., 2011). Cylind ocladiella species p oduce hyaline, single, sub e icilla e, as well as penicillia e conidiopho es, Species Dis ibu ion Cylind ocladiella pe u iana (Ba ., J.L. Beze a & M.P. He e a) Boesew. Sou h A ica (Van Colle e al., 2005), Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2012) and Pe ú (Ál a ez e al., 2012) Ilyonec ia alcace ensis A. Cab al, Oli ei a & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012c) and Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2013b) Ilyonec ia es emocensis A. Cab al & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012c) Ilyonec ia eu opaea A. Cab al, Rego & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a) Ilyonec ia li iodend i (Halleen, Rego & C ous) Cha e i & Salgado F ance, New Zealand, Po ugal and Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2006b), Aus alia (Whi elaw-Wecke e al., 2007), Cali o nia (Pe i and Guble , 2007), Spain (Alaniz e al., 2007), I an (Mohammadi e al., 2009), Swi ze land (Casie i e al., 2009), B azil (Russi e al., 2010), U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010), no heas e n Uni ed S a es and sou heas e n Canada (Pe i e al., 2011), Ilyonec ia lusi anica A. Cab al, Rego & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a) Ilyonec ia mac odidyma (Halleen, Sch oe s & C ous) P. Cha e i & C. Salgado Aus alia, F ance, New Zealand and Sou h A ica (Halleen e al., 2004), Cali o nia (Pe i and Guble , 2005), Chile (Auge e al., 2007), U uguay (Ab eo e al., 2010), no heas e n Uni ed S a es and sou heas e n Canada (Pe i e al., 2011), Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012c), Tu key (Özben e al., 2012) and Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2013b). Ilyonec ia no ozelandica A. Cab al, Nascimen o & C ous Sou h A ica, USA and New Zealand (Cab al e al., 2012c) and Spain (Agus í-B isach e al., 2013a, b) Ilyonec ia pseudodes uc ans A. Cab al, Rego & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a) Ilyonec ia obus a (A.A. Hildeb .) A. Cab al, Rego & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a) Ilyonec ia o esensis A. Cab al, Rego & C ous Aus alia, Canada, New Zealand, Po ugal, Sou h A ica, Spain and USA (Cab al e al., 2012c; Agus í-B isach e al., 2013a, b) Ilyonec ia i is A. Cab al, Rego & C ous Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012a) Ilyonec ia sp. 2 (Cab al e al., 2012c) Po ugal (Cab al e al., 2012c) Isola es belonging o Neonec ia mammoidea g oup Canada (Pe i e al., 2011) Table 1. Con inues. Phy opa hologia Medi e anea 252 C. Agus í-B isach and J. A mengol wi h p ima y and seconda y b anches. The phial- ides a e e minal, hyaline, in who ls o 2–4, wi h o wi hou ob ious colla e s. In gene al, s ipe is cen- ally a anged on conidiopho es, wi h a single basal sep um, e mina ing in a hin-walled, hyaline esicle o cha ac e is ic shape (Figu es 2F, 2G). Conidia a e cylind ical, ounded a bo h ends, s aigh , hyaline, (0)–1-sep a e, [(9–)11–13(–15)×2–4 μm], some imes         H I F G A B C E D Figu e 2. A, Conidiopho es o I. li iodend i; B, Mac o- and mic oconidia o Ilyonec ia li iodend i; C, Chlamydospo es in chains o “Cylind oca pon” paucisep a um; D, Conidiopho es o Campyl. ascicula e; E, Mac oconidia o Campyloca pon as- cicula e; F, Penicilla e conidiopho es o Cylind ocladiella pa a; G, Te minal esicles o Cyl. pa a; H, Conidia o Cyl. pa a; H, Chlamydospo es in chains o Cyl. pa a. Scale ba s: a‒c, ‒i = 10 μm; d‒e = 25 μm. 253 Vol. 52, No. 2, Augus , 2013 An upda e o black- oo disease o g ape ine becoming swollen a one end wi h age (Figu e 2H). Chlamydospo es a e abundan o mode a e, mo e equen ly a anged in chains han clus e s (Fig- u e 2I). Ae ial mycelium anges om da k o ligh b own (Figu es 3K, 3L) (C ous and Wing ield, 1993; Lomba d e al., 2012). Epidemiology Campyloca pon, “Cylind oca pon”, Cylind oclad- iella and Ilyonec ia species a e gene ally ega ded as pa hogens and/o sap obes o a wide ange o angio- spe m and gymnospe m hos s and subs a es in em- pe a e, sub- opical and opical egions wo ldwide (Vic o e al., 1998; Cha e i e al., 2011; Lomba d e al., 2012). In addi ion o g ape ine, hey ha e also been associa ed wi h oo o diseases o o he economi- cally impo an hos s (Cha e i e al., 2011; Lomba d e al., 2012), such as: Ac inidia chinensis Planch. (E - pe e al., 2011), Li iodend on ulipi e a L. (MacDonald and Bu le , 1981), Olea eu opaea L. (Ú bez-To es e al., 2012), Panax quinque olius L. (Rahman and Punja, 2005), Pe sea ame icana Mill. (Vi ale e al., 2012), Pinus adia a D. Don (Agus í-B isach e al., 2011b) o Pinus syl es is L. (Menkis and Bu okiene, 2012). Lomba d e al. (2013) ha e jus epo ed black oo o disease associa ed wi h he cul i a ion o P o eaceae cu low- e s in Sou h A ica, and desc ibed ou new Ilyonec-   A D C I E F G H L K J B Figu e 3. Colonies o black- oo pa hogens g own on PDA. A, “Cylind oca pon” des uc ans (CBS 301.93); B, “C.” paucisep- a um; C, “C.” ob usispo um; D, Ilyonec ia alcace ensis; E, I. li iodend i; F, I. no ozelandica; G, I. mac odidyma; H, I. o esensis; I, Campyloca pon ascicula e; J, Campyl. pseudo ascicula e; K, Cylind ocladiella pa a; L, Cyl. pe u iana. Phy opa hologia Medi e anea 260 C. Agus í-B isach and J. A mengol d ocladiella, and a compa ison wi h mo phologically simi- la gene a. Mycological Resea ch 97, 433–448. C ous P.W., A.J.L. Phillips and M.J. Wing ield, 1993. New e- co ds o Cylind ocladium and Cylind ocladiella spp. in Sou h A ica. Mycological Resea ch 42, 302–305. De F ancisco M.T., L. Ma in, R. Cobos, P. Ga cía-Bena ides and M.T. Ma in, 2009. 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