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El atún blanco [ Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788) ] en el Mediterráneo occidental: biología de la reproducción y métodos aplicados al estudio de la fecundidad

Saber Rodriguez, Samar

Abstract

Albacore Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre 1788) is an important commercial tuna species distributed in the three major oceans and in the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean albacore stock was first assessed in 2011. Taking into account the incomplete fishing statistics, and the lack of knowledge on the life cycle and biological population parameters, the stock was classified as data-poor. This thesis presents new information about the reproductive biology of albacore in the western Mediterranean Sea, which is one of the most important spawning grounds of tuna species in the Mediterranean Sea. The size frequency, sex ratio, gonad reproductive stages, spawning season, minimum length at maturity and gonadosomatic indexes were examined. The sex ratio was female biased in fish <70 cm fork length (FL) and male biased in those >75 cm FL. Histological analysis of the ovaries and the monthly variation of the gonadosomatic index for both sexes showed that spawning occurred from June to August. The minimum length at maturity for albacore was 56 cm FL. The present PhD thesis also addresses methodological issues related to fecundity estimates that are of interest to fish reproductive researchers. The new Oocyte Packing Density theory was used in order to examine any differences in both the number of stage-specific oocytes per gram and the relative batch fecundity between the most commonly used embedding media in fish reproductive studies. The results showed that the mean oocyte diameters were smaller in paraffin than in resin with differences ranging between 0.5% for previtellogenic oocytes and 24.3% for hydrated oocytes. In spite of the higher degree of oocyte shrinkage in paraffin, the Oocyte Packing Density formula could equally well be used for estimating the number of migratory nucleus (MG) oocytes in paraffin as well as in resin histological sections. However, the mean relative batch fecundity estimated from hydrated oocytes was significantly lower than when using MG oocytes, for both embedding media. In addition, batch fecundity estimates of albacore resulting from the application of different methods were compared. The relationships between batch and relative fecundity estimates and the associated biological metrics (length, body weight and ovary weight) were also investigated. Batch fecundity estimates ranged from 0.42 to 2.16 million oocytes, with a mean relative batch fecundity of 136 oocytes per gram of body weight.

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AUTOR: Sámar Saber Rodríguez http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3863-2949 EDITA: Publicaciones y Divulgación Científica. Universidad de Málaga Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercialSinObraDerivada 4.0 Internacional: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode Cualquier parte de esta obra se puede reproducir sin autorización pero con el reconocimiento y atribución de los autores. No se puede hacer uso comercial de la obra y no se puede alterar, transformar o hacer obras derivadas. Esta Tesis Doctoral está depositada en el Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Málaga (RIUMA): riuma.uma.es FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS. DEPARTAMENTO DE BIOLOGÍA ANIMAL FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS INSTITUTO ESPAÑOL DE OCEANOGRAFÍA Dpto. Biología Animal Centro Oceanográfico de Málaga Mª Eugenia Manjón-Cabeza Clouté, Profesora Titular de Universidad del Área de Zoología del Departamento de Biología Animal de la Universidad de la Málaga, y Ángel David Macías López, Investigador Titular del Instituto Español de Oceanografía (centro oceanográfico de Málaga), ACREDITAN Que Dña. Samar Saber Rodríguez Licenciada en Biología, ha realizado en el Departamento de Biología Animal de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad de Málaga las investigaciones contenidas en la presente memoria de Tesis Doctoral, titulada “El atún blanco [Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788)] en el Mediterráneo occidental: biología de la reproducción y métodos aplicados al estudio de la fecundidad”. Como director y tutora de la misma consideramos que la presente memoria reúne todos los requisitos para ser sometida a juicio de la Comisión correspondiente, por lo que autorizamos su exposición y defensa para la obtención del Grado de Doctora en Biología. Y para que así conste, en cumplimiento de las disposiciones vigentes, firmamos la presente acreditación en Málaga a 10 de noviembre de 2015. Profa. Dra. Mª Eugenia Manjón-Cabeza Clouté Dr. Ángel David Macías López FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS. DEPARTAMENTO DE BIOLOGÍA ANIMAL FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS INSTITUTO ESPAÑOL DE OCEANOGRAFÍA Dpto. Biología Animal Centro Oceanográfico de Málaga El atún blanco [Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788)] en el Mediterráneo occidental: biología de la reproducción y métodos aplicados al estudio de la fecundidad Memoria presentada por Dña. Samar Saber Rodríguez para optar al grado de Doctora en Biología por la Universidad de Málaga La doctoranda: Fdo.: Samar Saber Rodríguez El presente trabajo de investigación ha sido desarrollado principalmente en el Centro Oceanográfico de Málaga-Fuengirola del Instituto Español de Oceanografía, gracias a la ayuda Predoctoral de Formación de Personal Investigador del Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación asociada al proyecto de investigación GPM-4 del Instituto Español de Oceanografía y parcialmente financiado por:  Instituto Español de Oceanografía, proyectos GPM-3, GPM-4 y GPM-1213.  Data Collection Framework (CE) nº 199/2008. Agradecemos la colaboración de la Universidad de Cádiz (Cádiz, España) y del Institute of Marine Research (Bergen, Noruega) donde Sámar Saber Rodríguez ha realizado estancias como parte su formación predoctoral. También agradecemos enormemente la colaboración de las diversas empresas, organismos y particulares que han aportado asistencia técnica y muestras: sector pesquero palangrero dirigido al atún blanco, Federación Española de Pesca y Casting, Federació Balear de Pesca i Casting, a los puertos deportivos y clubes de pesca recreativa de S'Estanyol, Dénia, Torrevieja, Jávea, Sóller, Cala D'Or, Port Balís, y Torredembarra, y a los Centros Oceanográficos de Baleares y de Mazarrón del Instituto Español de Oceanografía. Parte de la información contenida en esta tesis ha sido publicada en los siguientes artículos científicos:  Saber, S., Ortiz de Urbina, J., Gómez-Vives, M.J., Macías, D., 2015. Some aspects of the reproductive biology of albacore Thunnus alalunga from the western Mediterranean Sea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 95 (8), 1705–1715.  Saber, S., Macías, D., Ortiz de Urbina, J., Kjesbu, O.S., 2015. Stereological comparison of oocyte recruitment and batch fecundity estimates from paraffin and resin sections using spawning albacore (Thunnus alalunga) ovaries as a case study. Journal of Sea Research 95, 226–238.  Saber, S., Macías, D., Ortiz de Urbina, J., Kjesbu, O.S., 2016. Contrasting batch fecundity estimates of albacore (Thunnus alalunga), an indeterminate spawner, by different laboratory techniques. Fisheries Research 176, 76–85. Introducción general 7 Clasificación taxonómica El atún blanco, también denominado bonito del norte o albacora, Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788) (Fig. 1) se clasifica sistemáticamente según Nelson (2006) como sigue: Filo Chordata Subfilo Craniata Superclase Gnathostomata Clase Actinopterygii Subclase Neopterygii División Teleostei Subdivisión Euteleostei Superorden Acanthopterygii Series Percomorpha Orden Perciformes Suborden Scombroidei Familia Scombridae Subfamila Scombrinae Tribu Thunnini Género Thunnus Especie Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre, 1788) Quince especies de túnidos componen la tribu Thunnini repartidas en cinco géneros: ocho especies corresponden al género Thunnus, una especie al género Katsuwonus, tres especies al género Euthynnus, dos especies al género Auxis, y una especie al género Allothunnus (Collette et al., 2001). Introducción general 8 Figura 1. Atún blanco Thunnus alalunga (fuente: http://iccat.es/en/ICCATManual.asp?mId=5). Características descriptivas y distribución geográfica El atún blanco tiene el cuerpo alargado y fusiforme, cubierto de pequeñas escamas cicloideas. La parte dorsal es de un color azul oscuro metálico, los flancos grisáceos más o menos plateados y la parte ventral blanca plateada. Las aletas pectorales son largas, hasta el 30% o más de la longitud a la horquilla (en inglés fork length, FL). En individuos inferiores a 50 cm FL las aletas son proporcionalmente más pequeñas, similares a las del patudo (Thunnus obesus), por lo que a estas tallas ambas especies pueden ser confundidas (Collette y Nauen, 1983). Sin embargo, la falta de líneas o puntos distingue al atún blanco de otros túnidos. La aleta caudal es relativamente corta, amplia y terminada en forma de semicírculo muy marcado, con un estrecho borde blanco posterior que también es característico de esta especie. El pedúnculo caudal es más delgado que en otras especies del género. La segunda aleta dorsal está situada claramente por debajo de la primera aleta dorsal y, al igual que la aleta anal, posee radios blandos. Las aletas pélvicas son pequeñas. La primera aleta dorsal es de color amarillo fuerte, la segunda aleta dorsal y la aleta anal son de color amarillo pálido, y las pínulas anales de color oscuro. El atún blanco, al Introducción general 9 igual que otras especies de túnidos (Collette et al., 2001; Graham y Dickson, 2004), posee un sistema muy perfeccionado de intercambio de calor a contracorriente (rete mirabile). Este sistema permite que el calor generado por la actividad muscular se conserve en el cuerpo en lugar de disiparse a través de las branquias, lo cual favorece que estas especies puedan explorar latitudes más altas y mayores profundidades oceánicas. La talla máxima fue establecida por Collette y Nauen (1983) en 127 cm, y se ha calculado una longevidad teórica de 15 años (Le Gall, 1974; Wells et al., 2013). El atún blanco es una especie oceánica epipelágica y mesopelágica ampliamente distribuida en aguas tropicales, subtropicales y templadas de todos los océanos y en el mar Mediterráneo. Su distribución geográfica se extiende desde los 50-55°N a los 40-45°S aproximadamente, siendo menos abundante en latitudes comprendidas entre 10°N y10°S (Collette y Nauen, 1983). Su rango óptimo de temperatura es de 13.5° a 25.2°C, aunque puede tolerar aguas más frías, por debajo de 9.5°C, durante periodos cortos de tiempo. A nivel mundial se reconocen seis stocks de atún blanco: el stock del Pacífico norte, Pacífico sur, Atlántico norte, Atlántico sur, Índico y el del Mediterráneo. Mar Mediterráneo, pesca y situación del stock Mediterráneo de atún blanco El Mediterráneo es un mar semicerrado y relativamente pequeño. Su única conexión natural con otros océanos es a través del estrecho de Gibraltar, que lo comunica con el Atlántico norte. Su superficie total es de 2.51 millones de km2 y su volumen de 3.7 x 106 km3, lo que supone un 0.8% de la superficie y un 0.3% del volumen total de todos los océanos y mares de la Tierra. Se extiende desde los 6°W a los 36°E de longitud y desde los 30°N a los 45°N de Introducción general 10 latitud, es decir, posee una longitud de oeste a este de 4 000 km y de 1 600 km de norte a sur (Fig. 2). Figura 2. Mar Mediterráneo (imagen batimétrica generada a partir de la base de datos ETOPO). El atún blanco está ampliamente distribuido en el Mediterráneo y es una especie objetivo de la pesca comercial y recreativa. La pesquería del atún blanco a lo largo del Mediterráneo es una actividad tradicional, pero la información sobre sus capturas es escasa y probablemente infradeclarada. El arte más utilizado en la pesquería del atún blanco en el Mediterráneo es el palangre de superficie (Fig 3). Otros artes de pesca utilizados son las redes de enmalle de deriva, el cerco, el curricán y el cebo vivo. Las capturas de atún blanco con redes de enmalle de deriva en los últimos años son efectuadas principalmente por Turquía, ya que a partir del 1 de enero de 2008 el uso de este arte quedó prohibido para los países miembros de la Comunidad Europea (reglamentos (CE) nº 812/2004 del Consejo, de 26 de abril de 2004 y nº 809/2007 del Consejo, de 28 de junio de 2007) y desde 2012 para Marruecos. La captura Introducción general 11 media declarada entre los años 2000 y 2014 está en torno a las 4 300 toneladas, sin embargo, las capturas en los dos últimos años han descendido respecto a las de principios de la década del 2000 (Fig. 4). De las capturas comunicadas en dicho periodo (2000–2014), el 67.3% corresponden a Italia, el 14.4% a Grecia, el 6.0% a Chipre, a España al igual que a Turquía corresponden el 5.8% y el resto a otros países ribereños (http://iccat.org/en/accesingdb.htm). Figura 3. Esquema del palangre de superficie y fotografía de anzuelo tipo “J“ empleado en el palangre de atún blanco. La Comisión Internacional para la Conservación del Atún Atlántico (en inglés, International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, ICCAT) considera a efectos de ordenación tres stocks de atún blanco: Atlántico norte, Atlántico sur (separado del anterior por el paralelo 5° N) y Mediterráneo. La ICCAT, basándose en la existencia de zonas de puesta independientes, datos de marcado, y diferencias en la morfometría, en las tasas de crecimiento y en la edad de primera madurez, considera que los stocks Mediterráneo y Atlántico norte son independientes (ICCAT, 2010). El stock Mediterráneo de atún blanco fue evaluado por primera vez por la ICCAT en 2011 usando los datos recabados hasta 2010. Debido a la falta de datos, tanto pesqueros (de capturas y esfuerzo) Introducción general 12 como biológicos, se constató que es un stock pobre en datos, por lo que los análisis realizados se tuvieron que adaptar a esta escasez de datos y no se pudieron llevar a cabo proyecciones del estado futuro del stock. Los resultados de la evaluación basada en la limitada información disponible y en análisis simples indicaron un patrón relativamente estable para la biomasa del atún blanco del Mediterráneo en el pasado reciente. Los niveles actuales de mortalidad por pesca parecen haberse reducido respecto a los de principios de los 2000, que probablemente superaban la mortalidad por pesca asociada al rendimiento máximo sostenible, y en la actualidad podrían estar a este nivel o por debajo (ICCAT, en prensa). Para poder hacer frente a esta considerable incertidumbre sobre el estado del stock, la ICCAT recomienda establecer medidas de ordenación destinadas a limitar aumentos en la captura y en el esfuerzo pesquero, así como recopilar datos de pesca históricos y/o recientes y llevar a cabo estudios que incrementen el conocimiento sobre los parámetros básicos del ciclo de vida y de la ecología del atún blanco en el Mediterráneo (Anon., 2012; ICCAT, en prensa). Figura 4. Capturas totales de atún blanco del stock del Mediterráneo comunicadas a ICCAT (Tarea I, disponible en: http://iccat.org/en/accesingdb.htm; actualizado el 2 de noviembre de 2015). 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 1950 1954 1958 1962 1966 1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014 Toneladas Año Introducción general 13 Biología de la reproducción del atún blanco. Antecedentes El atún blanco, como el resto de túnidos, no muestra dimorfismo sexual aparente en el esquema de color o en los caracteres morfológicos externos. Al igual que las otras especies de túnidos, con la excepción Allothunnus fallai, se reproduce en aguas cálidas cuando la temperatura superficial supera los 24°C (Schaefer, 2001; Graham y Dickson, 2004). Son reproductores múltiples parciales en los que la reproducción se extiende durante un largo periodo y los huevos se liberan por tandas o lotes y el desarrollo de los ovarios es asincrónico por encontrarse simultáneamente ovocitos en diferentes fases de desarrollo (Wallace y Selman, 1981). La estrategia reproductiva es indeterminada (Schaefer, 2001), ya que la producción de ovocitos es continua durante la época de reproducción y el número de huevos que pondrán en la temporada no está determinado al principio de la puesta (Hunter et al., 1992). Para estimar la fecundidad potencial anual de las especies cuya estrategia reproductiva es indeterminada se requiere de las estimas de la fecundidad por tanda (en inglés, batch fecundity), de la fracción de hembras maduras en puesta por día (en inglés, spawning fraction) y de la duración del periodo de puesta (en inglés, spawning period) (Hunter et al., 1985; Murua et al., 2003). Las áreas de puesta del atún blanco en el Mediterráneo se han descrito a partir de estudios de distribución larvaria. Se distinguen tres grandes áreas de puesta: la cuenca Levantina (Mediterráneo oriental) (Piccinetti et al., 1996); los mares Jónico, Adriático y Tirreno (Potoschi et al., 1994; Piccinetti et al., 1996; De Ruggieri et al., 1997) y el mar Balear (Dicenta et al., 1975; García et al., 2005; Alemany et al., 2010). La edad máxima estimada para individuos capturados en el Mediterráneo oriental es de 9 años (Karakulak et al., 2011) y para los capturados en el Mediterráneo occidental de 11 años (Quelle et al., Introducción general 14 2011). De los escasos estudios sobre la reproducción del atún blanco en el Mediterráneo el más relevante es el publicado por Arena et al. (1980), en el que se determinó que la edad a la que el 50% de la población alcanza la madurez sexual es de 2 años (talla media de 66.3 cm FL). Este trabajo se llevó a cabo con ejemplares capturados en el mar Tirreno y los autores determinaron la madurez de las hembras mediante el uso de técnicas histológicas. Megalofonou (1990), basándose en el examen de las gónadas en fresco, encontró que los atunes blancos capturados en el mar Egeo durante el otoño son inmaduros o están en postpuesta; mientras que Akayli et al. (2013), basándose en el examen microscópico de gónadas masculinas, determinaron que el atún blanco en el Mediterráneo oriental se reproduce principalmente entre mayo y julio. En este último estudio se observó que la talla mínima a la que los machos alcanzan la madurez sexual es de 63 cm LF. Sin embargo, no se encuentran trabajos relacionados con el estudio de la biología reproductiva del atún blanco en el área de puesta del mar Balear. El conocimiento preciso de parámetros reproductivos tales como la talla de primera madurez, la fecundidad, y la duración y frecuencia de puesta son de gran importancia para comprender la dinámica de las poblaciones, evaluar su estatus de conservación y abordar una gestión pesquera racional. A diferencia del stock del Mediterráneo, la biología de la reproducción del atún blanco de las poblaciones del Pacífico (norte y sur) está bien documentada. La talla a la que el 50% de la población alcanza la madurez sexual (talla de primera madurez) ha sido estimada recientemente para los atunes blancos del Pacífico sur en 87 cm FL (a la edad de 4.5 años) (Farley et al., 2014). La edad máxima para los individuos de los dos stocks del Pacífico está estimada en 14 – 15 años (Chen et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2012; Wells et al., 2013). La duración de la época de puesta es de seis a siete meses y el intervalo de puesta de aproximadamente 1.3 Introducción general 15 – 1.7 días (Chen et al., 2010; Farley et al., 2013). La fecundidad por tandas, es decir, el número total de huevos liberados en un evento de puesta, ha sido estimada para los stocks del Pacífico norte y sur, Atlántico sur e Índico y está comprendida entre los 0.17 y los 2.83 millones de ovocitos (Ueyanagi, 1957; Otsu y Uchida, 1959; Wu y Kuo 1993; Chen et al., 2010; Anon., 2012; Farley et al., 2013). Histología En especies cuya estrategia reproductiva es indeterminada es necesario realizar un examen histológico de los ovarios antes de acometer las estimas de fecundidad por tanda (Murua et al., 2003), ya que solo las hembras en puesta cuyos ovarios contienen ovocitos en una de las dos últimas fases de desarrollo (ovocitos con núcleos migratorios u ovocitos hidratados) y sin folículos postovulatorios recientes son adecuadas para realizar dichas estimas (Hunter et al., 1985; Hunter et al., 1992; Schaefer, 1996). El examen macroscópico (inspección visual) de las gónadas y el uso de índices gonadosomáticos son métodos rápidos y poco costosos para clasificar la madurez y el estado reproductivo de un gran número de individuos de una especie, pero si los usamos con la finalidad de estimar la talla o edad de primera madurez estos métodos pueden resultar inadecuados y producir sesgos importantes en la estimación del potencial reproductor de un stock (De Vlaming et al., 1982; Vitale et al., 2006). En cambio, aunque la histología es una técnica costosa, el examen microscópico de las gónadas ofrece una visión precisa de la estructura del ovario y de sus componentes, proporcionando una información inequívoca sobre el estado reproductivo en el que se encuentra el ejemplar Introducción general 22 of mature and immature fish. PloS ONE 9 (1), e83017. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083017 García, A., Alemany, F., De la Serna, J.M., Oray, I., Karakulak, S., Rollandi, L., Arigò, A., Mazzola, S., 2005. 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In: Block, B.A., Stevens, E.D. (Eds.), Tuna: Physiology, Ecology and Evolution. Academic Press, San Diego, California, pp. 225–270. Sterio, D.C., 1984. The unbiased estimation of number and sizes of arbitrary particles using the disector [sic.]. Journal of Microscopy 134, 127–136. Ueyanagi, S., 1957. Spawning of the albacore in the Western Pacific. Nankai Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory (Report), no.6, 12 pp. Vitale, F., Svedäng, H., Cardinale, M., 2006. Histological analysis invalidates macroscopically determined maturity ogives of the Kattegat cod (Gadus morhua) and suggests new proxies for estimating maturity status of individual fish. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63, 485–492. Wallace, R.A., Selman, K., 1981. Cellular and dynamic aspects of oocyte growth in teleost. American Zoologist 21, 325–343. Weibel, E.R., Gomez, D.M., 1962. Special communications. A principle for counting tissue structures on random sections. Journal of Applied Physiology 17, 343–348. Wells, D.R.J., Kohin, S., Teo, S.L.H., Snodgrass, O.E., Koji Uosaki, K., 2013. Age and growth of North Pacific albacore (Thunnus alalunga): Implications for stock assessment. Fisheries Research 147, 55–62. West, G., 1990. Methods of assessing ovarian development in fishes: a review. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 41, 199–222. Introducción general 25 Williams, A.J., Farley, J.H., Hoyle, S.D., Davies, C.R., Nicol, S.J., 2012. Spatial and sex-specific variation in growth of albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga) across the South Pacific Ocean. PloS ONE 7 (6), e39318. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039318. Wu, C.-L., Kuo, C.-L., 1993. Maturity and fecundity of albacore, Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre) from the Indian Ocean". Journal of Fisheries Society Taiwan 20, 135–152. Chapter 1 29 Chapter 1. Some aspects of the reproductive biology of albacore Thunnus alalunga from the Western Mediterranean Sea Sámar Saber, Josetxu Ortiz de Urbina, María José Gómez-Vives, David Macías, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S002531541500020X 30 Chapter 1 31 ABSTRACT Thunnus alalunga is an important commercial tuna species widely distributed in the three major oceans and the Mediterranean Sea. The Mediterranean population is currently classified as a data-poor stock and little is known about its basic life history parameters. This study provides the first detailed information on some aspects of the reproductive biology of T. alalunga from the western Mediterranean Sea. A total of 16104 specimens were measured between 2005 and 2012. The overall sex ratio of females to males was 1.1:1, although the ratio was female biased in fish <70 cm fork length (LF) and male biased in those >75 cm LF. Histological analysis of the ovaries (n = 587) and the monthly variation of the gonadosomatic index for both sexes showed that spawning occurred from June to August, which is a much shorter period than the seven months reported for T. alalunga in tropical oceanic waters. Thunnus alalunga caught during June and July are capable of spawning daily. The gonadosomatic index values for T. alalunga from the western Mediterranean were up to eight times higher than those of T. alalunga from other oceans. Histological examination of the ovaries showed that the minimum length at sexual maturity of females was 56 cm LF, which is considerably smaller than those estimated for other stocks. Keywords Size distribution; Sex ratio; Gonadosomatic index; Histology; Sexual maturity; Spawning season 32 Chapter 2 65 Chapter 2. Stereological comparison of oocyte recruitment and batch fecundity estimates from paraffin and resin sections using spawning albacore (Thunnus alalunga) ovaries as a case study Sámar Saber, David Macías Josetxu Ortiz de Urbina, Olav Sigurd Kjesbu, 2015. Journal of Sea Research 95, 226 238 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2014.05.003 Chapter 3 114 Keywords Assumption-based stereology; Physical Disector; Oocyte Packing Density; Indeterminate species; Fecundity General discussion General discussion 151 An understanding of the reproductive biology of any species is important for the purpose of stock assessment. The Mediterranean albacore stock was first assessed in 2011. Taking into account the incomplete fishing statistics, and the lack of knowledge on the life cycle and biological population parameters, the stock was classified as data-poor. Information on Mediterranean stock maturity was provided in a study conducted with samples obtained from 1978 to 1980 in the Tyrrhenian Sea; it was found that 50% of 2-year-old albacore with a mean fork length (FL) of 66.3 cm were sexually mature (Arena et al., 1980). Since then, few studies have addressed the reproductive biology of albacore (Marano et al., 1999; Akayli et al., 2013), and thus the reproductive biology of the Mediterranean population of albacore remains poorly understood (Juan-Jordá et al., 2013). Studies on the maturity and fecundity of this species were recommended by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) (Anon., 2011). Such studies could be of value for future stock assessment. In fact, a stock assessment project has been planned for 2017. The present PhD thesis not only attempts to improve knowledge of the reproductive biology of albacore Thunnus alalunga (Chapters 1, 2, and 3) — a species for which there are serious gaps in information on its life history traits in the Mediterranean Sea — but also addresses methodological issues related to fecundity estimates that are of interest to fish reproductive researchers (Chapters 2 and 3). The aim of management strategies should be to achieve the long-term sustainable exploitation of marine resources. Currently, there are no ICCAT regulations aimed at managing this stock (http://iccat.org/en/RecsRegs.asp). Accurate life history information (maximum size, growth, longevity, maturity, sex ratio, fecundity, spawning duration, and spawning interval) is needed to General discussion 152 develop realistic models to assess fish stocks; these models can then be used as the basis for the sustainable exploitation, management, and conservation of fish species. As mentioned, Mediterranean albacore is considered a data-poor stock, and so suitable methods have been used to assess its status (Anon., 2012). The present PhD thesis presents data on the reproductive biology of albacore from the western Mediterranean Sea, which is an important spawning area for many species, including tuna species (Atlantic bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus, little tunny Euthynnus alletteratus, Atlantic bonito Sarda sarda, bullet tuna Auxis rochei, skipjack tuna Katsuwonus pelamis, and albacore) (Alemany et al., 2010; Reglero et al., 2012). Life history traits can vary between populations of the same species (Morgan 2008), as has been shown for albacore (Chapters 1 and 3). The maximum sizes of albacore in the Mediterranean Sea range between 92 and 111 cm FL (Megalofonou, 2000; Karakulak et al., 2011; Di Natale et al., 2011; Chapter 1), whereas larger maximum sizes (from 110 to 130 cm FL) are frequently found in the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic ocean albacore populations (Otsu and Hansen, 1962; Wu and Kuo, 1993; Ramon and Bailey, 1996; Zhu et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2010; Farley et al., 2013). We found that the overall estimated sex ratio for albacore during the spawning season in the western Mediterranean was 1.1♀:1♂. However, the analysis of sex ratio by length indicated that the sex ratio was close to 1:1 for length classes between 71 and 74 cm FL; females predominated in the smaller length classes and males in the larger length classes. Similarly, in the eastern Mediterranean, 75 cm FL was the length at which males became predominant (Karakulak et al., 2011). A preponderance of albacore males in larger length classes has also been found in the Pacific Ocean, although the length at which this occurs is greater than 95 cm FL (Chen et al., 2010; Farley et al., 2013). The same phenomenon of male General discussion 153 preponderance in larger length classes has also been found in other tuna species, such as yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares, blackfin tuna Thunnus atlanticus, Atlantic bluefin tuna, bigeye tuna Thunnus obesus (Schaefer, 1998; Zhu et al., 2010; Aranda et al., 2013a; Bezerra et al., 2013). According to Schaefer (2001) and Schaefer et al. (2005), the almost complete absence of females in tuna species within larger size classes seems to be related to differences in natural mortality and vulnerability to capture rather than to differential growth. However, it has been found that male albacore grow faster and reach greater sizes at age than females (Megalofonou 2000; Karakulak et al., 2011; Chen et al., 2012a; Williams et al., 2012), suggesting that once the size at maturity is reached, reproductive investment rather than somatic growth is higher in females than in males (Chen et al., 2012a; Williams et al., 2012; Farley et al., 2013). Another reproductive trait that differs between Mediterranean and oceanic albacore populations is length/age at first maturity (L50 / A50). In Mediterranean albacore, the A50 has been estimated as 2 years with a mean FL of 66.3 cm (Arena et al., 1980); in contrast, in South Pacific albacore, the L50 has been estimated as 87 cm FL (Farley et al., 2014). In the present study, only five immature individuals were found and so it was not possible to estimate the L50 by fitting the proportion of mature fish by age-length class to a logistic equation (the most common method). However, we found that the minimum size at maturity for females was 56 cm FL, which is similar to that observed in the central (62 cm FL) and eastern (63 cm FL for males) Mediterranean Sea (Arena et al., 1980; Akayli et al., 2013). Nevertheless, a larger minimum size at maturity (between 71 and 96 cm FL) has been found in albacore in the North Pacific, South Pacific, and Indian oceans (Otsu and Uchida, 1959; Otsu and General discussion 154 Hansen, 1962; Kikawa and Ferraro, 1967; Ratty et al., 1990; Wu and Kuo, 1993; Ramon and Bailey, 1996; Chen et al., 2010; Farley et al., 2013). It is known that tuna species have an indeterminate reproductive strategy (Schaefer, 2001). Indeterminate fecundity refers to species whose annual potential fecundity is not fixed prior to the start of the spawning season (Hunter et al., 1992). In order to estimate the potential annual fecundity of these species, three measurements are required: batch fecundity (number of eggs released per spawning event), spawning fraction (fraction of females spawning per day), and the length of the spawning season (Hunter et al., 1985; Murua and SaboridoRey, 2003). Our results of the histological examination of ovaries and the gonadosomatic index values indicated that the spawning season for albacore in the western Mediterranean Sea is from June to August. Similar results were found for albacore adults in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Akayli et al., 2013). Both sets of results were consistent with larval surveys (Piccinetti et al., 1996; Alemany et al., 2010). In contrast, the albacore spawning season in oceanic tropical waters is between 6 and 7 months (Chen et al., 2010; Anon., 2012; Farley et al., 2013). This difference is unsurprising given that tuna spawn in water temperatures of about 24°C and higher (Schaefer, 2001) and that these temperatures are only found in the western Mediterranean Sea during the summer months (Vargas-Yáñez et al., 2010). This disparity between the spawning season in the Mediterranean and that in the oceans has also been found in other migratory species such as little tunny and swordfish Xiphias gladius (Collette and Nauen, 1983; Arocha and Lee, 1996; De la Serna et al., 1996; Arocha, 2007; Hajjej et al., 2010). Unfortunately, the individual duration of spawning is difficult to measure (Murua et al., 2003) and there is no simple General discussion 155 way of estimating this reproductive trait in the field in the absence of new technologies, such as electronic tagging, which not only provide valuable data on the individual spawning period but also on reproductive behaviour, spawning habitat preferences, and spatial-temporal patterns (Aranda et al., 2013b; Cosgrove et al., 2014). The estimation of the spawning frequency of female albacore from the western Mediterranean Sea was calculated using the postovulatory follicle method developed by Hunter and Macewicz (1985). This method is commonly used in tuna studies. We assumed that the postovulatory follicles (POFs) of albacore ovaries are resorbed at the same rate as other tunas (e.g., skipjack tuna, yellowfin tuna, and South Pacific albacore) spawning in water temperatures above 24ºC (Hunter et al., 1986; Schaefer, 1996; Farley et al., 2013), given that water temperatures appear to have a significant effect on POF resorption rates (Fitzhugh and Hettler, 1995; Ganias et al., 2007; Kurita et al., 2011). The estimated spawning fraction of females classified as reproductively active was 0.99, resulting in a mean spawning interval of 1.01 days (i.e., females would be capable of spawning almost daily). Similar results have been reported for other tuna species (active females alone were considered): skipjack tuna, bigeye tuna, yellowfin tuna, Atlantic bluefin tuna, Southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii, and Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis (Hunter et al., 1986; Nikaido et al., 1991; Schaefer, 1996; Farley and Davis, 1998; Medina et al., 2002; Aranda et al., 2013a, 2013b; Farley et al., 2015; Okochi et al., 2016). However, the spawning interval estimated during the peak spawning activity of North and South Pacific T. alalunga was somewhat longer (1.7 days and 1.3 days, respectively) (Chen et al., 2010; Farley et al., 2013). The gonadosomatic index (Chapter 1) was estimated using two General discussion 156 alternative formulations in order to compare our results with those reported in other albacore studies. The gonadosomatic index values for female albacore from the western Mediterranean were between two and four times higher than those estimated for oceanic albacore (Wu and Kuo, 1993; Ramon and Bailey, 1996; Chen et al., 2010; Farley et al., 2013). The estimated gonadosomatic indexes for male albacore from the western and eastern Mediterranean were similar (Akayli et al., 2013, Chapter 1), whereas the highest gonadosomatic index was eight times higher than that reported by Wu and Kuo (1993) for albacore in the Indian Ocean. These results reflect that the Mediterranean albacore mature at smaller size than the oceanic albacore populations. Reproductive information, such as fecundity, can be used to improve the assessment of fish stocks and therefore their management. Information on the fecundity strategy is needed to correctly estimate fecundity and has to be investigated before applying any fecundity estimation method (Murua and Saborido-Rey, 2003; Kjesbu, 2009). Two types of fecundity, determinate and indeterminate, have been defined in fish according to the strategy of recruitment of oocytes to the stock of mature oocytes (Hunter et al., 1985; Hunter et al., 1992; Murua and Saborido-Rey, 2003). It is known that tuna species have indeterminate fecundity (Schaefer, 2001). Evidence of this type of fecundity (see Hunter et al., 1989; Greer Walker et al., 1994; Murua and Saborido-Rey, 2003) has been shown in albacore spawning ovaries by applying the Oocyte Packing Density (OPD) method (Kurita and Kjesbu, 2009) (Chapter 2). The estimated number of previtellogenic stage oocytes per gram of ovary was very high; that is, there is a new (de novo) recruitment of oocytes from previtellogenic into vitellogenic stage oocytes during the spawning period. Moreover, as expected for indeterminate species, there was no gap in oocyte size between the previtellogenic and vitellogenic stages; however, there was a General discussion 157 gap (hiatus) between the vitellogenic stage oocytes and the most advanced group of oocytes in each gonad subphase (advanced vitellogenic, migratory nucleus, or hydrated oocytes). This distinct hiatus differentiates the spawning batch from the standing stock of oocytes (Schaefer, 2001; Kjesbu, 2009). Histology is considered the most accurate approach to correctly classify the reproductive female and male gonad stages (Hunter and Macewicz, 1985; West, 1990; Schaefer, 2001). Histological sections are used for estimating the number and size of different structures (oocyte developmental stages, POFs and atretic oocytes) in fish and some invertebrate reproductive studies. The two most common embedding media used in reproductive-related studies on teleost ovarian tissue are paraffin and resin. It is well known that the process of fixation and histological processing entails a certain degree of tissue shrinkage, which is higher or lower depending on both the nature of the tissue and the protocol used (Davis, 1982; Johnson et al., 1997; Dorph-Petersen et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2012b). Consequently, any estimates of oocyte size and numbers should be considered in the light of the method used, in particular when contrasting values across different protocols. When comparing the differences in mean diameter between fresh and embedded oocytes, it was clear that oocytes shrank as a consequence of the embedding process, reaching the maximal degree of shrinkage for hydrated oocytes (45.8 % in paraffin and 26.5% in resin) (Chapter 2). Our results were very similar to those of Kraus et al. (2008), who found that cod Gadus morhua hydrated eggs embedded in paraffin shrank 48 ± 7%. Differences in shrinkage between fresh and embedded oocytes, depending on the oocyte stage and embedding medium, have also been found when contrasting two studies of cod. Whereas shrinkage of late vitellogenic oocytes embedded in resin was about 7% (calculated according to Kjesbu et al., 2011), in paraffin the shrinkage was 30 ± 9% (Kraus et al., 2008). General discussion 164 great difference in the reproductive traits between the albacore population (from the western Mediterranean Sea) and the other global populations (oceanic ones): higher gonadosomatic index values (during the spawning season), lower minimum length at maturity, shorter spawning season, lower spawning interval and higher relative batch fecundity. These reproductive variables may be genetic or environmentally determined, or an interaction between both (Lawrence, 2000 in Kjesbu, 2009). Genetic studies confirm that the Mediterranean albacore population is genetically distinguishable from the other populations (Montes et al., 2012; Albaina et al., 2013; Laconcha et al., 2015); even within the Mediterranean Sea genetic heterogeneity has been observed (Davies et al., 2011; Montes et al., 2012). It can be suggested that the different reproductive traits of Mediterranean albacore is an adaptive response to the environmental conditions (Mediterranean climate) that together with the genetic variability provide evidence of geographic and reproductive isolation of the Mediterranean population. The incorporation of the batch fecundity estimates and sex ratio in the estimation of limit reference points could be of value for future stock assessment. 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Ratty, F.J., Laurs, R.M., Kelly, R.M., 1990. Gonad Morphology, Histology, and Conclusions / Conclusiones 180 & Gomez or the Oocyte Packing Density methods should be used in routine studies. Conclusions regarding the Reproductive biology of albacore Thunnus alalunga.- 7. The maximum length recorded in the western Mediterranean was 109 cm. Few individuals over 90 cm were observed. 8. The estimated overall sex ratio during the spawning season in the western Mediterranean was 1.1♀:1♂. The analysis of sex ratio by length indicated that females predominated in the smaller length classes (< 70 cm) and males in the larger length classes (> 75 cm). 9. The minimum length at maturity for albacore in the western Mediterranean Sea is 56 cm. The length of spawning season is around three months (from June to August). The spawning interval of active females was 1.01, indicating that albacore in the western Mediterranean Sea are capable of spawning nearly every day. 10. Batch fecundity estimates ranged from 0.42 to 2.16 million oocytes, with a mean relative batch fecundity of 136 oocytes per gram of body weight. Batch fecundity increased with fish size (length and weight) and gonad weight. 11. Therefore, albacore from the western Mediterranean Sea show lower maximum length, lower minimum length at maturity, shorter spawning season, lower spawning interval, and higher relative batch fecundity in comparison with the oceanic albacore populations. This variation in expression of reproductive traits of Mediterranean albacore indicates that its reproductive tactic differs from those observed in the oceanic populations, which could represent an adaptive response to the environmental conditions in the Mediterranean. Conclusions / Conclusiones 181 CONCLUSIONES Conclusiones metodológicas.- 1. El diámetro medio de los ovocitos fue menor en parafina que en resina. Las diferencias variaron entre el 5 y el 24.3% en los ovocitos previtelogénicos e hidratados, respectivamente. La mayor diferencia en los ovocitos hidratados probablemente se deba a su alto contenido de agua. 2. Se encontraron diferencias significativas en la fracción de volumen del “espacio libre” (espacio extracelular) y del tejido conectivo entre los dos medios de inclusión, lo que muestra que la morfología del tejido ovárico está mejor preservada en resina, especialmente en los ovarios con ovocitos hidratados. 3. El método del Oocyte Packing Density es adecuado para la cuantificación de ovocitos con núcleo migratorio tanto en resina como en parafina. Sin embargo, para ambos medios de inclusión la fecundidad relativa por tanda estimada a partir de los ovocitos hidratados fue significativamente menor que a partir de los ovocitos con núcleo migratorio. 4. Las estimas de la fecundidad por tanda a partir del conteo de folículos postovulatorios fueron significativamente menores que las obtenidas a partir del conteo de los ovocitos con núcleo migratorio, probablemente debido a la rápida degeneración de los folículos postovulatorios. 5. Las estimas de fecundidad por tanda a partir del conteo de ovocitos con núcleo migratorio obtenidas mediante el método Physical Disector fueron significativamente mayores que las obtenidas con el resto de métodos empleados. Las estimas obtenidas con los métodos de Weibel y Gomez y del Oocyte Packing Density fueron las más cercanas a las obtenidas con el método tradicional del Hydrated Oocyte, el cual se utilizó como control. Conclusions / Conclusiones 182 6. Basándonos en los resultados obtenidos, ningún método de los empleados para estimar la fecundidad debería ser descartado. Por tanto, teniendo en cuenta el tiempo y coste que conlleva la aplicación de cada uno de los métodos así como la escasez de ovarios con ovocitos hidratados en los ejemplares muestreados, utilizaríamos el método de Weibel y Gomez o el del Oocyte Packing Density para trabajos rutinarios. Conclusiones sobre la biología reproductiva del atún blanco Thunnus alalunga.- 7. La talla máxima observada en el Mediterráneo occidental fue de 109 cm. Pocos individuos sobrepasaron los 90 cm. 8. Durante la época de puesta, el sex ratio en conjunto es de 1.1♀:1♂. El análisis del sex ratio por talla mostró que las hembras predominan en tallas inferiores a 70 cm y los machos en tallas superiores a 75 cm. 9. La talla mínima a la que el atún blanco alcanza la madurez en el Mediterráneo occidental es de 56 cm. La duración de la época de puesta es de cerca de tres meses (de junio a agosto). El intervalo de puesta de las hembras activas es de 1.01, lo cual indica que el atún blanco es capaz de poner casi a diario. 10. Las estimas de la fecundidad por tanda variaron entre los 420 000 y los 2 160 000 ovocitos con núcleo migratorio, con una fecundidad media relativa por tanda de 136 ovocitos por gramo de peso corporal. La fecundidad por tanda aumenta con el peso gonadal, la talla y el peso del individuo. 11. Por tanto, el atún blanco del Mediterráneo occidental en comparación con las poblaciones oceánicas muestra tallas máximas más pequeñas, menor talla mínima de madurez, época de puesta más corta, menor intervalo de puesta y mayor fecundidad relativa por tanda. Esta variación en la expresión de las características reproductivas del atún blanco del Mediterráneo indica que su Conclusions / Conclusiones 183 táctica reproductiva difiere de las observadas en las poblaciones oceánicas, lo cual representaría una respuesta adaptativa a las condiciones ambientales del Mediterráneo. Annex Annex 187 GONAD EMBEDDING, SECTIONING AND STAINING PROCEDURE In this section is described the gonad embedding, sectioning and staining procedures followed in the chapters of this PhD thesis. A 2−3 cm cross-section from the central part of the right or left lobe (Figure) was fixed in Bouin's fluid for four hours, and preserved in 70% ethanol (for at least three months prior to embedding). Figure. Schematic of albacore ovaries, showing the full cross section from the central part of one of the lobes which is fixed in Bouin's fluid for four hours, and preserved in 70% ethanol. Annex 188 A. Gonad embedding, sectioning and staining procedure: paraffin (IEO, Centro Oceanográfico de Málaga) A representative subsample (from the tunica albuginea to the ovarian lumen, see Figure) was taken from the preserved ovarian tissue and processed, using gentle agitation (from step 1 to step 7), as follows: If samples are fixed and preserved in phosphate buffered formaldehyde Distilled water (2 x 30 min) 50% ethanol (1 hour) 70% ethanol (1 hour) If samples are fixed in Bouin's fluid and preserved in 70% ethanol 1. 80% ethanol (1 hour) 2. 90% ethanol (1 hour) 3. 96% ethanol (1 hour) 4. 99.6% ethanol (1 hour) 5. 99.6% ethanol (1 hour) Subsamples can keep in the second bath of 99.6% ethanol (step 5) over night 6. Clearing agent Butanol* (1 hour) 7. Clearing agent Butanol (1 hour) Immersion time in butanol (steps 6 and 7) should be not exceeded 8. Paraffin* at ≈ 62°C (2 hours) 9. Paraffin at ≈ 62°C (2 hours) 10. Paraffin at ≈ 62°C (2 hours) Subsamples are kept in the third wax (step 10) in the drying oven over night * butanol used one time in step 7 * paraffin used one time in steps 9 and 10 The infiltrated ovarian tissues are then embedded into wax blocks. To create paraffin blocks: Annex 189  Put small amount of molten paraffin in mould/tin, dispensing from paraffin reservoir.  Using warm forceps, transfer tissue into mould/tin.  Molten paraffin is added to the mould/tin. Fill mould/tin with enough paraffin to cover the tissue. If necessary, use a warm needle to eliminate air bubbles. Paraffin should solidify in 30−60 minutes depending on the room temperature. Once the tissue is embedded, it is stable for many years. Sectioning Cut at 10 µm. Pick the sections up with forceps or a fine paint brush and float them on the surface of the 37°C distilled water bath. Pick up sections from water by placing the slides under the sections. Dry the slides in the drying oven (35°C) during 24 hours. Staining procedure  Deparaffinize and rehydrate sections Xylene (3 x 10 min) (blot excess xylene before going into ethanol) Ethanol 99.6% (2 x 5 min) Ethanol 96% (2 x 5 min) Ethanol 70% (5 min) Ethanol 50% (5 min) Distilled water (5 min)  Staining (times should be not exceeded) Corrosive sublimate (20 min) Rinse distilled water (3−4 drips) Acid fucsin 1 % (1 min) Rinse in running tap water (≈ 10 min) Rinse distilled water (3−4 drips) * Phosphomolybdic acid 1 % (1 min) (keep in darkness, renewed after two days) Rinse distilled water (3−4 drips) Mallory's trichrome stain (1 min 15 seconds) Rinse in running tap water (≈ 10 min) Rinse distilled water (3−4 drips) * Phosphomolybdic acid 1% is kept in darkness and should be renewed after two days