The Influence of Teaching Styles in Physical Education for a Healthy Lifestyle: Physical Activity and Physical Condition

The Influence of Teaching Styles in Physical Education for a Healthy Lifestyle: Physical Activity and Physical Condition "La Influencia de los Estilos de Enseñanza en Educación Física para un Estilo de Vida Saludable: Actividad Física y Condición Física" Author: Norma Teresa Martín Sanz International Doctoral Dissertation (Málaga, 2016) Tesis Doctoral Internacional (Málaga, 2016) Mentors: Elvis Álvarez Carnero José Luis Chinchilla Minguet Departamento de Didáctica de las Lenguas, las Artes y el Deporte Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación AUTOR: Norma Teresa Martín Sanz http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6229-7722 EDITA: Publicaciones y Divulgación Científica. Universidad de Málaga Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercialSinObraDerivada 4.0 Internacional: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode Cualquier parte de esta obra se puede reproducir sin autorización pero con el reconocimiento y atribución de los autores. No se puede hacer uso comercial de la obra y no se puede alterar, transformar o hacer obras derivadas. Esta Tesis Doctoral está depositada en el Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Málaga (RIUMA): riuma.uma.es Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación Departamento de Didáctica de las Lenguas, las Artes y el Deporte. Autorización de los Directores de la Tesis para su presentación El Dr. José Luis Chinchilla Minguet y el Dr. Elvis Álvarez Carnero como Directores de la Tesis Doctoral titulada: “The Influence of Teaching Styles in Physical Education for a Healthy Lifestyle: PA and PC” por Dña. Norma Teresa Martin Sanz el en Departamento de Didáctica de las Lenguas, las Artes y el Deporte, autorizan su presentación a trámite dado que reúne las condiciones necesarias para su defensa. En Málaga, a 09 de Noviembre del 2015 Dr. José Luis Chinchilla Minguet Dr. Elvis Álvarez Carnero AGRADECIMIENTOS A mis directores de tesis: Dr. Elvis Álvarez Carnero, que me ha ayudado enormemente en mi desarrollo profesional, ha confiado en mis capacidades y ha aportado calidad a mi trabajo; y al Dr. José Luis Chinchilla Minguet, por estar siempre a mi lado, por impulsarme a conseguir grandes metas, por sus sabios consejos y constante trabajo. A la Universidad de Málaga y a los miembros del Proyecto GEOS, porque su colaboración ha sido fundamental en el desarrollo de esta investigación. A Dr. Iván López Fernández y a Dr. José Ramón Alvero Cruz por su ayuda en todo momento y a Lorena Correas Gómez, dado que iniciar con ella este camino supuso al final una gran proyecto. A los estudiantes que participaron en el estudio, a sus familias y a los diferentes centros educativos; en concreto al equipo directivo del IES Miguel Romero Esteo por facilitarme mi labor investigadora, a mis compañeros por esforzarse en que este proyecto finalizara exitosamente y a mis alumnos por ser un ejemplo para mí. A la Universidad Estatal de Arizona (ASU) por brindarme la oportunidad de culminar mi formación allí. A Pamela Hodges Kulinna que es para mi un referente profesional y personal, por su valiosa ayuda y constante motivación. A Hans Van der Mars por darme un nuevo enfoque de la educación y creer en mi trabajo. A mis amigos que han estado a mi lado en todo momento animándome y valorando mi esfuerzo. A mis padres y a mi hermano por su amor, su cariño, su estímulo constante, su apoyo incondicional y comprensión todo este tiempo. Especialmente a mi hermano que me ha dado la fuerza necesaria para culminar este trabajo estando siempre a mi lado. Sin ellos no sería quien soy. ABSTRACT Introduction Increased Moderate-Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) and reduced Sedentary Time (ST) are key factors for a healthy lifestyle during childhood and adolescence. Studies have suggested that schools may be effective resources to promote healthy habits (McKenzie, & Lounsbery, 2013). Therefore, in Physical Education (PE), is important to assess how teachers use strategies and provide students tools to engage in Physical Activity (PA) (Lonsdale,. et al., 2013). Many factors may be involved in the successful PE class to promote healthy out-school behaviors, as Teaching Styles (TS), learning time, motivation and so on (Kulinna, & Cothran, 2003). Regarding TS, there is a lack of knowledge about influence of the TS in the promotion of daily PA. Purpose The first purpose was review the state of the art on pedagogical assessment tools to evaluate TS in PE. The second purpose was to observe the differences of total daily PA and Physical Condition (PC) variables between two groups of adolescents who were taught during two whole academic years using different TS and contents. Method Review: Several databases were used to identify literature that appeared to be relates to the use of TS in PE in elementary and secondary schools. We reviewed publications between 1st of January 1970 up to and including 31th of July 2015. Sample: 176 adolescents wore an Accelerometer (ACL) to record one week of total daily PA at the beginning and at end of course. Four groups of PE classes were taught with two different strategies: Reproduction of Knowledge (RK) and Production of Knowledge (PK), following the classical Spectrum (Mosston, & Ashworth, 2002) and comparing them with a control group that not used a precise TS, Mixed Knowledge (MK). After analyzing ACL data, 91 adolescents (49 boys and 42 girls) obtained valid records (attrition rate = 48,3%). Physical activity assessment: PA was recorded using ACLs (Actigraph GT3X). The inclusion criteria to considerer a complete day would be if it contained ≥ 10 hours for weekdays and ≥ 8 hours for weekend days (Yildirim, 2011). Only participants with ≥ 4 complete days, including one weekend day were included (Holman, Carson, & Jansson, 2011). Repeated measures analysis was carried out in order to compare differences between groups and time effect. Body composition: Height and weight were assessed. Anthropometry was used to estimate body composition (Alvero-Cruz, 2014). Fat Mass Percent (%FM) was calculated with Slaughter equations (Slaughter, 1988), and Fat Free Mass was calculated as [(FFM = Weight - (%FM · Weight))]. Skeletal Muscle Mass (SMM) (Poortmans, 2005; Lee, 2000). Physical Fitness: Strength on Right and Left Hands (RGS and LGS) was measured using a digital handgrip dynamometer (T.K.K.5401, Takei). Lower Limbs Strength (LLS) was measured with an isometric back-leg lift dynamometer (TKK-5002, Psymtec). Results and discussion Review: 526 potentially relevant publications and 373 references related to TS and PE. Physical activity, Body Compositon (BC) and Physical Fitness (PF) assessment: Significant differences were found between RK and MK for MVPA, Fat Mass (FM) and FFM (P < 0.05). Significant differences were found between and MK for Maximum Oxygen Uptake (VO2AMax), RGS, LGS, LLS and (P < 0.01). There were significant differences between 3rd and 1st content in ST, Light Physical Activity (LPA), Moderate Physical Activity (MPA), MVPA and Steps (P < 0.05). Conclusions 1. Five specific instruments in regard with TS using during PE lessons were found. 2. Our main finding related with PA was that PA patterns (minutes per day at specific intensities) were affected by change in TS. The PA volume and intensity levels varied based on different content and TS. Specifically, PK group raised significantly all PA daily patterns except sedentary time after one-academic year. Regarding to RK and MK, there were significant differences between these TS for VPA, MVPA and steps. VIII. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix I: Funding acceptance document from Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix II: Research and protocols information for Eligible Education Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix III: Written informed consent for schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix IV: Written informed consent for participants . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix V: Participants approval document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix VI: Example-form for data collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix VII: Accelerometer information for participants . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix VIII: Accelerometer example-form for data collection. . . . . . . . Appendix IX: Inventory of landmark Teaching Styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix X: Extended Spanish abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 205 209 211 213 215 217 219 221 223 225 229 INDEX OF TABLES Table 1. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8. Table 9. Table 10. Table 11. Table 12. Table 13. Table 14. Table 15. PFH contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: RK TS based on MASTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CE contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: RK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OA contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: RK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SG contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: RK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PFH contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: PK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CE contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: PK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OA contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: PK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SG contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: PK TS based on MASTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of PE lessons in different contents related to TS . . . . . . . TS assessment tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Validation studies: TS assessment tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Behaviors assessment tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Validation studies: behaviors assessment tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Study organization and content taught across the academic year . . . . . R and NR characteristics. ITT baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 66 92 94 98 102 120 130 Table 16. Table 17. Table 18. Table 19. Table 20. Differences in PA patterns between RK, PK and MK at the BOC . . . . Differences in BC between RK, PK and MK at the BOC. . . . . . . . . Differences in BC variables by gender after one academic year intervention period with TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in PF patterns between RK, PK and MX. . . . . . . . . . . Differences in PA patterns between PFH, SG and CE contents . . . . . . 132 136 137 141 145 INDEX OF FIGURES Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: TS assessments tool in PE: literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of participants during the first and second academic course in relation with TS, gender and total ACLs worn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of valid ACLs data in relation with TS. . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in PA after one academic year between RK, PK and MK TS . Differences in BC after one academic year between RK, PK and MK TS . Differences in PA patterns after one academic year between RK, PK and MK TS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Differences in PF after one academic year between RK, PK and MK TS . Relative contribution (% PE class time) of PA patterns during PE classes, differences between RK and PK. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 116 117 134 138 139 143 146 ABBREVIATURES %FM ACL ALT-PE BC BMI BOC CAD CAFIAS CE EOC FFM FFMI FFT FIAS FM FMI GLM HGS IFITS IITLB ITT LGS LLS LPA MASTS MAX MC MIN MK MPA Fat mass percent Accelerometer Academic learning time in physical education Body composition Body mass index Beginning of the physical education course Cadence Cheffers' adaptation of Flanders' interaction analysis system Corporal expression End of the physical education course Fat free mass Fat free mass index Framework for teaching evaluation instrument Flanders interaction analysis system Fat mass Fat mass index General lineal model Hand grip strength Instrument for identifying teaching styles Instrument for identifying teaching and learning behaviors Intention to treat analysis Left hand-grip strength Lower limb strength Light physical activity Mosston and Ashworth spectrum of teaching styles Maximus Muscle circumference Minimum Mixed knowledge Moderate physical activity MVPA NR OA OSCD-PE PA PC PE PELOT PET PETAI PF PFH PI PK QMTPS R RGS RK RQ SD SG SMM SMMI SPSS ST TS TU VO2 max VPA WC WHO Moderate-Vigorous physical activity Non-responders Outdor activities Observation system for content development in physical education Physical activity Physical condition Physical education Physical education and lesson observation tool Physical education teacher Physical education teacher assessment instrument Physical fitness Physical fitness and health Physical inactivity Production of knowledge Qualitative measures of teaching performance scale Responders Right hand-grip strength Reproduction of knowledge Research questions Standard deviation Sports and games Skeletal muscle mass Skeletal muscle mass index Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Sedentary time Teaching style Teaching units Maximum oxygen uptake Vigorous physical activity Waist circumference World Health Organization I. Introduction I. Introduction International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 25 There is evidence that regular PA improves many health outcomes such as body composition, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, bone health and metabolic health biomarkers among children and adolescents (Committee, 2008; Dencker & Andersen, 2008; Malina, 2014), moreover these healthy adaptations would have a carryover effect into adulthood (Boreham & Riddoch, 2001). Consequently, scientific literature has suggested that the best primary strategy for improving the long-term health is to promote PA during childhood and adolescence (Hallal, 2006; McKenzie, 2013; Rowland, 1994; Telama, 2005). However, the prevalence of PA participation has been dramatically reduced during the last decades around the world and particularly Southern Europe (European Commission, 2014). Institutions make call for schools as the main setting to include an educational policy in order to develop a health-centered curriculum and qualified physical education teachers to promote healthy lifestyles (WHO, 2004a, 2004b). Following scenario previously described a large body of research has been conducted in order to explore the efficacy of school-based interventions focused in improving PA-related health outcomes and PA per se (Dobbins, Husson, DeCorby, & LaRocca, 2013; Lai et al., 2014; Lonsdale et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2013). However, less is known about the efficacy of didactic interventions based in the manipulation of qualitative characteristics of PE classes and its consequences on after school schedule PA and physical fitness. In this manuscript we have firstly reported comprehensive review, which offers an update of valid tools for TS assessment in physical education classes. The second part describes and reports results and discussion from a randomized intervention of one II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 32 PA not only improves aspects in relation with adult and physical health, but also contributes to obtain better results in the cognitive function and academic capacities (Dudley, 2012), so school stage is considered the best moment to engage youth people in PA (Andersen, 2006; Strong, 2005); the educational system and specifically Physical Education Teachers (PET) should contribute in this regard (Siedentop, 2009). For these reasons, different researches have been focused in the multiple benefits of active and healthy life in children and youth (Janssen, & LeBlanc, 2010; Janssen, Wong, Colley, & Tremblay, 2013; Strong, 2005). There is evidence that regular PA improves body composition, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness (Dencker et al., 2006), bone health (Fulkerson et al., 2004) and metabolic health biomarkers among children and adolescents (Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008; Simons-Morton, Parcel, O'Hara, Blair, & Pate, 1988). The most prevalent morphological consequence associated with PI and reduction of PA may be the changes in BC associated with enlargement of the adipose tissue or excessive adiposity (Guerra et al., 2006), which has two well defined categories such as overweight and obesity (Bray, 1985). Although, the prevalence of excessive thinness associated with eating disorders (for example anorexia) is a current concern during adolescence also (Hoek, 2006). II.1.2. Body Composition Childhood and adolescent overweight and obesity are highly prevalent in Spain (Lehingue, 1999; Martin et al., 2008; Pigeot et al., 2009). Although, there are several epidemiological and cross-sectional studies that have studied the main determinants of childhood obesity (Farajian et al., 2013; Pigeot et al., 2009), there are several questions, which remain to analyze from qualitative or quantitative point of view. There are studies II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 33 in the literature that have addressed the analysis of this problem from a global point of view (Haug et al., 2008, Singh et al., 2008b, Pigeot et al., 2009), socio-economic and demographic (Farajian et al., 2013) or as specifically as breack school time (Winterfeld, 2005) and its associations with obesity (Stratton et al., 2007, Fernandes and Sturm, 2010), the extracurricular physical activity (Martinez Vizcaino et al., 2008), travel to school (Chillon et al., 2010), leisure activities (Foley and Maddison, 2010, Salcedo Aguilar et al., 2010), hours of sleep and leisure time activity (Ortega et al., 2010), or even the sport (Quiterio et al., 2009). Therefore, it is important to know the reasons why children and adolescents have become sendentary and non-active, which may have lead to increase the rate of overweight and obesity. These reasons are not entirely clear, although there is some related to the social changes in family organization and new social habits (Farajian et al., 2013; Pigeot et al., 2009) (Anderson and Butcher, 2006, Martin-Matillas et al., 2010, Martin-Matillas et al., 2011). Some authors have been mainly focused in interventions for changing family habits (Braden, Strong, Crow, & Boutelle, 2015) and the place where the children live (Elder et al., 2014), rather than those associated with the general community policies (Covic et al., 2007, Singh et al., 2008a). Currently, there is strong evidence that school-based interventions have a significant impact for reducing weight loss and obesity, and its associated metabolic risk factors (Amini, Djazayery, Majdzadeh, Taghdisi, & Jazayeri, 2015; Sun et al., 2013), however this intervention had an exercise-training profile more than educative or PE class-based intervention, and less is know about the maintenaince of the results in a follow-up perspective. II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 34 II.1.3. Physical Fitness Health-related PF has been widely studied in adults (Haskell, Blair, & Hill, 2009) and during the last decades in children and adolescents (Oja, 1997; Ortega, Ruiz, Castillo, & Sjostrom, 2008; Simons-Morton et al., 1988). The association between PA and PF has been a classical research topic in sport and PA sciences and there is strong evidence about their relationship (Blair & Church, 2004; Dencker et al., 2006; Oja, 2001; Sallis, 1993). Although, a controversy remains to establish which is more important for health status (Blair, Cheng, & Holder, 2001, Malina, 2001) although this may be related with the variable defining PF. In a health perspective PF has been defined by several components: Morphologic (BC); muscular (strength); cardiorespiratory (VO2max); motor (balance and coordination) and metabolic (energy expenditure and blood markers, Blair et al., 2001). The VO2max has been the most important and studied health-related variable of the physical fitness (Levine, 2008). It has a strong association with survival (Barons et al., 2015; Shah et al., 2015), cardiovascular disease (Eaton, 1992) and all causes of mortality (Kodama et al., 2009). Moreover, it has been shown a connection between VO2max in youth and cardiovascular disease risk in the adulthood (Twisk, Kemper, & van Mechelen, 2002). Although VO2max is strongly determined by genetic influence and maturation (Bouchard & Malina, 1983), PA still has the potentially of improving cardiorespiratory fitness and obtain health benefits during childhood and adolescence (Baranowski et al., 1992; Malina, 1996). School-based intervention have proved to be effective to increase VO2max (Dobbins, De Corby, Robeson, Husson, & Tirilis, 2009; Dobbins, Husson, DeCorby, & LaRocca, 2013) and particularly those that are II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 35 conducted by teachers, who are specialist in PE (Sallis et al., 1997). Nevertheless, VO2max is not the only variable related with health that has been studied in children. The muscular component (strength) has been associated a several health outcomes among which the most important are bone mass, muscle mass (Peterson et al., 1991), functionality (Harris, 1997) and recently mortality (Volaklis, Halle, & Meisinger, 2015). Muscle mass and bone health (Tan et al., 2014) must be most important benefits among children and adolescents and school based interventions have confirmed efficacy in order to improve strength and functionality (Dobbins et al., 2013; Sallis et al., 1997); conversely, sedentary time such as playing video games has been reported a reduced bone mineral density (Shao et al., 2015) and strength (Fulkerson et al., 2004). So, strength exercises must have more risk and learning necessities than those designed for improving cardiorespiratory fitness (Barbieri & Zaccagni, 2013), which makes the pedagogic intervention of PE teacher much more important. Moreover, strength or resistances exercise have been popularly banned from the regular practice of children and adolescents due to a misunderstanding of they risk, however it has been described that this kind of exercise can be practice since 6-years old (Faigenbaum, 2000), which would permit an early education in this type of exercise. Considering this previous evidence appears to be children and adolescents have potentially to improve their cardiorespiratory fitness and strength when involved in supervised PA interventions. However, different doses PA from interventions may result in different time responses (adaptations). Moreover, total daily PA is not single construct and it is a compound of several dimensions such as: sleeping time, ST, LPA, MPA and Vigorous Physical Activity (VPA) (Thompson, Peacock, Western, & II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 36 Batterham, 2015). The volume of MVPA has been suggested to be essential to achieve these improvements related with a healthy lifestyle (Andersen, 2006; Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008). Although, there is not ad definitive agreement, several organizations and studies suggested that children and adolescents, in elementary and secondary stages, should accrue at least 60 minutes of PA with moderate-vigorous intensity during five days per week as general guideline (Janssen, Wong, Colley, & Tremblay, 2013; Strong, 2005; Tremblay, 2011; WHO, 2004b, 2010). The prevalence of PA published in international studies from North America and Europe have shown that children and adolescents do not meet the latter recommendation of an hour a day of MVPA o average (Aznar, 2011; Dumith, Gigante, Domingues, & Kohl, 2011; Griffiths et al., 2013; Hallal, Andersen Bull, Guthold, Haskell, & Ekelund, 2012; Riddoch et al., 2007). Conversely, other researches confirmed that young people from Europe and Spain tend to accrue 51-58 min/day of MVPA (Aibar, 2013a; Janssen, Katzmarzyk, Boyce, Vereecken, Mulvihill, Roberts,... & Pickett, 2005). This discrepancy could be related with the fact that PA levels decline with age especially in secondary school and girls more than boys (Dumith et al., 2011; Sallis, 2000) and suggest a decrease up to 9% in people between 10 and 17 years old (Aznar, 2011; Baptista, 2012; Laguna Nieto, 2011; López-Fernández, 2015). European and specifically young Spaniards are below these recommendations on this range of age (Aibar, 2013a; Janssen, Katzmarzyk, Boyce, Vereecken, Mulvihill, Roberts,... & Pickett, 2005). Since adolescents expend a significant time of the day at school and a lifelong learning must be a main goal of the educative system, PE should play a role in II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 37 order to modify this deleterious behavior further than the potentiality of school-based interventions for improving MVPA (Lonsdale et al., 2013; Naylor et al., 2015). II.2. Physical Activity and Physical Education During academic course 2014-15, the general non-university education regimen enrollment approached to 8.09 million students in Spain. A total of 2.9 million were elementary students, 1.84 million were secondary students and 637 thousand were bachelor students (MECD, 2015). On average students spend approximately 1,050 hours per year in the high school and around 70 hours enrolled in PE classes (two hours per week in secondary education). Although, PE is a part of the national curriculum, the frequency and amount of MVPA to provide directly from PE classes is not enough to meet healthy recommendations (Kremer, 2012; McKenzie, Feldman, Woods, Romero, Dahlstrom, Stone, ... & Harsha, 1995). Moreover, students are often relatively inactive in PE classes (Blair, 2009; Simons-Morton, 1990, 1994). Regarding PA dimensions, intensities and volumes during PE classes there are still controversy (Torres-Luque, 2014), some authors have observed that the total amount of MVPA was between 8% - 10% (Martínez Martínez, 2012), while others indicated that MVPA in PE classes not exceed 30% of the total time (Kremer, 2012; Van Cauwenberghe & Bourdeaudhuij, 2008) but some researches have reported values as high as 30% - 37% (Kremer, 2012; Meyer, 2013) or even 54% in high school PE (Smith, Lounsbery, & McKenzie, 2014). Data from Portugal and Spain measured that youth people between 10-19 years old accumulated around 30%-36% of MVPA during PE classes (Baptista, 2012; LópezFernández, 2015). II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 38 Overall, these previous studies indicated that PA during PE classes contribute between 12%-16 % of a total daily PA during the week (Meyer, 2013) and that could be represent a rationale to increase the practice time during PE and the amount of weekly hours allocated to the PE subject. Consequently, new researches focused on the influence of methodologies to engage students in PA in PE classes and also during their leisure time outside of school may represent a main goal in order to correct the current behavior of adolescents (Atkin, Gorely, Biddle, Cavill, & Foster, 2011; Busch, de Leeuw, de Harder, & Schrijvers, 2013; Chillon, Evenson, Vaughn, & Ward, 2011; Lai et al., 2014). In 2004 WHO referred specifically to schools as the main setting to include an educational policy in relation with a health-centered development curriculum and qualified PET to promote healthy lifestyles (WHO, 2004a). Research studies have suggested that the best primary strategy for improving the long-term health is promote PA during childhood and adolescence creating healthy lifestyles that persist when they will be adult (Hallal, Victora, Azevedo, & Wells, 2006; McKenzie, & Lounsbery, 2013; Rowland, 1994; Telama, 2005), which is known as lifelong learning. Although these factors have a great importance, children behaviors are strongly determined by the learning they receive in schools (Behets, 1997, Byra & Jenkins, 1998; Cothran, Kulinna, Banville, Choi, Amade-Escot, MacPhail,… Kirk, 2005) and, in particular, those related to PA and healthy behaviors should be transmitted in PE class (Byra, Sanchez, Wallhead; 2013; Rosenkranz, 2012). Studies in relation with TS used in PE and the influence of these learning strategegies in BC variables are scarce in the literature. This kind of studies could represent a big progress in the creation of a real strategy to solve the problem of PI in young people and its consequences. II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 39 II.3. Teaching Styles Based on pedagogy, the first principle of teaching is facilitating learning, however, the teaching learning process can be complex (Guilbert, 1998). Therefore, the study of teacher effectiveness in relation with PA remains an important field of analysis. Students have different characteristics that influence in their learning, so teachers should develop skills to use different teaching methods to improve this process (Jaakkola, 2011). Over the time, teachers have used different theories about multiples instructional approaches (Cothran, 2006). Joyce and Weil in 2004 describe over 20 different approaches to teaching divided in social interaction, information processing, focus on the individual and behavior modification (Joyce, 2004). Within the area of PE, Kulinna and Cothran suggested that an effective approach to pedagogical practice is to use a variety of TS (Kulinna, 2003) and the oldest and most widely known formal system of instructional frameworks is Mosston’s Spectrum of Teaching Styles (Mosston, 1966a). Mosston in 1966 proposed a continuum of TS based in the decision making process, a set of decisions made by the teacher and learner (Mosston, 1966a). The multiple options of interaction between TS establish The Spectrum of Teaching styles. According to Spectrum theory, TS can be classified in two main clusters: Reproduction of Knowledge (RK) and Production of Knowledge (PK). Mosston and Ashworth in 2002 continue identifying two clusters of TS, but these authors introduced an update adding three more TS (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002, 2008). The RK cluster consists of the first five styles: Command (A), Practice (B), Reciprocal (C), Self-Check (D) and II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 40 Inclusion (E), these styles reinforce the recreation of known information. Therefore, the next PK cluster consists of six styles: Guided Discovery (F), Convergent Discovery (G), Divergent Discovery (H), Learner-Designed Individual Program (I), Learner-Initiated and (J), Self-Teaching (K). These styles promote discovery of new information and the learner is involved at a higher level of cognition. The eleven landmark TS represent different teaching and learning experiences, but located between each concrete TS there are many pedagogical situations that are similar, but not the same, these variations are designed as a canopy (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). The Spectrum begins with the Command TS where the teacher makes all decisions. As we move across the spectrum additional decisions are given to the learner ending with Self-Teaching and the learner makes all decisions. Early studies of MASTS focused on the study of two or more TS from the RK cluster (often to determine fitness or motor skill outcomes from classes taught using different TS) (Camberlain, 1979; Dougherty, 1970; Mariani, 1970), with the Self-Check Style not studied (Hewitt, 2015). These seminal studies also investigated different developmental channels such as physical, social, emotional and cognitive (Boschee, 1974; Camberlain, 1979; Virgilio, 1979). The RK cluster had many effectiveness studies beginning in eighties (Chatoupis, 2010), followed by RK based in Practice Style (B) (Chatoupis, 2005, 2008; Chatoupis, & Emmanuel, 2003b; Sanchez, Byra, & Wallhead, 2012; Zeng, 2009) and Reciprocal Style (C) (Byra, 2004; Ernst, 1998; Hennings, 2010). Likewise researchers have been also focused in several educational factors inside RK TS that affected the teaching-learning process such as feedback (Byra, & Marks, 1993; Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013), behaviors (Byra, & Jenkins, 1998; II. Background International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 41 Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013), motivation (Goudas, 1995) and promoting motor skill acquisition (Chatoupis, 2005). Regarding PK, there have been few studies from 1980 onwards concerning with the PK cluster (Hewitt, 2015). Several researchers have compared different TS in both clusters RK and PK (Cleland, 1994) and other studies have looked at only the PK (Maina, 1997). Thus, there is a lack of clear research studies that used the complete MASTS, and in our knowledge there has not been any study aimed to analyze the influence of PK and RK on total daily PA, PF and BC. II.4. Contents in Physical Education The content used in PE classes was the most studied of three factors, and it has been usually analyzed in relation with sex and age (Kulinna, 2003; Fairclough & Stratton, 2005b), class structure and the lesson goals. Most of the studies reviewed have categorized the contents in five groups: team sports, individual sports, PF, skills and mixed sessions (Fairclough & Stratton, 2003b; Stratton, 1997; Yuste et al., 2013). Each type of session was developed based on different parameters (interaction, skills requirement, goals), which were associated to different levels of motor behavior or physiological variables (the most commonly used in PE classes to characterize the internal load has been heart rate). Stratton found seventeen research studies that analyzed physiological variables in PE classes (Stratton, 1996a). These studies observed a wide range variability in MVPA related to heart rate response depending on the content. Additionally, material resources or meteorology influenced the associations of these results with different TS. IV. Methodology IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 51 IV.1. Chapter 1: Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review IV.1.1. Methods Several databases were used (WOK, PubMed, SCOPUS, Thesaurus, ERIC, Sport Discus, ProQuest, DICE and Dialnet), to identify literature that appeared to be related to the use of TS in PE classes. The search strategy focused on different terms and concepts. Keywords that were used for the search were based on terms in different fields such as pediatrics (children, adolescents, youth), physical education (PE, PA), and pedagogy (learning styles, learning strategies, approaches to learning, TS, pedagogical assessment tools, behavioral assessment tools, motivational styles, learning orientations, teaching methods). IV.1.2. Inclusion criteria Identified studies suggested that some researchers produced models and instruments to assess TS used for different purposes. Therefore in this article the main inclusion criteria were to include pedagogical tools that were concerned with TS in relation with PE in elementary and secondary schools. We reviewed all identified that were published between 1st of January 1970 up to and including 31th of July 2015. Also, all papers that had been written in English or Spanish were selected. On the other hand the exclusion criteria of pedagogical tools included, papers that had been published in a language other than English or Spanish. Second, papers with pedagogical tools about sports outside school were also excluded. Finally, studies about IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 52 TS in PE that did not include an original assessment tool. Conference proceedings and other unpublished papers were not included in the study. IV.2. Chapter 2: Impact of Teaching Styles on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes IV.2.1. Methods IV.2.1.1. Participants Young from thirteen to twenty years provided data on their BC, PF and ACLs. These young attended two different public high schools in the south of Spain. The socio-economic and cultural context is medium and equal in both educative centers. The ethnic distribution of participants in the first high school was: 83% European, 9% Asian, 6% South and Central American and 2% African. In the second high school, the ethnic distribution of participants was: 85% European, 5% Asian, 9% South and Central American and 1% African. From the first high school, a total of 138 accepted to participate in the study (boys = 74 and girls = 64), the recruitment rate was 85% and the attrition rate was 45.83%. A subsample of students also participated by wearing an ACL during PE and daily during each of the weeks of data collection. For the purpose of the study a total of 82 adolescents agreed to wear ACL and complete data were obtained from 58 adolescents (boys = 26 and girls = 32), the recruitment rate was 59.42% and the attrition IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 53 rate was 29.26%. From the second high school, a subsample of 38 students was selected as a control group (boys = 20 and girls = 18 girls). Complete ACL data were obtained from 33 adolescents (boys = 20 and girls = 13 girls), the attrition rate was 13.16% (Figure 2). IV.2.1.2. Design IV.2.1.2.1. Setting The first high school had a total of 306 students and was located in an urban community. Students had PE classes twice per week for a 60-minute lesson across the academic years. The high school does not offer sports activities outside school hours but students can participate in extracurricular activities offered at the nearby sports hall. The PE teacher promotes sports activities during the break. There is 30 minutes break each day at noon when students can also be active and participate in one of the following activities: soccer, basketball and volleyball competitions. The second high school had a total of 398 students and was located in the same urban community. Students had PE classes twice per week for a 60-minute lesson across the academic years. This high school does not offer sports activities outside school hours but students can participate in extracurricular activities offered at the nearby sports hall. The PE teacher promotes sports activities during the break. There is 30 minutes break each day at noon when students can also be active and participate in one of the following activities: soccer and basketball competitions. IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 54 IV.2.2. Intervention IV.2.2.1. Curriculum In the first high school, this study was a two-year ecological intervention during PE where two different TS were utilized in two randomly attributed groups (there were 2 groups of students by academic level). Teacher selected the TS following the classical Spectrum of Mosston: Production Knowledge (PK) and Reproduction Knowledge (RK) (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). Every year of intervention was based on The National curriculum (RD 1631/2006. RD 1467/2007. D 231/2007. D 416/2008). The existing curriculum included four required content areas: Physical Fitness and Health (PFH), Corporal Expression (CE), Outdoors Activities (OA), Sports and Games (SG). During academic courses there are six didactic units in the intervention: two of PFH (18 lessons), one of CE (12 lessons), one of OA (12 lessons) and two of SG (18 lessons). The study took place during the students’ regularly scheduled PA classes (ecological perspective). Each year of the study involved 40 weeks and a total of 74 classes (60 lessons using specific TS). The same female teacher conducted all PE both years of the project. She had nine years of teaching experience in public high school students by the time of the study. In the second high school, the control group was one group of students by academic level. The BC, PF and ACLs assessments were only at the beginning of the academic course and during the first year. PE lessons were based on The National Curriculum (RD 1631/2006. RD 1467/2007. D 231/2007. D 416/2008). The existing curriculum included four required content areas but the participants were assessed only during PF content. The male teacher did not select any concrete TS; he used mixed IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 55 knowledge (MK) TS. He had fifteen years of teaching experience in public high school students by the time of the study. Before the intervention, permission for the study was granted for the schools authorities and students’ parents by signed informed consent documents for being involved in the PA and biological assessments. Briefly, two weeks at the beginning of the course were used to organize explanatory meetings with the school administrative committee, parents and students. Then signed administrative authorizations (Appendix III) and informed consents (Appendix V) from school administration, parents and students were collected from those who accepted to participated in the study. PA, PC and BC assessments were carried out the next four weeks (see below) and during the two last weeks of the end of the academic year. After pretesting, the intervention started throughout the academic year with one intervention group using the RK and the other using PK. During the first year of study, there were three groups that participated in the intervention RK (one per grade 9th, 10th and 11th) (60 lessons) and the other three groups (one per grade 9th, 10th and 11th) were taught with PK (60 lessons). The second year of the intervention two classes (one per grade 10th and 11th) were taught with PK (60 lessons) and the other two classes (one per grade 10th and 11th) were taught with RK (60 lessons). In the second high school, the control group was one group by level, two classes (one per grade 10th and 11th) (Table 14). IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 56 IV.2.2.2. Teaching Styles study protocol In the first high school, the teacher used all TS of RK cluster (A-E) and the five first TS of PK cluster (F-J). It was decided not to use style K because this TS is not widely applied in PE schools context (Doherty, 2010). The teacher designed the methodology following a progression, first she used TS where the teachers made more decisions than the learner and gradually the student took over more of the decisions. As described previously, there were four main contents across the year: PFH, CE, OA, SG, were planned to be taught in relation to the context at the school (schedule, weather, personal characteristics of students or academic level), but always at same period time in each TS. A total of six Teaching Units (TU) were developed and taught during every academic course in both RK and PK as follow (a similar plan was followed the second year): two PFH units had eleven and seven lessons respectively (TU1-TU2), one CE unit had twelve lessons (TU3), one OA unit had twelve lessons (TU4) two SG units had nine lessons both of them (TU5-TU6). See below (Tables 1-8). IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 57 Table 1. Physical Fitness and Health (PFH) contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: reproduction knowledge (RK) teaching styles (TS) based on Mosston and Ashworth Spectrum of Teaching Styles (MASTS). PFH, Physical Fitness and Health; UT, Teaching Unit; TS, Teaching Style; (A) Command TS; (B) Practice TS; (C) Reciprocal TS; (D) Self-check TS; (E) Inclusion. RK TU1. PFH: FITNESS GAMES, STRENGH AND ENDURANCE LESSON 1 - 4 Content Warm-up Fitness games Closure TS (A) (B) (A) LESSON 5 -7 Content Warm-up Strength Closure TS (A) (D) (A) LESSON 8 - 10 Content Warm-up Endurance Closure TS (B) (C) (B) TU2. PFH: SPEED, FLEXIBILITY AND FITNESS CIRCUIT LESSON 1 - 2 Content Warm-up Speed Closure TS (B) (B) (B) LESSON 3 - 5 Content Warm-up Flexibility Closure TS (B) (B) (B) LESSON 6 - 7 Content Warm-up Fitness circuit Closure TS (D) (E) (D) IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 64 Table 8. Sports and Games (SG) contents planned in 9th grade every academic year: production knowledge (PK) teaching styles (TS) based on Mosston and Ashworth Spectrum of teaching styles (MASTS). PK TU5. SG: BASKETBALL I LESSON 1 - 3 Content Warm-up Pre-Games Closure TS (F) (F) (F) LESSON 4 - 6 Content Warm-up Motor Skills Closure TS (G) (G) (G) LESSON 7 - 9 Content Warm-up Strategy Closure TS (F) (H) (F) TU6. SG: SOCCER II LESSON 1 - 3 Content Warm-up Pre-Games Closure TS (H) (H) (H) LESSON 4 - 6 Content Warm-up Motor skills II Closure TS (I) (I) (I) LESSON 7 - 9 Content Warm-up Strategy II Closure TS (J) (J) (J) SG, Sports and Games; UT, Teaching unit; TS, Teaching style; (F) Guided Discovery; (G) Convergent Discovery; (H) Divergent Discovery; (I) Learner-Designed individual program; (J) Learner-Initiated. IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 65 IV.2.2.3. Description of lessons In both high schools PE lessons were designed following The National curriculum (RD 1631/2006. RD 1467/2007. D 231/2007. D 416/2008). Each lesson over the year of the study lasted 60 minutes, which were divided into warm up (10-15 min), lesson (35-40 min) and closure (10-15 min). In the first high school the lessons in RK and PK styles had the same content and the same number of class sessions. Teacher role and student role were determined by the TS used. The main aim of the lessons was the same in both TS but the learning intentions (physical, social, emotional, cognitive, moral) varied depending on the TS used. Learning intentions were equivalent with the five “developmental channels” described by Mosston in 1966. These channels represent specific human attributes that can provide experiences to promote human values of cooperative relationship, perseverance, motivation, self-control, etc. (Mosston, & Ashworth, 2008). The teacher encourages one or more channels depending on the intended purpose and the TS used. The teacher decided objectives, learning experiences and anticipated outcomes. Each class period included one or more episodes of TS; an episode is a unit of time within teacher and learner are engaged in the same TS (Goldberger, 2012). The lesson structure was based on a specific teacher and student interaction, a main objective, an episode events description and a task description that were defined prior to teaching each lesson (Table 9). Additionally, as a function of the TS used the lessons included checklist with skill criteria, cues, common errors, feedback, etc. If during lessons development the teacher had to modify the TS, she used other TS in the same cluster. IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 66 Table 9. Examples of physical education (PE) lessons in different contents related to teaching styles (TS). MASTS TEACHING STYLE LEARNING INTENTIONS EXAMPLE REPRODUCTION KNOWLEDGE Command (A) Physical: Motor skill acquisition TU3 CE Music rhythm choreography directed by teacher Practice (B) Physical: Motor skill development TU5 SG Teacher instructions about foul shot in basketball Reciprocal (C) Social: Working with others Cognitive: Observing, analyses TU6 SG Practice the passes of soccer in pairs Self-Check (D) Social: Helping others assess their own performance TU1 PFH Shot put in strength workout. Success criteria on a teaching card Inclusion (E) Social: Maximizing involvement. Assisting others to succeed TU4 AO Using orientation routes in the field with different distances PRODUCTION KNOWLEDGE Guided Discovery (F) Cognitive: Discovery learning TU5 SG A clue to discover different basketball passes in pairs Convergent Discovery (G) Cognitive: Independent Thinking Social: Confidence, work group TU 4 Small work group to discover compass use. Divergent Discovery (H) Cognitive: Seek multiple responses Social: Work with others TU 2 PFH Clues sheet to discover different speed types Learner-Designed Individual Program (I) Cognitive: Planning TU 2 PFH Organize their own training with a physical fitness circuit Learner-Initiated (J) Cognitive: Selection and application Social: Personal and responsibility TU 3 CE Create a choreography Self-Teaching (K) Cognitive: Understanding Social: Independence Not used MASTS, Mosston and Ashworth Spectrum of Teaching Styles; TU, Teaching Unit; PFH, physical fitness and health; CE, Corporal Expression; OA, Outdoors activities; SG, Sports and games. IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 67 IV.2.2.4. Intervention by Grade Level For year one of the intervention, 9-11th grade students participated. In year two of the intervention, only 10-11th grade students participated. The National Curriculum was taught in the PE program over the two years of the study. There were minor changes in the specific activities taught: TU about PFS in 9th - 10th - 11th grades included fitness games, strength, endurance, speed, flexibility and fitness circuit. TU about SG in 9th grade included basketball and soccer in 10th grade badminton and hockey and in 11th grade across sport gymnastics and volley. TU about OA in 9th grade included orientation, in 10th grade beach soccer and in 11th grade beach volley. TU about CE in 9th grade included rhythm and dance, in10th grade theatre and in 11th grade choreography. IV.2.3. Assessing the Teaching Styles: Intervention Validation IV.2.3.1. Videotaping of lessons. In order to code TS used as a measure of intervention fidelity and validity, lessons were videotaped and subsequently coded. A total of 72 lessons (two lessons for unit and two lessons for each class and TS) were videotaped the first year of intervention and 48 were videotaped the second year (two lessons for each unit and two lessons for each class and TS) in the intervention groups (RK and PK). A total of 8 lessons (two lessons for unit) were videotaped the first year of intervention in the control group (MK). Lessons were filmed with a camera located in open-wide angle of the facility where the lesson was performed, in this way a full view of the learningteaching interactions could be recorded. The teacher wore a wireless microphone in IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 68 order to improve the assessment of verbal interaction. IV.2.3.2. Systematic Observation and Assessment Tool Lessons from both methods of TS and also control group TS were coded with the Description Inventory of Landmark Teaching Styles (Asworth, 2010, 2004). This assessment tool was based on the MASTS (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002) and it is used to support the fidelity of the teaching styles taught in PE classes. The framework was refined in 2007 (Ashworth, 2007; SueSee, & Edwards, 2009; SueSee, Ashworth, & Edwards, 2006) It was further validated in Australia (Suesee & Edward, 2009) and is frequently used (Hewitt, Ashworth, & Edwards, 2010, 2011; Hewitt, 2015; SueSee, & Edwards, 2011, 2015). IV.2.3.3. Expert coders Two experienced coders viewed two classes for each TS (RK and PK) and for each of the six units across the four major contents. The primary TS used in each of the 12 lessons was coded using the descriptions from the Landmark Teaching Styles: A Spectrum Inventory. Interrater reliability was calculated across all classes using the following formula: [(agreements / (agreements + disagreements))· 100)] (Van der Mars, 1989). The agreement between the two experts overall was 87.5%. Thus showing a high level of interrater reliability and also supporting the fidelity of the TS used in the classes. These figures correspond with the recommendations of researchers, who regarded an agreement score of 80% or higher to provide appropriate reliability (Rushall, 1977; Van der Mars, 1989) IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 69 IV.2.4. Accelerometry Study Protocol IV.2.4.1. Type of accelerometers We used 100 Actigraph GT3X ACLs (dimensions: 3.8 cm x 3.7 cm x 1.8 cm; weight: 27 g). This device is a tri-axial ACL. Actigraph ACLs have shown adequate reproducibility, validity and feasibility in children and adolescents (Torres-Luque, 2014). IV.2.4.2. Epoch length The ACL collects and sums the activity counts over a user-defined epoch. Activity monitor data should be collected over the shortest possible epoch to retain as much information as possible about the original PA-related biosignal (Heil, 2012), but that allow the device to capture data over the number of days of monitoring established as the goal (Matthews, 2012). When assessing PA in children it is recommended that epoch durations are 10s or less (Rowlands, 2007). Bailey in 1995 reported that children engaged in very short bursts of intense PA interspersed with varying intervals of low and moderate intensity. In their study sample, the median duration of low and medium intensity activities was 6s, of high intensity activities only 3s with 95% lasting less than 15s (Bailey, 1995). Therefore, to be able to accurately capture these sporadic bursts of activity, we selected a time interval/epoch length of 1 second. To date, data obtained by 1-s epochs may not be informative on their own but can be summed to create 10-, 15-, or 30-s increments until the field develops a better understanding of data obtained from short sampling intervals (Strath, 2012). IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 70 IV.2.4.3. Duration of measurement We should monitor activity for a sufficient number of days so that the resulting daily average reflects an individual usual or habitual level of PA, without overly burdensome on the participants or project resources (Trost, 2005). In light of the number of monitoring days needed to achieve an acceptable reliability, and the observation of weekend and weekday differences in physical activity patterns, a 7-d monitoring protocol would appear to be a sensible choice for youths (Trost, 2005). This monitoring period has been routinely used in PA monitor studies because they provide a sufficiently large number of days to achieve intraclass correlations around 80%, while also providing the opportunity to sample behavior on both week and weekend days (Matthews, 2012; Rowlands, 2007; Trost, 2000). Based on these findings, we collected data during seven consecutive days. IV.2.4.4. Initializing the devices Initialization is the process of preparing a PA monitor to collect data. The Actilife software (version 5.10.0) was used to initialize the ACLs and upload the collected data. Before initializing, the devices were fully charged (4.18V) by connecting them to a 7 port USB hub. The start date and time was set at the day when the devices were handed out to the children starting at 09.00 AM and the stop date and time was set at 02.00 PM the day when the devices were collected. The three axis (vertical, horizontal and perpendicular), steps and inclinometer were sampled and stored. IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 71 IV.2.4.5. Device placement The device placement refers to the locations where the ACLs are placed, and how they are attached to those locations. Wearable activity sensors can be placed on different parts of a human body whose movements are being studied, but when we want to measure the whole-body movement, the sensors are commonly placed on the waist because of the fact that the waist is close to the center of mass of a whole human body and the accelerations measured by a single sensor at this location can better represent the major human motion (Yang & Hsu, 2010). Freedson in 2012 suggest that the device placement should be based on how monitors were positioned in calibration and validation studies (Freedson, 2012). Monitors can be worn under or over clothing but should be fit snugly against the body to prevent relative motion between the sensors and the parts of the human body (Matthews, 2012). It makes little difference whether the monitor is worn on the right or left side, but the need for a standard protocol would suggest that one side be used consistently. The right side may be most convenient because most people are right-handed (Ward, 2005). Participants were fitted with ACLs located at the waist at the right side of the body in an elastic belt and were asked to wear the ACL either under or on their clothes all the time, except when sleeping or when the ACL could get wet. We instructed the participants to be aware that the ACL should be placed with the black label that covers the USB connection on the front. IV.2.4.6. Diaries (log-books) We asked children to fill in a diary recording the time of getting up in the morning and going to bed for sleeping. They also noted the time and reason why the device was IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 72 removed for 5 minutes or more for any activity such as swimming, or showering. We also asked whether the measurement day was a school day or non-school day (Appendix VII). IV.2.4.7. Data collection Researcher distributed the ACLs face-to-face at schools. Information about ACL use was given to the children orally and at the end of the information session ACLs were handed out. Researchers placed the ACL to the children’s waist. Additionally, children and parents received a brochure about ACL use including the instructions for children (Appendix VII) and the diary (Appendix VIII). Teachers were also informed about the procedure and asked to remind the children to wear the devices every day. After the proposed wearing period, children brought the device back to school and handed it out to the researchers. Downloading the data from ACLs was done as soon as possible using the Actilife software (version 5.10.0), on the same computer where it was initialized to prevent disturbances that can be caused by the time offset between computers. The diary data were entered manually in Excel files. IV.2.4.8. Data processing Actilife software (version 5.10.0) was used for data reduction and analysis. All data contained within the time frame from when the monitor was initialized (i.e., when the students received their monitors) until the same time the following week was processed. For example, if students received their monitors at 10:00 AM on Friday, the data from Friday at 10:00 AM until the next Friday at 10:00 AM would be processed through the program. For days 2 to 7, all data from 00:01 until midnight was reduced to summary IV. Methodology International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 73 variables. Day one and day eight were combined to form a composite seventh day of data. IV.2.4.9. Data reduction We removed days with incomplete information. A day was considered complete if it contained ≥ 10 hours of wear time for weekdays and ≥ 8 hours for weekend days considering different sleep patterns at weekends (Yıldırım, 2011). The decision was taken to consider ACLs as not worn if a period of 60 minutes of consecutive zeros, allowing for 2 minutes of non-zero interruptions, was encountered anywhere in the data array. All other count data contributed to the determination of ACL wear time. The second data reduction step involved removing participants with an insufficient number of days of complete data. Based on existing precedence for using ACL data, only participants with ≥ 4 complete days, including one weekend day (Holman, 2011). It is important consider that children and adolescents reach different activity levels on the weekends compared to weekdays (Trost, 2000). The test-retest reliability of 4 days of ACL measurement in children and youth is 0.7 (Trost, 2005). IV.2.4.10. Cut-points for activity categories The output from ACL is a dimensionless unit commonly referred to as ACL counts. Researchers have attempted to calibrate these counts with energy expenditure in order to get a biological meaning to the output (Freedson, 2005). This has resulted in the publication of count thresholds relating to various categories of energy expenditure, that allow researchers to summarize time spent in a given intensity of activity (Rowlands, 2007). The availability of multiple cut points or equations has led to much confusion in the ACL literature (Welk, 2012). With the aim of reaching consensus regarding the V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 83 V.1. Introduction This paper reviews the state of the art on pedagogic assessment tools to evaluate TS, which have been commonly used in PE classes. The most consulted databases in sport sciences have been explored, namely: WOK, PubMed, SCOPUS, Thesaurus, ERIC, Sport Discus, ProQuest, DICE and Dialnet. This study selected concrete keywords, languages (English or Spanish), publication year (since 1970 until 2015) and qualitative and quantitative studies where TS assessment tools were developed or validated. Inclusion criteria were used to select the papers included in this review. A total of 526 publications met the quantitative inclusion criteria. Using the qualitative inclusion criteria we found five studies that met all the criteria. In summary, five tools were identified and are discussed in this review paper including descriptions of TS scenarios, video recording procedures, questionnaires and factors controlled for in studies using these five instruments. V.2. Keywords Learning styles, learning strategies, approaches to learning, pedagogical assessment tools, behavioral assessment tools, learning orientations and teaching methods. V.3. Background There is recent interest in PE, PF and PA leading to a lifelong physically active lifestyle due to the downward health trends in children and youth in most developed countries (Janssen, & LeBlanc, 2010; Janssen, Wong, Colley, & Tremblay, 2013; V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 84 Strong, 2005). It is important to learn more in all of these areas and about effective PE. One of the most important variables related with the effectiveness is the TS that is used during PE classes. Effective teaching in PE programs, including the use of TS that promote PA participation, are important considerations in promoting lifetime PA patterns (Iserbyt, Elen, & Behets, 2010; Iserbyt, Madou, Vergauwen, & Behets, 2011; Munusturlar, 2014; Whipp, Jackson, Dimmock, & Soh, 2015). It is also important to consider students’ perspectives and what motivates students to be physically active outside of school. V.4. Assessment of Teaching Styles Assessment of TS must be one of the most important concerns to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers’ performances. The TS used by teachers can contribute to the effectiveness of their teaching and student learning outcomes (SueSee, & Edwards, 2011). Moreover, because TS may be influence by social and cultural characteristics, specific assessment tools to measure TS may be needed in each environment of an intervention and across different settings around the world. Knowing more about the assessment tools used to assess TS in PE programs, may lead to a better understanding of the teaching and learning processes. The assessment of TS is mainly based on the degree to which teacher and students assume responsibility in PE classes. The most commonly used framework to describe TS in PE is based on Muska Mosston's theories, which postulated TS as a Spectrum (Doherty, 2010; Mosston, 1966a; Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). The original study was based in eight categories (Mosston, 1966a); later new ones were added until V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 85 authors determined that the complete spectrum of TS was comprised of eleven TS (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002), which describes a continuum designated by letters from A to K. Since the 1960’s, this classification has been used as gold standard to assess TS across a multitude of studies (Byra, 2002; Byra, & Marks, 1993; Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013; Chatoupis, 2005; Chatoupis, 2009; Chatoupis, 2010; Chatoupis, & Emmanuel, 2003a; Curtner-Smith, Hastey, & Kerr, 2001; Curtner-Smith, Todorovich, McCaughtry, &; Lacon, 2001; Ernst, 1998; Hennings, 2010; Hewitt, Ashworth, and Edwards, 2010; McCullick, 2002; Parker, & Curtner-Smith, 2012; Sanchez, Byra, & Wallhead, 2012; SueSee, & Edwards, 2015). Because it is difficult to describe individual TS used across classes and programs due to the fluidity of changes between styles, classifications may also be used to describe when a cluster of categories are used, these clusters can be described as: reproductive (A-E) and productive (F-K) teaching styles. Nowadays, in order to simplify the classification a cluster of categories is performed and, two categories are currently used: reproductive (A-E) and productive (F-K) styles. When assessing teachers’ effectiveness, it is important to determine that assessments are accurate. For example, it is important to show that the teaching strategy described in the PE program is the same strategy that is actually happening during the educative intervention, this is also called the fidelity of the intervention use (Rink, 2013; McKenzie, 2013). It has been common in the literature for authors to compare one TS versus another TS in order to determine the effectiveness of the styles in different teaching environments and situations (Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013; Cleland, 1994; Dougherty, 1970; Maina, 1997; Patinanoglou, 2008). Finally, in multidisciplinary V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 86 school-based interventions, the knowledge of the TS used by teachers may be a cornerstone variable helping to explain possible final behavioral outcomes (for instance, out-school PA changes, dietary modifications and so on). To our knowledge, there are not any international publications that systematically review the state of the art in TS assessment tools. The main goal of this paper was to perform a literature review on assessment instruments used to determine TS used in PE programs around the world. V.5. Purpose The main purpose of this study was to review pedagogical assessment tools used in PE to evaluate the TS adopted by teachers in class. Secondly, to find studies that aimed to validate these instruments around the world. Finally, produce a list of instruments and validation studies for instruments use to measure the international use of TS in PE classes. The second purpose of this study was review pedagogical assessment tools related with others variables related to teacher effectiveness (e.g. time on learning, feedback) in PE and the validations studies. V.6. Methods Several databases were used (WOK, PubMed, SCOPUS, Thesaurus, ERIC, Sport Discus, ProQuest, DICE and Dialnet), to identify literature that appeared to be relates to the use of TS in PE classes. The search strategy focused on different terms and concepts. Keywords that were used for the search were based on terms in different V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 87 fields such as pediatrics (children, adolescents, youth), physical education (PE, PA), and pedagogy (learning styles, learning strategies, approaches to learning, TS, pedagogical assessment tools, behavioral assessment tools, motivational styles, learning orientations, teaching methods). V.7. Inclusion Criteria Identified studies suggested that some researchers produced models and instruments to assess TS used for different purposes. Therefore in this article the main inclusion criteria were to include pedagogical tools that were concerned with TS in relation with PE in elementary and secondary schools. We reviewed all identified that were published between 1st of January 1970 up to and including 31th of July 2015. Also, all papers that had been written in English or Spanish were selected. On the other hand the exclusion criteria of pedagogical tools included, papers that had been published in a language other than English or Spanish. Second, papers with pedagogical tools about sports outside school were also excluded. Finally, studies about TS in PE that did not include an original assessment tool. Conference proceedings and other unpublished papers were not included in the study. V.8. Results The literature search in databases yielded 526 potentially relevant publications. After the titles and abstract of publications were screened, 373 references were confirmed as related to TS and PE (Figure 1). Finally, a total of five original assessment V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 88 tools in PE were found to assess TS (Table 10), with four strong validation studies located for the five instruments (Table 11). Figure 1. TS assessment tools in PE: literature review. On the other hand, in relation with the second purpose in this review seven distinguished assessment tools related with other variables related to teacher effectiveness in PE were found (Table 12). V.9. Systematic observation systems V.9.1. Teaching Styles assessment tools Assessment tools from our results can be summarized in five instruments (Asworth, 2010, 2004; Hasty, 1997; Salvara, 2001; Sherman, 1982; Tuckman, 1985). V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 89 These systematic observational system instruments established lesson scenarios descriptions and criteria sheets for each TS. These instruments are employed to verify the fidelity between teacher and learner behaviors and TS: (1) Style-Analysis Checklist. (2) Teacher-Student Interaction Scale, (3) The Instrument for Identifying Teaching Styles, (4) Instrument for Identifying Teaching and Learning Behaviors, (5) Inventory of Landmark Teaching Styles: A Spectrum Approach. 1. Style-Analysis Checklist (Sherman, 1982). In 1982 Michael Sherman designed eight individual checklists for thoroughly assessing each one of the eight TS described by Mosston in 1966 (Mosston, 1966a). Each one of checklists is an inventory of procedures and teacher and learning role descriptions. This procedure requires observing whether teacher or learners are performing each item included in the checklist, then the observer must mark behaviors observed and who performed them. If neither the teacher nor learner is making the decisions, the item is left black; the same procedure is followed when an unexpected behavior is observed from either teacher or learner. Sherman, (personal communication, January 1989) using this tool, a minimum score of 80% used as cut off value to confirm that the TS has been implemented. 2. Tuckman developed Teacher-Student Interaction Scale in 1985 (Tuckman, 1985). This tool assesses the teachers’ style on directive and non-directive dimensions of the class; this instrument contains twenty-three items about verbal interaction (6 items), flexibility of classroom management (13 items) and TS (4 items). However, some studies in PE have used this assessment tool (Ferrer- V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 96 interaction Analysis System) (Cheffers, Amidon, & Rogers, 1974; Cheffers, Mancini, Martinek, 1980). 2. Cheffers’ Adaptation of Flanders’ interaction Analysis System (CAFIAS) is a coding list to analyze the teacher influence in the teaching-learning process either as direct or indirect. It uses a system of categories to encode and quantifies classroom behavior of teachers and students. CAFIAS includes a non-verbal component that was not included in the original instrument from Flanders. The observer must be positioned inside the classroom or field environment while coding behaviors every three seconds, or as often as they change (Wright, 1995). 3. The Observation System for Content Development in Physical Education (OSCD-PE). In 1979 Judith Rink designed an instrument to assess the development of content and the management of PE classes by teachers (Rink, 1979). OSCD-PE contains 36 variables that are used to describe teacher behaviors in PE. The original procedure required audiotape recording to perform a continuous coding of teaching behavior functions in terms of the content dimensions of informing, refining, extending and applying and the management dimensions of conduct and organization. The instrument discriminates the use of these behaviors in terms of their relationship to the movement task, the target of behavior and their communication form (Gusthart, 1983). Nowadays, the video cameras allows for easier data collection. 4. Academic learning time in physical education (ALT-PE) is an indicator of management time in PE classes (Siedentop, Tousignant, & Parker, V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 97 1982). This instrument has been studied extensively as a measure of students' achievement and teacher effectiveness. Specifically, ALT-PE describes the amount of time students are engaged in motor activity at an appropriate level of difficulty. The more time the students are engaged in activities appropriate to their skill level, the greater the learning (Beckett, 1989; Silverman, 1985). 5. Physical Education Teacher Assessment Instrument (PETAI). This instrument assesses the percentage of time the teacher spent in five instructional and five managerial behaviors and the percentage of time that pupils spent engaged in skill learning (Phillips, 1986). 6. Qualitative Measures of Teaching Performance Scale (QMTPS) (Rink, 1988). Judith Rink and Peter Werner created QMTPS to measure qualitatively the communication system used by teacher to transmit information to students in USA schools. This tool includes a rating scale based on defined visual behaviors, which must be used to characterize the type of task, presentation of task (including: explicitness, visual demonstration, accuracy of cues, appropriate number of cues and qualitative cues), student responses and specific congruent feedback. This instrument QTMPS was based on OSCD-PE developed by Rink in 1979 (Rink, 1979). 7. The Framework for Teaching Evaluation Instrument, FFT by Danielson group, (2013) is another teacher evaluation instrument: however, it is not specific to the PE environment (Danielson Group, 2013). This instrument permit the user describe the environment and interaction between the V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 98 teacher and student using a structured questionnaire, which can be used to defined the TS profile. It is important to note that this tool has not been exclusively designed to determine TS, so it uses a wide assessment of the effectiveness of overall teaching process. Some FFT descriptors were modified to adapt this assessment tool accurately to PE, Physical Education and Lesson Observation Tool (PELOT) (Ministry of Singapore, 2013). Table 12. Behaviors assessment tools. ASSESSMENT TOOL AUTHOR ASSESSMENT TOOL USED IN DIFFERET STUDIES COUNTRY FIAS Flanders, N. (1970) Dougtherty, N.J (1971) USA Nigaard, G. (1975) USA Underwood, M. (1987) ENGLAND Smith, S. D. (1989) USA CAFIAS Cheffers, J.T.F; Amidon E; Rogers K. (1974) Cheffers J.T.F, Mancini, V.H, Martinek, T. (1980) Mancini, V.H, Cheffers, J.T.F and Zaichkowsky L.D. (1976) USA Martinek T.J , Zaichkowsky L.D and John T. F. (1977) USA Lynch, P.M (1980) USA Crowley, E.M. (1981) USA Zervas, J (1982) USA Emmanuel, C.H (1990) GREECE Cheffers, I.T (1990) USA Salvara, M.I, Bognár, J. and Biró, E.N. (1995) GREECE, HUNGARY Theodorakou K., H (1997) GREECE OSCD-PE Rink, J. (1979) Gusthart, J.L and Rink, J.E. (1983) USA Gusthart, J. L. (1985) USA Rink, J. E., Werner, P. H., Hohn, R. C., Ward, D. S., & Timmermans, H. M. (1986) USA Masser, L. S. (1987) USA Werner, P. and Rink, J. (1989) USA V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 99 Masser, L.S. (1993) USA Coules, Ε., & Tzetzis, G. (2005) GREECE Pesce, C., Crova, C., Cereatti, L., Casella, R., & Bellucci, M. (2009) ITALY Pesce, C., Crova, C., Marchetti, R., Struzzolino, I., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., & Forte, R. (2013) ITALY Crova, C., Struzzolino, I., Marchetti, R., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., Forte, R., & Pesce, C. (2014) ITALY ALT-PE Siedentop, D. Birdwell, D. & Metzler, M.A; (1979) Siedentop, D., Tousignant, M., & Parker, M. (1982). Shute, S., Dodds, P., Placek, J., Rife, F., & Silverman, S. (1982) USA Placek, J. (1982) USA Metzler, M.A. (1983) USA Aufderheide, S. (1983) USA Godbout, P., Brunelle, J., & Tousignant, M. (1983) CANADA Parker, M., & O'Sullivan, M. (1983) USA Siedentop, D. (1983) USA Webster, G. E. (1984) USA Silverman, S., Dodds, P., Placek, J., Shute, S., & Rife, F. (1984) USA Silverman, S. (1985) USA Ashy, M. H., Lee, A. M., & Landin, D. K. (1988) USA Tipps, C. R. (1988) USA Van der Mars, H. (1989) USA Beckett, K. D. (1989) USA Silverman, S., Devillier, R., & Ramírez, T. (1991) USA Buck, M., Harrison, J. M., & Bryce, G. R. (1991) USA LaMaster, K. J., & Lacy, A. C. (1993) USA Hastie, P. A. (1994) AUSTRALIA Hastie, P. A. (1994) AUSTRALIA Behets, D. (1997) BELGIUM Temple, V. A., & Walkley, J. W. (1999) AUSTRALIA Jenkins, J. M., Hamrick, C., & Todorovich, J. (2002) USA Fernandez-Vivo, M. (2002) USA Barrett, T. (2005) USA Derri, V., Emmanouilidou, K., Vassiliadou, O., Kioumourtzoglou, E. & Olave, E. L. (2007) GREECE V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 100 Cluphf, D., & Vogler, E. W. (2008) USA Ko, B. (2008) USA Vogler, E. W., Van der Mars, H., Darst, P., & Cusimano, B. (2010) USA Iserbyt, P., Elen, J. & Behets, D. (2010) BELGIUM Iserbyt, P., Madou, B., Vergauwen, L., & Behets, D. (2011) BELGIUM Bryan, C., & Sims, S. (2012) USA Creasy, J.A; Whipp, P.R; Jackson, B. (2012) AUSTRALIA Byra, M., Sanchez, B., & Wallhead, T. (2013) USA Munusturlar, S., Mirzeoglu, N., & Mirzeoglu, A. D. (2014) TURKEY Whipp, P. R., Jackson, B., Dimmock, J. A., & Soh, J. (2015) AUSTRALIA PETAI Phillips, D.A., Carlisle, C., Steffen, J. and Stroot, S.; (1986) Curtner-Smith, M. D., Wallace, S. J., & Wang, M. Q. (1999) USA Lacon, S. A., & Curtner-Smith, M. D. (1998) USA Curtner!Smith, M. D. (1998) USA Engstrom, D. (1999) USA Engstrom, D. (2000) USA Yelling, M., Penney, D., & Swaine, I. L. (2000) ENGLAND Laker, A. (2002) USA Derry, J. A., & Phillips, D. A. (2004) USA Bryant, L. G., & Curtner-Smith, M. D. (2008) USA Bryant, L. G., & Curtner-Smith, M. (2009) USA Bryant, L. G., & Curtner-Smith, M. (2009) USA QMTPS Rink, J; & Werner, P. (1989) Werner, P. and Rink, J. (1989) USA Gusthart, J.L and Sprigings, E.J. (1989) CANADA Gusthart, J.L and Kelly, I.M (1993) CANADA Behets, D (1993) BELGIUM Pellett, T., & Harrison, J. (1993) USA O'Connor, A. (1994) CANADA Kim, D.J. (1996) USA Williams, L.G. (1997) USA Gusthart JL, Kelly, I.M &; Rink, J.E. (1997) USA V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 101 Woods, A. M., & Lynn, S. K. (2001) CANADA Wirszyla, C. (2002) USA Vassiliadou, O., Derrii, V . Zisil, V. And Goudas M., and GREECE Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2004). (Vassiliadou, 2004) GREECE Kwak, E. C. (2005) KOREA Rhoades, J. L. (2010) USA Hall, T.J., Heidorn, B. and Welch, M., A. (2011) USA Rhoades, J. L., & Woods, A. M. (2012) USA Houston, J., & Kulinna, P. H. (2013) USA Trendowski, T. N. (2013) USA Derri, V., Vasiliadou, O., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2014) GREECE Woods, A. M., & Lynn, S. K. (2014) USA FFT Danielson group, (2013) Rink, J. (2013) USA FIAS, Instrument for Identifying Teaching Styles; CAFIAS, Cheffers’ Adaptation of Flanders’ Interaction Analysis System; OSCD-PE, Observation System for Content Development in Physical Education; ALTPE, Academic Learning Time in Physical Education, PETAI, Physical Education Teacher Assessment Instrument, QMTPS, Qualitative Measures of Teaching Performance Scale; FFT, Framework for Teaching Evaluation Instrument. V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 102 Table 13. Validation studies: behavior assessment tools. ASSESSMENT TOOL ORIGINAL STUDIES VALIDATION STUDY INTERVENTION IN VALIDATION STUDY CAFIAS Cheffers J, Amidon E, Rogers K. (1974). Cheffers, I.T., (1990) Country: United States Groups: 10 classes’ middle school/junior high school Sample: n = 202 Teachers: 7 Content: Volleyball unit. Seven lessons. Two volleyball skills. ALT-PE Siedentop, D., Tousignant, M., & Parker, M. (1982) Silverman, S., Devillier, R., & Ramírez, T. (1991). Country: United States Sample: n = 60 Content: Volleyball unit. Seven lessons recorded. Two volleyball skills. QMTPS Rink J and Werner, P. (1989) Gusthart JL, Kelly, I.M &; Rink, J.E. (1997) Country: Canada Groups: 9 classes middle school Sample: n = 222 eight grades students (128 boys/94 girls Teachers: 9 (8 male/1 female) Content: Volleyball unit. Eight lessons. Two volleyball skills. CAFIAS, Cheffers’ Adaptation of Flanders’ Interaction Analysis System; ALT-PE, Academic Learning Time in Physical Education, QMTPS, Qualitative Measures of Teaching Performance Scale. V.9.3. Discussion This research provides information about five specific assessment tools in regard with TS using during PE lessons. Each of these pedagogic assessment instruments has been developed to observe TS and analyze interactions between teacher and students in PE lessons. Two of them were developed between 1980 and 1990 (Sherman, 1982; Tuckman, 1985) and three of them were created later than 1990. Moreover, when analyzing these assessment tools of teacher effectiveness we found one tool that comes from general education area which is used in PE (Danielson Group., 2013; Flanders, 1970; Tuckman, 1985), other four instruments were created specifically for PE (Asworth, 2010, 2004; Hasty, 1997; Rink, 1979; Rink, 1989; Salvara, 2001; Sherman, 1982). V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 103 Focusing on the use of TS assessment tools in the studies analyzed in this review, a total of 27 studies were found. There were 13 research studies based in the USA , nine in Europe and five in Australia. In addition, studies which have used TS assessment tools in PE have increased significantly in the last fifteen years. 18,5% percent of these studies were published from 1990-1999 and 81,5% since 2000. Some recent studies published in 2015 used TS assessment tools but were centred at university students or sports coaches (Hewitt, & Edwards, 2011; Hewitt, 2015; Kirby, 2015; Pitsi, 2015). The most frequently used instrument appeared to be the IFITS used in 10 studies between 2001-2012. IFITS was followed by The Style-Analysis Checklist which was used in 9 research studies each one from 1993 to 2013. After The Inventory of Landmark Teaching Styles was used four times between 2011-2015. ITLB was used twice between 1995-2003, and Teacher directive of Teacher-Student Interaction Measure was used twice between 2000-2002. A total of six studies were referred to the validity or ability of the tool to produce data that accurately represent the TS in PE classes. Tuckman validated the TeacherStudent Interaction Scale in 1994 (Tuckman, 1994), this assessment tool comes from the general education field but it was applied in different research studies about motivation related with TS (Ferrer-Caja & Weiss, 2002; Ferrer-Caja & Weiss, 2000). Salvara and Bironé in 2002 validated the ITLB in Europe, with 42 teachers (one lesson of each teacher) and different contents areas (athletics, gymnastics, basketball, volleyball, school-games) (Salvara & Bironé, 2002). Bryant and Curtner-Smith validated IFITS in three related studies during 2008 and 2009 in USA, the main content was swimming and they used two classes recorded in each study (Bryant, & Curtner- V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 104 Smith, 2008, 2009a, 2009b). SueSee and Edwards validated the Inventory of Landmark Teaching Styles in 2011 with a study divided in two parts, they used a questionnaire in the first part and second they evaluated different content areas in the second part (Rugby League, netball, Gaelic football, softball, competitive aerobics, archery, orienteering), the number of assessed classes ranging from tree to six (SueSee, & Edwards, 2011). All of the TS tools mentioned are centered in the notion that the teachinglearning process consists of a chain of decision-making. Decisions are made previous, during and after PE lessons. This three sets of decisions to be made during each teacher learning process, lead to the anatomy of a TS (Mosston, 1981; Mosston, & Ashworth, 2008; Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). So, TS used are different depending on the varying degrees of involvement of teacher and student in these decisions. Within these methods of systematic observation there are four instruments based on the classifications of Mosston TS. Into of them, there are two TS assessment tools (Style-Analysis Checklist and IFITS) that are based on Mosston classification TS dated in 1981 (Mosston, 1981). This first study divided the continuum in eight TS, five (A-E) Reproduction TS and three (F-H) Production TS (Mosston, 1981). On the other hand, there are also two instruments (ITLB and Inventory of Landmark Teaching Styles) that are grounded in the last Mosston and Asworth classification developed in 2002 (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). The Spectrum of TS is divided in eleven TS, Reproduction TS (A-E) and Production TS (F-K). ITLB and Inventory of Landmark Teaching Styles exclude a Self-teaching or K style because it is considered outside the school context. Moreover, there are studies centered on the Spectrum of Muska Mosston (Mosston, 1966a, 1972, 1981; Mosston & Ashworth, 2002) without using any V. Chapter 1 – Teaching Styles in Physical Education: Pedagogy Assessment Tools Review International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 105 assessment tool (Goldberger, 1980; Goudas, 1995; Morgan, 2005; Patinanoglou, 2008; Whipp et al., 2015; Zeng, 2009), as well there are several research studies (Jaakkola, 2011; Spittle, 2012) that used the Conthran and Kulinna instrument to assess perceptions of TS in PE (Cothran, & Ward, 2000; Kulinna, 2003). Addressing the second purpose of this study, there were seven behavioral assessment tools in relation with variables that may be regarding with TS identified (FIAS, CAFIAS, OSCD-PE, ALT-PE, PETAI, QMTPS and FFT). These instruments have been used in different research studies to determine specific teacher behaviors that may be associated with students’ achievement. Some studies compared the motor skill effects associated with different TS used (Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013; Creasy et al., 2012; Iserbyt, Elen, & Behets, 2010; Iserbyt, Madou, Vergauwen, & Behets, 2011; Jenkins, 2002; Munusturlar, 2014; Tipps, 1988; Whipp et al., 2015). The TS most used in these studies is peer-tutoring style (Fernandez-Vivo, 2002; Iserbyt, Madou, Vergauwen, & Behets, 2011; Jenkins, 2002; Webster, 1984; Whipp et al., 2015; Whipp, Jackson, Dimmock, & Soh, 2015). A total of 92 studies were found and 62 of these behavioral assessment tools were used in USA research studies, while the other 19 studies were developed in Europe, 5 in Canada, 4 in Australia, 1 in Korea and 1 in Turkey. Forty % percent of these studies were published from 1965-1989, 27% from 1990-1999 and 33% since 2000. The most frequently used instrument appears to be the ALT-PE used in 36 studies between 1979-2015. ALT-PE was followed in use by the QMTPS which was used in 21 researche studies from 1989 to 2014. After that PETAI was used 11 times between 1999-2009. OSCD was used in 10 studies from 1983-2014, VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes resources to promote healthy habits (McKenzie, 2013) and PE lessons and teachers have gained relevance in the context public health. As a consequence it is important to assess how teachers use strategies and provide students tools to engage in PA with the purpose of reduce sedentary behaviors and contribute to increase MVPA habits (Lonsdale et al., 2013). In order to increase student PA it is important to know how active youth are in PE classes and daily under different types of conditions. Many educational success criteria may be involved in PE classes as time on learning (Shute, 1982; Silverman, 1991), motivation (Chatoupis, & Emmanuel, 2003b; Ferrer-Caja, 2002), TS (Parker, 2012), student and teacher perception of TS so on (Cothran et al., 2005; Kulinna, 2003). Regarding TS, there is a lack of knowledge about influence of the TS in the promotion of daily MVPA, physical condition and body composition. ). VI.1.2. Teaching Styles Mosston in 1966 proposed a continuum of TS based in the decision making process, a set of decisions made by the teacher and learner. The multiple options of interaction between them establish The Spectrum of Teaching styles. According to Spectrum theory, TS can be classified in two main clusters: Reproduction of Knowledge (RK) and Production Knowledge (PK). Mosston and Ashworth in 2002 continue identifying two clusters of TS, but these authors introduced an update adding three more TS (Mosston & Asworth, 2002, 2008). The RK cluster consists of the first five styles: Command (A), Practice (B), Reciprocal (C), Self-Check (D) and Inclusion (E), these styles reinforce the recreation of known information. Therefore, the next PK cluster consists of six styles: Guided Discovery (F), Convergent Discovery (G), Divergent Discovery (H), Learner-Designed Individual Program (I), Learner-Initiated (J) and SelfInternational Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 112 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Teaching (K). These styles promote discovery of new information and the learner is involved at a higher level of cognition. The eleven-landmark TS represent different teaching and learning experiences, but located between each concrete TS there are many pedagogical situations that are similar, but not the same, these variations are designed as a canopy (Mosston & Asworth. 2002). The Spectrum begins with the Command TS and the teacher making all of the decisions. As you move across the spectrum additional decisions are given to the learner ending with Self-Teaching and the learner making all of the decisions. Early studies of MASTS focused on the study of two or more TS from the RK cluster (often to determine fitness or motor skill outcomes from classes taught using different TS) (Camberlain, 1979; Dougherty, 1970; Mariani, 1970), with the Self-Check Style not studied (Hewitt, 2015). These early studies also investigated different developmental channels (Boschee, 1974; Camberlain, 1979; Virgilio, 1979). The RK cluster had many effectiveness studies beginning in about 1980 (Chatoupis, 2010). More frequent RK studies were in Practice Style (B) (Chatoupis, 2005, 2008; Chatoupis, & Emmanuel, 2003b; Sanchez, Byra, & Wallhead, 2012; Zeng, 2009), followed by Reciprocal Style (C) (Byra, 2004; Ernst, 1998; Hennings, 2010). Researcher also looked at various educational factors that affected the teaching-learning process such as feedback (Byra, & Marks, 1993; Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013), behaviors (Byra, & Jenkins, 1998; Byra, Sanchez, & Wallhead, 2013), motivation (Goudas, 1995) and promoting motor skill acquisition (Chatoupis, 2005). There are fewer studies from 1980 onwards on the PK cluster (Hewitt, 2015). Several researchers have compared different TS in both clusters RK and PK (Cleland, 1994) and other International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 113 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes studies have looked at only the PK (Maina, 1997). It was our aim to observe the differences of total daily PA dimensions, body composition components (adiposity, FFM and SMM) and PC variables (cardiorespiratory fitness and strength) between two groups of adolescents who were taught during two academic years using RK or PK TSs. The study used the theoretical framework of MASTS (Mosston, 1966a, 1981; Mosston, & Ashworth, 1986, 2008; Mosston, & Asworth, 1994; Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). MASTS is one of the mostly widely used conceptions of TS used around the world. It has been recognized as a universal theory of teaching (Zeng, 2014) and has been extensively studied (www.spectrumofteachingstyles.org). VI.2. Methods VI.2.1. Participants In the study young from thirteen to twenty years old provided data on their BC, PF and ACLs. These young attended two different public high schools in the south of Spain. The socio-economic and cultural context is medium and equal in both educative centers. The ethnic distribution of participants in the first high school was: 83% European, 9% Asian, 6% South and Central American and 2% African. In the second high school, the ethnic distribution of participants was: 85% European, 5% Asian, 9% South and Central American and 1% African. From the first high school, a total of 138 accepted to participate in the study (boys = 74 and girls = 64), the recruitment rate was 85% and the attrition rate was 45.83%. A subsample of students also participated by wearing an accelerometer during International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 114 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes PE and daily during each of the weeks of data collection. For the purpose of the study a total of 82 adolescents agreed to wear accelerometer and complete data were obtained from 58 adolescents (boys =26 and girls = 32), the recruitment rate was 59.42% and the attrition rate was 29.26%. From the second high school, a subsample of 38 students was selected as a control group (boys =20 and girls =18 girls). Complete accelerometer data were obtained from 33 adolescents (boys =20 and girls =13 girls), the attrition rate was 13.16 %. The distribution of participants in each academic course year and the amount of students that wear ACLs can be observed in the Figure 2. Moreover, the distribution of ACLs valid data in relation with TS can be observed in Figure 3. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 115 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Figure 2. Distribution of participants during the first and second academic course in relation with TS, gender and total ACLs wore. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 116 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Figure 3. Distribution of valid ACLs data in relation with TS. ). VI.2.2. Design One year randomized control trial. Recruitment and intervention were carried out in two-cohort along two consecutive years. Two intervention groups came from the same school, where a randomization by class group was performed. In this way, one group was taught with a PK and other with RK. The control group was selected from another school in the same city and socio-economical neighborhood. Students recruited in the first cohort were not the same than in the second and they were under a similar intervention. VI.2.2.1. Setting The first high school had a total of 306 students and was located in an urban community. Students had PE classes twice per week for a 60-minute lesson across the academic years. The high school does not offer sports activities outside school hours but International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 117 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes students can participate in extracurricular activities offered at the nearby sports hall. The PET promotes sports activities during the break. There is 30 minutes break each day at noon when students can also be active and participate in one of the following activities: soccer, basketball and volleyball competitions. The second high school had a total of 398 students and was located in the same urban community. Students had PE classes twice per week for a 60-minute lesson across the academic years. This high school does not offer sports activities outside school hours but students can participate in extracurricular activities offered at the nearby sports hall. The PET promotes sports activities during the break. There is 30 minutes break each day at noon when students can also be active and participate in one of the following activities: soccer and basketball competitions. VI.2.3. Intervention VI.2.3.1. Curriculum In the first secondary school, this study was a two-year ecological intervention during PE where two different TS were utilized in two randomly attributed groups (there were 2 groups of students by academic level). Teacher selected the TS following the classical Spectrum of Mosston: PK and RK (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). Every year of intervention was based on The National curriculum (RD 1631/2006. RD 1467/2007. D 231/2007. D 416/2008). The existing curriculum included four required content areas: PFH Physical Fitness and Health, CE: Corporal Expression, OA: Outdoors Activities, SG: Sports and Games. During academic courses there are six didactic units in the intervention: two of PFH (18 lessons), one of CE (12 lessons), one International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 118 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes of OA (12 lessons) and two of SG (18 lessons). The study took place during the students’ regularly scheduled PA classes (ecological perspective). Each year of the study involved 40 weeks and a total of 74 classes (60 lessons using specific TS). The same female teacher conducted all PE both years of the project. She had nine years of teaching experience in public high school students by the time of the study. In the second high school, the control group was one group of students by academic level. The BC, PF and accelerometers assessments were only at the beginning of the academic course and during the first year. PE lessons were based on The National curriculum (RD 1631/2006. RD 1467/2007. D 231/2007. D 416/2008). The existing curriculum included four required content areas but the participants were assessed only during PF content. The male teacher not selected any concrete TS; he used mixed knowledge TS (MK). He had fifteen years of teaching experience in public high school students by the time of the study. Before the intervention, permission for the study was granted for the schools authorities and students’ parents by signed informed consent documents for being involved in the PA and biological assessments. Briefly, two weeks at the beginning of the course were used to organize explanatory meetings with the school administrative committee, parents and students. Then signed administrative authorizations (Appendix I-II) and informed consents (Appendix II-V) from school administration, parents and students were collected from those who accepted to participated in the study. PA, PC and BC assessments were carried out the next four weeks (see below) and at during the two last weeks of the end of the academic year. After pretesting, the intervention started International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 119 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes throughout the academic year with one intervention group using the RK and the other using PK. During the first year of study, there were three groups that participated in the intervention RK (one per grade 9th, 10th and 11th) (60 lessons) and the other three groups were taught with PK (one per grade 9th, 10th and 11th) (60 lessons). The second year of the intervention two classes (one per grade 10th and 11th) were taught with PK (60 lessons) and the other two classes (one per grade 10th and 11th) were taught with RK (60 lessons). In the second high school, the control group was one group by level, two classes (one per grade 10th and 11th) (Table 14). Table 14. Study organization and content taught across the academic year. CONTENTS SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN TU1. PFH TEST 18 LESSONS TU2. CE 12 LESSONS TU3. OA 12 LESSONS TU4. SG 18 LESSONS TEST TU, Teaching Unit; PFH, Physical Fitness and Health; CE, Corporal Expression; OA, Outdoors Activities; SG, Sports and games. VI.2.3.2. Teaching Styles In the first high school, the teacher used all TS of RK cluster (A-E) and the five first TS of PK cluster (F-J). It was decided not to use style K because this TS is not widely applied in PE schools context (Doherty, 2010). The teacher designed the International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 120 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes methodology following a progression, first she used TS where the teachers made more decisions than the learner and gradually the student took over more of the decisions. As described previously, there were four main contents across the year: PFH, CE, OA, SG, were planned to be taught in relation to the context at the school (schedule. weather. personal characteristics of students or academic level), but always at same period time in each TS. A total of six teaching units (TU) were developed and taught during every academic course in both RK and PK as follow (a similar plan was followed the second year): two PFH units had eleven and seven lessons respectively (TU1-TU2), one CE unit had twelve lessons (TU3), one OA unit had twelve lessons (TU4) two SG units had nine lessons both of them (TU5-TU6). VI.2.3.3. Description of lessons In both high schools PE lessons were designed following The National curriculum (RD 1631/2006. RD 1467/2007. D 231/2007. D 416/2008). Each lesson over the year of the study lasted 60 minutes, which were divided into warm up (10-15 min), lesson (35-40 min) and closure (10-15 min). In the first high school the lessons in RK and PK styles had the same content and the same number of class sessions. Teacher role and student role were determined by the TS used. The main aim of the lessons was the same in both TS but the learning intentions (physical, social, emotional, cognitive, moral) varied depending on the TS used. Learning intentions were equivalent with the five “developmental channels” described by Mosston in 1966. These channels represent specific human attributes that can provide experiences to promote human values of cooperative relationship, perseverance, motivation, self-control, etc. (Mosston, & Ashworth, 2008). The teacher encourages one or more channels depending on the International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 121 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes unit, developed by Metamax 3B (Cortex Biophysic, Leipzig, Germany) while performing a maximum test on a bench (Chester Step Test). Data from indirect calorimetry were collected using Metasoft v. 1.11.05 software (Cortex Biophysic, Leipzig, Germany). Additionally, heart rate was continuously measured with heart rate monitor (Polar, Finland) during the test and record every minute. When a direct measurement was not possible an estimation using a steady-state linear regression approach was used (ACSM, 2013). Briefly, at least two stages of the bench test were used to estimate intercept and slope constants of the relationship between heart rate (independent variable, X axis) and estimated VO2 for a constant load (dependent variable, Y axis). VO2 equation (Equation 9) to estimate VO2 for a constant load were those proposed by de American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM, 2013): VO2 (ml/kg/min)= (0.2 · Cad) + (1.33 · 1.8 · Height · Cad) + 3.5 (Equation 9) Where, Cad = cadence (steps/minute); Height, bench height in meters. The Chester Step Test is an incremental five-level step test, which was previously validated (Skyes et al. 2004). It consists of going up and down a bench (from 32-52 cm) at a pace set by a signal sound, which progressively increases in speed up to five levels. All adolescents engaged a previous test in order to set the bench height and accommodate them to the equipment, protocol and procedures. The initial step rate of Chester Step Test is 60 beats per minute (15 completes up and downs cycles), and it increases the tempo every 2 minutes in 5 cycles per minute (20, 25, 30, 35 beats) until the end of the 5th level. Therefore, the total time of the test is 10 min. The stepping rate was set by a recorded metronome in an mp3 file, played with a HP laptop. Further feedback information and guidance was given by researchers according to subject’s International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 128 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes performance during the test. Subjects’ were encouraged until exhaustion and the test was terminated either by the participant (because of dyspnea and/or leg fatigue) or by the supervisor whether the participant was unable to maintain right cadence for 15 seconds (De Carmago et al., 2011). VI.2.8. Data analysis Data are shown as mean and standard deviation when normally distributed unless noted otherwise. Repeated measures analysis was carried out in order to compare PA, BC and PC differences between PK and RK (group effect), between End of the Physical Education Course (EOC) and Beginning of the Physical Education Course (BOC) (time effect) and differences for change (group-by-time interaction). Age was used as covariate and gender was included as independent factor in the model. Attrition rate was calculated as [(n at EOC - n at BOC) / n at EOC] · 100. An Intention To Treat analysis (ITT) was conducted in order to discard a participation bias related with physical characteristics. So age, weight and BMI Z-score were compared between participants and non-participants. Gender and academic level proportions between participants and non-participants were assessed by Chi-square analysis. Based in previous studies with adolescents from the same region, we calculated that considering an statistical power of 80%, a type I error of 5% and difference between groups of 5 minutes for MVPA and 10 minutes for ST, we will need a sample size of 36 and 32 participants respectively, which is below that the number of participants included in this study. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 129 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes All statistical treatments were performed using a statistical software package (Statistical Package for the social Sciences, SPSS) and significance p < 0.05 was accepted to refuse the null hypothesis for all analysis. VI.3. Results PA daily patterns, BC and PF variables were analyzed at the beginning and at the end of the academic course in adolescents. The ITT analysis showed us there were not statistically significant differences between Non-Responders (NR) and Responders (R) for baseline sample characteristics and percent of females (table 15), however RK group had a higher proportion of NR students than MK (chi-squared = 6.804, p < 0.05; Table 15). Table 15. Responders and Non-Responders characteristics. Intention to treat analysis at baseline (ITT). NR R Variables (n = 87) (n = 79) Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Age years 16.43 ± 1.48 13.88 23.04 16.01 ± 1.36 13.79 20.68 Gender (F/M) (43 / 48) (38 / 41) %F 47. 30 % 48. 10 % Weight Kg 61.67 ± 14.00 39.50 97.70 62.35 ± 13.35 40.00 101.40 Height cm 166.17 ± 8.22 150.40 188.20 166.03 ± 7.46 150.80 182.40 BMI (kg/m2)22.17 ± 3.96 15.82 35.50 22.59 ± 4.59 16.02 36.36 TS (RK/PK/MK) (40 / 40 / 11) (30 / 27 / 22)* % TS (44 % / 44 % / 12.10 %) (38 % / 34.20 % / 27. 8 %) NR, Non responders; R, Responders; SD, Standard deviation; Min, Minimum; Max, Maximum; BMI, Body mass index; TS, Teaching style; RK, Reproduction knowledge; PK, Production knowledge; MK, Mixed Knowledge. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 130 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes VI.3.1. Physical Activity Differences on PA patterns between RK, PK and MK TS at the beginning of the academic year are presented in Table 16. The final sample was 54.17% of the eligible sample of 168 participants, whom accepted to wear an accelerometer. Non-significant differences between all PA dimensions were found across TS groups at the BOC. It was important to note that none of the groups met international guidelines for total daily PA both steps (11,000 steps/day for girls and 13,000 steps/day for boys) or MVPA (60 minutes/day both girls and boys). International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 131 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Regarding longitudinal changes, we could observe RK did not change any PA pattern except for LPA. Conversely, PK increased all PA dimensions and reduced ST, although these trends were not always statistically significant. Specifically, we found a significant positive time effect for LPA (F=24.23; p<0.01) and in MPA (F=4.41; p<0.05). There was also a negative time effect for VPA (F=3.47; p<0.05), which had an interaction with TS; so, MK group reduced significantly VPA while PK and MK did not change significantly (Figure 4). Additionally, significant differences in the change of mean PA dimensions were observed between RK and MK: VPA for RK=19.98±11.57 (BOC) and 18.77±12.53 (EOC) vs. MK=30.44±15.09 (BOC) and 21.83±10.79 (EOC); MVPA for RK=49.52±19.26 (BOC) and 47.46±19.19 (EOC) vs. 63.83±19.63 (BOC) vs. 58.34±34.05 (EOC) and steps RK=7936.15±2145.44 (BOC) and 7929.68±2590.49 (EOC) vs. MK=7929.68±2590.48 (BOC) and 9477.65±3112.31 (EOC) (Figure 4). Nevertheless, these differences had only between-subjects effect and the interaction time effect in TS group was only found for VPA and MPA. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 133 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Figure 4. Differences in PA patterns after one academic year between RK, PK and MK TS; ST, Sedentary time; LPA, Light physical activity; MPA, Moderate physical activity; VPA, Vigorous physical activity; MVP, Moderate-Vigorous physical activity; Steps, Steps. GLMRM Time: LPA (P=0.000), MPA (P=0.039); GLMRM Time x TS: VPA (P=0.037). International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 134 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes VI.3.2. Body Composition BC differences between RK, PK and MK TS at the beginning of the academic year are presented in Table 17. We analyzed 96.61% of the 176 eligible participants. There were not significant differences across TS groups. Regarding changes after one academic year of intervention, differences in BC variables by gender and TSs are comprised in Table 18. We could not assess the total sample from the start of the intervention and an attrition rate of 36.66% was registered (73.44% of 176 initial participants). There was significant time effects for FFM (F=9.97; p<0.01), SMM (F=13.75; p<0.01), WC (F=5.08; p< 0.05) and SMMI (F=6.76; p< 0.05) but there were not significant interactions time x TS (Figure 5). Significance values at the univariate level trend to be significant in FM (p=0.055), WC (p=0.060) and FMI (p=0.075) (Table 18). The change in FFM both boys and girls considered together was close to be statistically significant (p= 0.054, table 18), however when analyzed the gender effect and their interactions, we could observe a significant interaction time x gender x TS for FFM, which indicated boys in RK group increased significantly more their FFM than other groups and girls from RK group (Table 18). International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 135 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes VI.4. Contents PA patterns differences between three different contents during both academic courses of duration study were analyzed in 45.24% of participants (n=168, Table 20). Regarding to daily PA patterns related with the three different contents, there were significant differences between CE and PFH in SedT (F=4.15; p=0.019), LPA (F=10.78; p=0.002), MPA (F=4.54; p=0.011), MVPA (3.41; p=0.038) and Steps (F=5.13; p=0.005). Also, significant differences were found between CE and SG (p=0.038) and between PFH and SG (p=0.001) (Table 20). In relation with the percentage of total time during PE class, PA patterns were similar either PK or RK except in LPA (RK=13.9% and PK=10.3%, P = 0.01; Figure 8). International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 144 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Figure 8. Relative contribution (percentage of total PE class time) of PA patterns during PE classes, differences between RK and PK (PC content). PE, physical education; RK, reproduction knowledge; PK, production knowledge. V_PE, vigorous physical activity in physical education; M_PE; moderate physical activity in physical education; L_PE; light physical activity in physical education; Sedentary_PE; sedentary time in physical education. GLM. VI.5. Discussion In our knowledge, this was the first study to assess how the structure and methodology in PE classes (i.e., type of activity and complete MASTS) influenced in daily PA patterns, BC and PF along one academic year in adolescents. Our results suggested that variations in teaching methodology during secondary PE classes could International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 146 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes modify adolescents’ PA patterns, although their BC variables and PF level were not changed as a result of lesson content or TS. VI.5.1. Physical Activity An objective, accurate and detailed assessment of PA is needed to understand about healthy patterns (Butte et al., 2012). To collect this precise information indirect methods have been replaced by ACLs (Cliff, Reilly & Okely; 2009). In this research daily PA patterns were measured at the BOC and at the EOC in adolescents with ACLs. Our main finding related with PA was that PA patterns (minutes per day at specific intensities) were affected by change in TS. The PA volume and intensity levels varied based on different content and TS. Specifically, PK group raised significantly all PA daily patterns except sedentary time after one-academic year. Regarding to RK and MK, there were significant differences between these TS for VPA, MVPA and steps. Specifically, RK group remained stable in MVA, VPA and steps while MK group raised MPA and decreased VPA, MVPA (Figure 4). These results suggest that the structure of PE lessons and TS used allows students to have higher engagement in PA at and after school period. These results are in accordance with previous research from Erwin et al., (2013) who find similar results in a sample of 313 students, this study used ACLs and pedometer to assess PA patterns in relation with four different lessons types: (a) team choice, (b) team no choice, (c) individual choice and (d) individual no choice. Thus, PETs should consider how curriculum choices and teaching presentation could influence students’ PA, potentially due to their motivation for the activities involved (Erwin, Stellino, Betts, Beighle, Jonhson; 2013) International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 147 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes VI.5.1.1 Meeting recommendations Results obtained at baseline (BOC) determined that MVPA in MK and PK groups were not enough to meet international recommendations of healthy PA for young people (60 min/day of MVPA or 11,000 and 13,000 steps/day for girls and boys respectively) (Janssen, Wong, Colley, & Tremblay, 2013; McClain, Abraham, Brusseau & Tudor-Locke, 2008, Strong, 2005; Tremblay, 2011; Tudor-Locke, Ainsworth, Thompson, & Matthews, 2002; WHO, 2010) In accordance with previous research, which confirmed that young people from Europe and Spain tend to be below the guidelines (between 51 to 58 min/day of MVPA) (Aibar, 2013a; Janssen, Katzmarzyk, Boyce, Vereecken, Mulvihill, Roberts,... & Pickett, 2005). The control group (MK) accrued the limit of these recommendations on average (Table 15), thus it appears to be adolescents in MK group were above average national values (Table 15). Although, we cannot attribute these results to physical characteristics differences or bias selection since we PA, BC and demographic characteristics were similar at BOC, additionally our ITT analysis did not show significant differences between responders and nonresponders. Nevertheless, MK students were enrolled in a different school and we could argue these differences were related with environmental differences. Regarding to steps recommendations Adams et al. (2013) suggested an amount of 9000 steps per day or more for adolescents to reach goals formulated in the health guidelines (WHO, 2010). In the present study, the baseline assessment determined the intervention groups (RK and PK) did not accrue enough steps to meet these recommendations. The control group was within the limit of these recommendations (Table 15). These results could be even worse if we compare our results with those International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 148 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes suggested by Tudor-Locke et col., who propose 11,000 and 13,0000 steps/day for girls and boys respectively. Our intervention result in an elevation in all total daily PA patterns in PK groups but not for RK, which remained with similar values. These results may have fairly relevance in a health perspective since PK met healthy recommendations at EOC and MK kept similar values. However, there is still a concern related with the place or time where the behavior happened, so it could be discussed the educative value of PE classes if the PA was only modified during the class by itself and not after school time. Although, it could be speculative we do not believe this result could be only related with a PA elevation during PE since both groups were taught with the same content. Regardless a data analysis of individual changes during PE classes would clarify this controversy. In order to resolve this doubt we carried an individual analysis of PA during PE classes in a subset of students (Figure 8), our results confirm data from previous studies where none significant differences were found between different TSs (Whipp, Jackson, Dimmock, & Soh, 2015). However, a novel finding of this study was that the percent of sedentary time, which a variable barely studied in the PE field, was significantly increased in RK group. This result could have important implications for health since sedentary has a specific physiology (Hamilton, Healy, Dunstan, Zderic, & Owen, 2008; Thyfault, Du, Kraus, Levine, & Booth, 2015) and it has been recently reported that interrupting sedentary time has specific benefits for metabolic function health (Belcher et al., 2015). It could be still debated these results were also influenced by content was used during PE classes. Although, this could be speculative we believed this is not provable International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 149 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes since all environment conditions where similar for both groups (RK and PK) including the contents, and MK did not change the overall PA behavior after academic year. VI.5.1.2. Physical Activity and contents used in Physical Education classes Several studies suggest that levels of daily PA and levels of PA in PE classes are associated. Thus, adolescents usually more active in PE classes are often also more active outside the school context (Marques, Fossati & Curi; 2012; Ruch et al.; 2012). Therefore, the amount of PA promote in PE classes could be determinate by type of content and TS used. The main finding in this study was that RK styles promoted a higher amount of LPA during PE than PK. Furthermore, at least the 60% of time in PE classes students are not involved in PA; around 36 minutes per class is sedentary time (Figure 8). Nevertheless, our results must be influenced by the content used in the PE (strength and flexibility) because there were not in accordance with findings from Ward et al. (2008), whom reported PA levels were better when PE classes included opportunity for students choice (less directive TS); and this study used PFH content. Nevertheless, our results are in accordance with other study that concluded that teacher using directive TS increased PA patterns more than student-choice TS using SG content in PE classes (Erwin, Stellino, Betts, Beighle, Jonhson, 2013) and it is also in accordance with a recent research published in 2015 that analyzed the influence of TS (peer teaching) on PA patterns assessed with ACLs in PE classes (Whipp, Jackson, Dimmock, & Soh, 2015) concluding that there were no significant differences between intervention and control group for time spent in LPA, VPA and MVPA. So, variations in content and TS may have impact on adolescents’ PA patterns in PE classes but there is still controversy about how content may affect TS. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 150 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes In relation with scholar contents used following The National Curriculum, there were significant differences in all PA patterns between CE and PFH unless in VPA. Furthermore, differences between CE and SG were found in MPA and additionally between PFH and SG in LPA. CE was the content more effective in promotion of PA daily pattern; SG was second content more effective and the last one PFH (Table 20). Our results were not in accordance with other studies referred to one specific content in PE classes assessed with ACLs, which determined that SG and PFH contents promote more amount of MVPA than CE contents (Aelterman et al., 2012; Fairclough & Stratton, 2003b, Murillo et al., 2014). Nonetheless, it should be noted that the type of activity in the content is essential to assess PA patterns (Kulinna et al., 2003; Fairclough & Stratton, 2005). So, in our study one reason could be possible that PFH did not promote a high amount of MVPA due to the type of activity used was strength and flexibility and it is possibly that ACLs could not detected completely this type of activities (most of them did not involved acceleration of whole body). Other reason could be students rehearsed the choreography outside classes. Thus, CE promoted the highest amount of PA daily patterns but not during PE classes. Concerning total daily PA patterns assessed at the BOC and at the EOC in relation with these results of PA in PE classes, revealed that TS used in PE classes and type of content are two factors to consider. As pointed out in the previous paragraphs, during academic course adolescents were taught with PK had better results than RK. Students in PK group increased all their PA daily patterns and decreased ST while analyzing a concrete content PE classes (PFH) RK was the most effective TS. The International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 151 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes implication of our results to rise chronically total daily PA is a question that needs to be confirmed in longitudinal studies, and a wider range of activities during PE. VI.5.2. Body Composition Our findings, contrary to the hypothesis that different TS used in PE classes could produce variations in BC, suggested no significant differences in BC variables were produced by lesson content or TS. Results from this study indicated that lesson content and TS did not highly impact BC components in secondary students, which may be mainly affected by maturation (Malina, 1978; Malina, Koziel, & Bielicki, 1999). Girls could increase her weight because of FM increased (Roemmich & Rogol, 1999) and boys because of SMM increased during adolescence by hormonal influence (Schoenau, Neu, Mokov, Wassmer, & Manz, 2000; Tanner, Whitehouse, Hughes, & Carter, 1976). Previous studies found few effects of school based health promotion programs on adiposity or body weight (Sallis, Chen, Castro; 1995, Fairclough & Stratton; 2005b, 2006b, Marques et al.; 2012). So, present results support earlier findings. There were not significant differences in the baseline between the intervention groups (RK and PK) and the control group (MK), neither differences between BOC and EOC influenced by TS, although p values were close to be significant in FM, FFM, WC and FMI. After one academic year, the main significant differences were found between RK and MK in relation with FM and FFM. Specifically, PK group raised all BC components except for FM and FMI both variables remain relatively stable. Regarding to RK all variables raised excluding FM and FMI, in this case both variables decreased. International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 152 VI. Chapter 2 – Impact of Teaching Style on Physical Activity Patterns, Body Composition and Physical Condition during Physical Education Classes Finally, MK group increased FM, SMM, BMI, FMI, SSMI, and WC was diminished and FFMI remaining FFM variable stable (Figure 5). These results are in accordance with the natural chemical maturation during adolescents, which postulate skeletal muscle increased significantly in a short period of time in males (Schoenau et al., 2000) (Malina, 1978; Malina et al., 1999). It was surprising to note a significant interaction between gender, TS and intervention was found, we have not any scientific clue to explain this finding. However if PK style promotes a behavior, which made male students increase PA enough to promote a significant increment in FFM, this is a question which remains to be confirmed in future studies. VI.5.3. Physical Fitness The PF variables are important determinants of several health outcomes (Simons-Morton, Parcel, O'Hara, Blair, & Pate, 1988) and school interventions have been proved to effective to improved PF outcomes (Amini, Djazayery, Majdzadeh, Taghdisi, & Jazayeri, 2015; Kriemler et al., 2011; Lai et al., 2014; Sun et al., 2013). Currently, the use of ACLs is an effective assessment tool to quantify PA levels and there is an evidence that regular PA improves BC, cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, bone health and metabolic health biomarkers among children and adolescents (Committee., 2008). In this study there were no significant differences between groups in strength variables but VO2max showed significant differences between intervention groups (RK and PK) and control group (MK) in the baseline. VO2max remained quite stable across the academic year. Regarding RGS and LGS, both of them increased during academic curse in the three groups while LLS decreased in PK and MK remarkably. Although it International Doctoral Dissertation by Norma Teresa Martín Sanz 153