The Last Ten Years in the Bristish Education System

I UNIVERSIDAD DE MÁLAGA Facultad de Filosofía y Letras Doctorado “Lecturas Contemporáneas de la Literatura y la Cultura Inglesa” TESIS DOCTORAL THE LAST TEN YEARS IN THE BRITISH EDUCATION SYSTEM Juan Antonio Rodríguez Rico. Málaga 2015 II THE LAST TEN YEARS IN THE BRITISH EDUCATION SYSTEM Supervisor: Dra. Maria Isabel Romero Ruiz AUTOR: Juan Antonio Rodríguez Rico http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8890-2142 EDITA: Publicaciones y Divulgación Científica. Universidad de Málaga Esta obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercialSinObraDerivada 4.0 Internacional: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode Cualquier parte de esta obra se puede reproducir sin autorización pero con el reconocimiento y atribución de los autores. No se puede hacer uso comercial de la obra y no se puede alterar, transformar o hacer obras derivadas. Esta Tesis Doctoral está depositada en el Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Málaga (RIUMA): riuma.uma.es iii iv v To my family and my supporting friends vi vii Acknowledgements The completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the cooperation and support of a number of individuals. First of all, I am very grateful to Dr. Blanca Krauel Heredia and Dr. María Isabel Romero Ruiz for undertking to supervise this dissertation. Their guidance, constructive comments and support have been invaluable in completing it. Furthermore, I want to thank all the Málaga University lectures on the “Lecturas Contemporáneas de la Literatura y la Cultura Inglesa” for the guidance and assistance. Secondly, my appreciation goes to Antonio Ariza, Paula O'Callaghan and Michelle O’Brien for their support and encouragement. Finally, I am indebted to all those whose support and encouragement have been source of stimulation. viii xv 6. Sponsorship and governance of academy chains 139 7. The future growth and development of academy chains 141 8. Conclusion 143 Chapter 7:Bullying. 1. Introduction 145 2. Who is Affected? 148 3. Cyberbullying 156 4. Homophobic bullying 161 5. Teachers bullied 164 6. Conclusion 167 Chapter 8: Multicultural classroom. 1. Introduction 169 2. Schools can make the difference. 173 3. Primary, Middle and Secondary Diversity. 177 4. English as minority language. 181 5. Shared Futures 183 6. Conclusion 186 Chapter 9: Budgeting. 1. Introduction 189 2. Components of education spending 194 3. Changes to school funding 197 4. The British budgeting landscape 201 5. Conclusion 206 xvi Chapter 10: Cultural Education. 1. Introduction 209 2. Reasons for cultural education 213 3. Cultural Education in the Curriculum 214 4. The Heritage Schools programme 217 5. National Bridge 219 6. The WWI programme 222 7. Read for My School 225 8. Conclusion 227 Chapter 11: The Importance of Music. 1. Introduction 229 2. Progression 233 3. ABRSM 235 4. Music For Youth 239 5. The Music Industries Association. 242 6. National Association of Music Educators 244 7. Choir Schools’ Association. 248 8. Conclusion 251 Conclusion. 253 Appendix 1: British-Spanish educational system 265 Appendix 2:The NQV structure 266 Appendix 3: Chronology of Acts 267 Works cited 289 Resumen 315 xvii List of figures Chapter 1: Building Brighter Futures. Figure 1 : Number of children of divorced couples: by age groups. 22 Figure 2: School building projects stopped by constituency. 32 Figure 3: Issues more demanded in the helplines. 36 Figure 4: Satisfaction with the helpline year 2008. 36 Chapter 2: The National Curriculum. Figure 1: The School Curriculum. 45 Figure 2: Framework for the primary curriculum. 48 Figure 3: The independent review. 49 Figure 4: Attainment in reading, writing and mathematics. 55 Chapter 3: Vocational Training. Figure 1: Employees' job-related training: by sex and occupation. 61 Figure 2:Occupational shift.2001-2009. 62 Figure 3: Study of Young People studying NVQs in England. 65 Figure 4: Apprenticeships by age groupings. 67 Figure 5: Employment rate by highest level of qualification. 68 Figure 6: Routes to contact with Train to Gain programme. 71 Figure 7: Business benefits of Train to Gain. 72 Figure 8: NVQ achievements by SSA. 74 Figure 9: NVQ achievements by level. 74 Figure 10: VRQs achievements by SSA . 75 Figure 11: VRQ achievements by level. 76 Figure 12: QCF achievements by SSA. 77 Figure 13: QCF achievements by level. 78 Figure 14: QCF achievements by size. 78 Figure 15: OQ achievements by level. 79 Figure 16: Achievement of NVQs, VRQs and QCFs in the UK. 80 Figure 17: Occupations by skill level. 81 xviii Chapter 4: University. Figure 1: Income of UK HE institutions, 2010-11. 84 Figure 2:Different widening participation activities by HE providers. 91 Figure 3: Participation rates of young people. 92 Figure 4: Fee , Grant and Loan eligibility: Full support students. 93 Figure 5: Students’ loans. 94 Figure 6: Subjects of study. HESA. 2008. 100 Figure 7: BME academic staff. 102 Chapter 5 : Teaching Recruitment. Figure 1: Professional standards. 113 Figure 2: School workforce by gender. 116 Figure 3: Age of Head teachers and teachers 117 Figure 4: Ethnicity of school workforce. 118 Figure 5: Average salaries of qualified teachers. 120 Figure 6: Teacher’s pay. Different countries. 120 Chapter.6 : Academies. Figure 1: Number of academies converting by phase. 127 Figure 2: Structure of a multi-academy trust. 128 Figure 3: Structure of an umbrella trust. DfE. 129 Figure 4: Structure of a collaborative partnership. 130 Figure 5: Number of sponsored academy chains by size. 131 Figure 6: Primary converter academies. 2012-13 academic year. 132 Figure 7: Secondary converter academies.2012-13 academic year. .. 133 Figure 8: Absence in academies from 2001 to 2009. 134 Figure 9: Academies-schools. Five A*‑C grades at GCSE. 135 Figure 10:Ppercentage by academies in sponsored academy chains. .. 136 Figure 11: Funding arrangements. CED survey. 137 Figure 12: Centrally employed non-education staff. CEO survey. 138 Figure 13:Academies by category of sponsor. 139 Figure 14: Proportions of governor types. 140 Figure 15: Projected growth .Primary schools. 141 xix Figure 16 : Projected growth .Secondary schools. 142 Chapter 7: Bullying. Figure 1:Range of Young people's technology use on a daily basis. 146 Figure 2: Young people reporting bullying by type of bullying and age. 151 Figure 3: Proportion of bullying reported to University. 152 Figure 4: Forms of cyberbullying experienced by young people (%). 159 Figure 5: Expected moment in time that cyberbullying happens (%). 160 Figure 6: Type of bullying faced by gay students. 161 Figure 7: Places where bullying takes places. 162 Chapter 8: Multicultural Classroom. Figure 1: The percentage of ethnic minority pupils 170 Figure 2: Number of each ethnic group. Primary. 179 Figure 3: Number of each ethnic group. Middle. 179 Figure 4: Number of each ethnic group. Secondary. 180 Figure 5: 2008 Unaccompanied asylum seekers' countries. 183 Figure 6: Unaccompanied asylum seekers' age. 184 Figure 7: Openness cycle. 186 Chapter 9 : Budgeting. Figure 1: Real GPD growth rate.EU-27, 2000-2013. 190 Figure 2: Changes in budgets. in 2013 compared to 2012. 193 Figure 3: Spending per student. 196 Figure 4: Change in school funding levels by region. 199 Figure 5: Changes in school funding levels for 2014-15. 200 Figure 6: Education spending. 201 Figure 7: Education spending II . 202 Figure 8: Spending breakdown for 2016. 206 xx Chapter 10: Cultural Education. Figure 1: Artsmark schools in England. 221 Chapter 11: The importance of Music Figure 1: Quality roadmap.2010-2015. 233 Figure 2: Progression in music education.2011. 234 Figure 3: MFY festivals 241 Figure 4 : Decline in musical instruments 2005-07. 242 Figure 5: 2010 Instrument choice by gender 244 Figure 6: Influences of home and school. 245 Figure 7: Roles of musicians 247 xxi List of tables Chapter 1: Building Brighter Futures. Table 1: Households by size. 18 Table 2: Households and family. 19 Table 3:Families with dependent children 21 Table 4: Number and rate of looked after children at year end 2010. 26 Table 5: Looked after children’s placements at end year 2010. …….. 27 Table 6: Recorded services users by caring roles. 35 Chapter 2: The National Curriculum. Table 1 : Different parts of the School Curriculum. 44 Table 2 : National Curriculum throughout time. 47 Table 3: Attainment in reading, writing and mathematics. 54 Table 4: Changes diagram. 56 Chapter 3: Vocational Training. Table 1 : NVQ correlations. 64 Chapter 4: University. Table 1: Accepted applicants. 87 Table 2: Accepted applicants in HE. 89 Table3: Top non-EU and EU sending countries. 95 Table 4: All non-UK domicile in HE.2011. 96 Table 5: Visa statistics by country. 97 Table 6 : Accepted applicants. Ethnic group. 98 Table 7: Detailed ethnicity. Accepted applicants. 99 Table 8: UCAS. Accepted applicants.2006-2011. 104 Chapter 5 : Teaching Recruitment. Table 1: Teachers workforce. 115 xxii Table 2: September 2012 Scales. 121 Table 3: Payments for Teaching and Learning responsibilities. 122 Table 4: Teachers who applied to cross the pay threshold. 122 Chapter 7: Bullying. Table 1 : Overview of factors found to be associated with bullying. 154 Table 2: Teachers bullied at work. 165 Table 3: Sex of persons bullied. 165 Table 4: Teachers bullied consequences. 166 Table 5: Teacher's suicide rate. ………. 166 Chapter 8: Multicultural Classroom. Table 1: Percentage of pupils in schools. 178 Chapter 9 : Budgeting. Table 1: Budget deficits/surplus as percentage of GDP, 2007-2011. 191 Table 2: Gross debt ratio as percentage of GDP,2007-2011. 192 Table 3: Increases in various components of public spending. 195 Table 4: The UK total public spending in billion pounds. 203 Table 5: Spending breakdown. The UK. 204 Table 6: Spending breakdown. By countries. 205 Chapter 10: Cultural Education. Table1: Funding available for training. 213 Chapter 11: The importance of Music Table 1: ABRSM diplomas by results.. 236 Table 2 : ABRSM diplomas by results.. 237 Table 3: ABRSM practical assessment by grade 237 Table 4: ABRSM theory assessment by grade. 238 Table 5: Individual music programme sessions. 246 Table 6: Increase in worship in October 2013. 251 1 Introduction The Second World War ended with the overwhelming victory of the Allies over Germany and Japan in 1945. It left the political and social structures of the world completely destroyed. The postwar mentality was featured by a serious desire to attain an economic recovery and a political integration through international cooperation in order to prevent future conflicts. Britain was determined to take care of all its citizens. The creation of a welfare state was the first step so as to eradicate the class-ridden pre-war society. The government wanted to give a fresh start to everyone as a complimentary reward for the hardship Britons had lived through ( Pugh,213). During the 1950s, United Kingdom was still bearing the scars of World War II. People had to produce identity cards and housewives had to queue nursing their ration books. Churchill, hero of the war, gave new hope to all citizens when he was re-elected to power under the Conservatives ( Fashion-era.com). Churchill’s first action was to look at the austere diet of the country. He wanted to see just what the people really had to eat. The entire rations for one week were what were expected to be eaten at one breakfast. Unable to abolish food rationing, he abolished the personal identity card as a token of extra personal freedom and eventually all food rationing ended in Britain on 4 July 1954 ( Gabb, 5). Women were encouraged to stay at home as housewives to let men be in full employment. It was not that women had never worked before but the general attitude was that men deserved jobs more after fighting in the war and women would be child bearers to refuel the population. However, thanks to American 2 Marshall Plan, which helped Europe to restore the consumer society, the situation improved and the Affluent Society came along. Expensive items such as carpets and lavishly upholstered suites, along with labour saving electrical equipment were paid for with a hire purchase agreement. The demand for the latest labour saving device and nicer homes became higher and higher resulting in the incorporation of women in the workforce ("Welfare, Affluence and Consensus,1945-1970", 229). Freedom came fast. Television became the main source of entertainment as well as other activities. All these changes influenced the educational system which was not suitable for a devastated population whose schooling was extremely class and gender biased. Economic segregation was firmly settled assisting the wealthy and the powerful to reach elite tuitions resulting in a selective hoarding of all chances. Society had to be substantiated from the very roots. In order to perform the societal extreme make over, a profound change in the schooling layout was due; first needs were to be covered, such as being sure that every child was properly nourished. ("Welfare, Affluence and Consensus,1945-1970", 231). Besides, a tripartite system was devised so as to wipe out any kind of segregation. Teacher’s training was to be adapted, the “11 Plus” examination needed to be redesigned, Higher Education required to be more accessible and a new problem had to be faced, the massive arrival of Commonwealth subjects after the splitting of the British Empire. All decisions made during this period have to be framed in a context where welfare and well-being were the most serious pillars to be constructed and hard work was essentially as well as voluntary compelled. A true desire to give a 9 everywhere. Teacher’s performance and competence were scrutinized leading to serious teacher shortages (Nadeem, 2011: 222). Education was given a different connotation as a means for people to contribute to the economy. The creation of H.E loans tried to boost student participation. The reformed vocational education system plus the Education Maintenance Allowance offered a promising way of raising the participation of school leavers but had little impact. All changes, reforms and conversions in the educational system in this period tried to disguise the deep rooted white power beliefs of the Prime Minister, John Major. However, the economic ambiance made politicians rethink some aspects of the system so as to track Britain back in a sound national economy as well as an international competitive country (the Budges Group.com). This project will analyze the different trends in education throughout time, taking as a starting point the 21st century until the present time. Education is a reflection of not only a political way of thinking but also a mentality ruling a society which is featured by economic trends. How people adapt themselves to new economic situations is covered in the following pages of the project; how new generations have to deal with new and unexpected circumstances as the world changes dramatically and how immigration draws a new society. Many of the education changes carried out have been due to a specific political inclination. Some disasters have been caused just because of a rivalry among political parties in office without taking into account what was best for the population or even the opposite effect, when changes have been made with a good motivation but the results were disastrous. 10 Most of the primary resources, I have made use of in this Phd thesis are official documents and Parliamentary papers such as White and Green Papers, Codes of Practice Regulations, Acts, Bills and Reports .Reading through them has been a hard task, but has led to the acknowledgement of the changes in practice in the British education system. All the official documentation have continued to be passed on a regular basis in order to fit the current new societal needs as market commodity, consumer demands, market competition between schools, fuelled by league tables, school choice, specialist schools and failing schools. Regarding to secondary resources, there is a massive repertoire of literature, which has been fundamental in the development of my work.The two most relevant sources for this analysis are the on-line educational databases, newspapers articles and reviews; as an example BBC News and The Guardian and books mainly printed but increasingly available on the Internet. The existence of websites specialized in the subject has been an invaluable assistance; a clear example is the Department for Education (www.education.gov.uk.) In terms of gathering of data on one hand , qualitative research involves the collection of data that are open to interpretation. The information classified so has been gathered mostly through the interpretation of a diversity of historical reviews, which constitutes the body of my study. On the other hand, quantitative research involves the collection of information that is quantifiable and is not open to the same level of interpretation as qualitative research. The use of this data has been limited. However, this kind of data has not only been utilised as a means of clarification but also as a means 11 of backing up information. The figures and tables used throughout the investigation have assisted to have a far clearer view of the old and current trends together with defining concepts with an understanding explanation in order to dissipate any poorly explained notion. The implications of all the most relevant education documentations will be studied in the eleven chapters that build this dissertation covering children's education, the National Curriculum, vocational training courses, universities, teacher recruitment, academies, school bullying , multicultural classroom, budgeting, cultural education and the importance of music. The reading and the reflection on the most relevant documentations have been done in order to get a satisfactory advancement of my dissertation. Finally, linking and re-evaluation have been often done in the different stages of the elaboration of the chapters of my dissertation. As an outcome of such a methodology, the development of the topics for every chapter can be summarised as follows: In chapter 1, I intend to fully define the different aspects related to the education of children so as to know better what is involved in their education. It is widely agreed that not only do younger people need to have a safe environment but they also need to look after their well-being and health in order to perform well. Both the latter and the former are covered in this chapter. In chapter 2, I look at the most relevant changes in the structure of the National Curriculum for primary and secondary schools. The amendments are due to the theoretical approaches used at a particular time or just political interests of the 12 party in office. Eventually, it sets standards for each subject, targets and assessment methods. This chapter finishes with the conclusion that states the NC as a generally recognized learning and teaching guide. In chapter 3, I attempt to explain the relevance of giving a chance through Vocational Training Education to those non-academic students who are lost in the traditional learning process. Only then could this potential workforce find its place in the labour market and help in the economic success of the country. The structure of NVQs and apprenticeships are well covered. In chapter 4, I look in detail at Higher Education as a manner to contribute to the growth of national income and individual earnings. Universities are truly regarded as knowledge factories which play a crucial role in generating wealth. How this affects the economy and the social structure has been a point to study. In chapter 5, I see to some of the most significant teaching recruitment features. Teachers certainly have an important mark on people's development; thus, their training, their standards, their workforce characteristics and pay are fully developed. Education is a basic human right which never could be possible without them. In chapter 6, I thoroughly explain the birth of a new way of education. The landscape of the secondary education has undergone a transformation by the so-called Academies. Its main aim is to address the problem of failure within 13 English schools, although a significant level of risk in its expansion is looming over because of different factors completely studied in the chapter. In chapter 7, I describe the phenomenon of bullying. Some misconceptions have been clarified and a new approach has been set due to the fact that schoolchildren and teachers are part of this harassment as bullies, victims or bystanders. Ethnicity and gender are studied carefully since they are a lever to worsen the situation. In chapter 8, I interpret how immigration has built a new society in Great Britain resulting in a British-born second generation of students whose background is other than British. Multiculturalism and antiracism are the key to promote unity among different ethnic groups in the classroom. Integration is the way to achieve success in this area. In chapter 9, I aim to discern how the British school funding programmes are developed in order to make Education one of the most relevant assets for the economic recovery. Education is the only tool to make population an active workforce and its investment is the object of analysis. In chapter 10, the purpose of this chapter is to understand how the British heritage is kept, saved and handed down to a British-born population with nonBritish background. The sense of national identity among its multi-cultural subjects is the target of study. 14 In chapter 11, the aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the different musical programmes as Music is essential for the learning and emotional development of children. The cultural economy is also an important source of income for the British economy. 15 Chapter 1: Building Brighter Futures Children are the future workforce of a country. As a group they share some relevant features. There are several definitions of generation .Kupperschmidt defines a generation as an identifiable group, or cohort, which shares birth years, age, location, and significant life events at critical developmental stages (The Health Care Manager, 2000:66) Palese, Pantali, and Saiani categorize generations as those born within the same historical timeframe and culture ( The Health Care Manager, 2006: 182). Crumpacker and Crumpacker add that birth rate, along with historical events, defines each generation (Public Personnel Management, 2007: 350). These groups develop a unique pattern of behaviour based on these common experiences. Let's have a look at how the British government try to care for its most important asset: its children.. 1.1 Introduction According to The Children and Young Persons Act 1989, it is the general duty of the Secretary of State to promote the well-being of children in England (5). Since ratification of the United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child in 1991, the government has pursued the improvement of the situation of the British young through different programmes, such as the Children Act 1989 and the Human Rights Act 1998 including Every Child Matters, the Ten Year Youth Strategy and Every Parent Matters (The United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child, 4). 16 In 2007, the Department of Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) was created in order to highlight the concern of the British government surrounding children and young people’s issues. As the concept of family has changed into different groupings: married, lone parents and cohabiting couples, parents were overwhelmed with the rapid changes in the world; they demanded support in the up-bringing of their children to be able to balance work and family. Thus, a new kind of relationship in which government committed itself to working close partnership with families at every level was on the way ( DCSF Second Report of Session 2007-8,7-10). The new targets of providing children and parents with all the means to success were set out in the Children’s Plan, whose aim was to assist all families in the learning, education and wellbeing of their children. Therefore, six strategic objectives resulted as guidelines: ("The Children's Pan: Building brighter futures",5)  Secure the health and wellbeing of children and young people.  Safeguard the young and vulnerable.  Achieve world-class standards.  Close the gap for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.  Ensure young people are participating and achieving their potential.  Keep children and young people on the path to success. 17 The way to ensure that families reminded that they were the bedrock of society and the place for nurturing happy, capable and resilient children was through a better understanding of the lives they lead (6). Safe environments for children and young people to enjoy their childhoods and early adulthood were proposed. In education, individual progress had to reach world class standards and achievements improved ensuring that young people were participating up to 18 and beyond (53). All this took place through an array of policies, acts, strategies and services; some of them will be developed in the following pages.  Families.  Children’s Workforce Development.  Sure Start Children’s Centres.  Building Schools for the Future.  Parent Know-How Helpline. 1.2 Families According to Durkheim's inductive theories, the concept of traditional family comes from the idea of the German societies where families are the result of the State intervention ( Lovaglio,84). This principle is against the function perception of Merton's family, which highlights the social factors leading to the break of traditional families ( Lovaglio,88). Thus, the traditional family of a married couple with a child or children is not the only pattern to consider nowadays. People live in a variety of 18 household types over their lifetime. They may leave their parental home, form partnerships, marry, experience separation, divorce and lone-parenthood leading to the formation of new households and second families ( Morgan, 85). As a consequence, the trend towards smaller families has contributed to the number of households increasing faster than the population and hence an increased demand for housing. According to the Department for Communities and Local Government, the number of households in England will increase from 21.1 million in 2004 to 26.6 million in 2026 and over 27 million by the end of the decade ( Pretty, 9). Table 1: Households by size. Source: Beaumont, Jen. Household and Families. Social Trends 41.Naional Statistics. 3.Print. From 1961 to 2010, the average household size fell over from 3.1 to 2.4 people due to the decrease in more lone-parent families, smaller family sizes and an increase in one-person households as a result of the rise in the number of people below state pension age living alone. 25 4. Access: bringing social workers closer to those who would benefit from a service rather than in an environment that they found challenging and even hostile. 5. Trust: Trust is central to social work; it has been pushed to the front. However, the main aim of the children’s workforce is to look after children. Definitions of looked after children include a combination of children voluntarily placed away from home and those on legal orders as explained in the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales); some amendments were carried out in the definition in 2007 in Children and Families Services: Definition of a Looked After Child. All the cases are listed below as follow (1):  All children who are subject to a care order (section 31, Children Act. 1989), interim care order (section 38,C A.1989) or emergency protection order (section 44, C.A.1989) are looked after regardless of where they live since the local authority has acquired parental responsibility for that child.  Children under a (criminal law) supervision order with a residence requirement to live in local authority accommodation.  For children who have appeared in court and have been bailed to reside where the local authority directs - they are looked after if they are being provided with a local authority funded placement. They are not looked after if the decision is that they should remain living at home.  Children who are remanded to the local authority where release on bail has not been granted are looked after regardless of whether they are living at home with their parents. 26  Children under a court ordered secure remand and held in council funded accommodation (Crime and Disorder Act 1998, section 97; as amended by the Criminal Justice and Police Act 2001).  There are also a relatively small number of children who are subject to a secure accommodation order (section 25 Children Act 1989). These children are looked after if the local authority is funding the cost of the secure placement. The main difference between the legislation for England and Wales and that of Scotland is that in Scotland where a child or young person is subject to Supervision Requirements, the child remains at home; these children are still classified as looked after (Munro , 14). Taking into account, the definitions of a looked-after Child, table 4 shows 64,000 looked after children in England compared to between 15,892 in Scotland and 5,162 in Wales and 2,606 in Northern Ireland (Munro, 15). Table 4: Number and rate of looked after children at year end 2010. Source: Munro, Emily. Safeguarding children Statistics.. Sheffield: CWRC,2011 .15 .Print. 27 In terms of children and young people’s placements. table 5 shows that foster care is the most common placement type across the UK accounting for 73% in England, 50% in Scotland, 78% in Wales and 65% in N. Ireland of all placements. In connection with “placed with prospective adopters”, it accounts for 4% in England, 2% in Scotland , 4 % in Wales and 0% in Northern Ireland.(Munro, 16) Table 5: Looked after children’s placements at end year 2010. Source: : Munro, Emily. Safeguarding children Statistics. Sheffield: CWRC,2011 .16 .Print. All the data in this section are vital for the development of the different social programmes carried out by the government in order to assure an effective future. Children are the most relevant asset for a country and therefore, next sections cover the effort to accomplish new services to improve children's outcomes. 28 1.4 Sure Start Children’s Centres In the late 1990s, Norman Glass, the Treasury official brought about the new idea that bettering services for very young children could improve life outcomes and reduce public spending in the long term. The creation of Sure Start Children’s Centres was preceded by several distinct early years initiatives: At first, the policy response was Sure Start Local Programmes. In the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review, the Government announced funding of £450 million over the years 1999–2002 to set up 250 projects in areas with very high concentrations of children under four living in poverty ( Sure Start Children's Centres, 14). Service providers in the country’s 20% most deprived wards were invited to form partnerships, nominate lead agencies, and submit bids. The first 60 Sure Start Local Programmes were announced in 1999, managed by a Sure Start Unit within the then Department for Education and Employment. Expansion of the initiative was announced in 2000, and by 2003, there were 524 centres (National Evaluation of Sure Start Local Programmes, July 2011, n.p). SSLPs were strategically situated in areas of high deprivation and they represented an innovative intervention unlike almost any other aiming to enhance the life prospects of young children in disadvantaged families and communities. One distinguishing characteristic was that the programme was area based, with all children under five years of age and their families living in a prescribed area serving as the “targets” of intervention. From 2005 to 2006, fundamental changes were made in SSLPs, as they came under the control of Local Authorities. (The impact of Sure Start Local Programmes, 5) 29 Next, Early Excellence Centres were established in the late 1990s. They were an innovative development for young children and their parents and carers, bringing an integrated approach to education, day care, social support and adult learning (Children at the Centre, 5). Then, The Neighbourhood Nurseries Initiative was launched in 2001. It was aimed to tackle child poverty and reduce unemployment by providing high quality affordable childcare in deprived neighbourhoods. The original target of 45,000 new childcare places for 0-4 year olds in disadvantaged neighbourhoods in England was achieved by August 2004, with approximately 1,400 neighbourhood nurseries in place. The intention was to offer full daycare for children from birth to school age, ideally alongside early education and other forms of family support such as family learning or health services (Smith, Teresa,3). Finally, in 2004 the creation and rollout of Sure Start Children’s Centres was announced. The launch of the Children’s Centres ‘brand’ was intended to rationalise and mainstream the preceding initiatives, incorporating new approaches. All Sure Start Local Programmes, Early Excellence Centres, and most Neighbourhood Nurseries became Sure Start Children’s Centres in the first two phases of the rollout ( Sure Start Children's Centres, 16). 30 Sure Start Local Programmes. Early Excellence Centres The Neighbourhood Nurseries Initiative Sure Start Children’s Centres In contrast, partnerships between education and care, health services, voluntary sector organisations and other services supporting families are at the heart of the Children’s Centre approach and they are believed not to work well in many places. What’s more, in January 2011, 250 Sure Start children's centres in England closed, 2,000 would provide a reduced service, 3,100 could have a lower budget and staff at 1,000 centres have been issued with “at risk of redundancy” notices ( The Guardian, 28 January 2011). Centres have been managing to do more for less for a number of years, meeting increased demand with greatly reduced resources. An “undercurrent threat of closures” across the Centre network was identified in 2013 and this trend could begin to increase; as many as 112 Centres expect to close over the forthcoming year ( Sure Start Children's Centres Census 2014, 20). Nevertheless, let's a look at how secondary programmes are doing . 31 1.5 Building Schools for the Future The Department for Children, Schools and Families wanted Building Schools for the Future Programme to improve educational attainment and the life chances available to children by providing educational, recreational and social environments that support modern teaching and learning methods. It wanted the buildings to be used by local communities and to respond to developing needs. And it wanted BSF to support local reorganisation of secondary schools to reflect demographic needs and a greater diversity of provision (Building Schools for the Future, 27th Report of session 2008-09,7). The BSF was intended to renew all 3,500 English secondary schools, by rebuilding half of them, structurally remodelling 35%, refurbishing 15% and providing all of them with new information communication technology equipment, at an estimated capital cost of £52–£55 billion (Parliament, Parliamentary business). Not only were pupils to be provided with inspirational buildings that made them feel valued and worthwhile, but they were to be given access to new ways of learning fit for the 21st Century. In 2004, Tony Blair announced the biggest school building programme budget about £55bn (BBC NEWS, Education & Family,14 June 2011). Rebuilding numerous schools in an area, sometimes reshaping the educational provision in the process, was a hard task to pull off and consequently by the end of the second year of the programme, some 72 local authorities had joined the scheme, but only five had reached the position where they could start building ( BBC NEWS, Education & Family,14 June 2011). 32 In 2007 the programme was complemented by the announcement of a Primary Capital Programme, with £1.9 billion to spend on 675 building projects for primary schools in England over three years (The Guardian). On 5 July 2010 the Secretary of State for Education, Michael Gove, announced that following a review, the Building Schools for the Future programme was to be scrapped. BSF projects which had not achieved the status of 'financial close' would not proceed, meaning that 731 school revamps already signed up to the scheme would not now go ahead. He also announced that a further 123 academy schemes were to be reviewed on a case-by-case basis ( Richardson Hannah, BBC NEWS). Figure 2 School building projects stopped by constituency. Source: The Guardian. School building projects scrapped by constituency. July 2010. As a result, more than £160m of taxpayers' money were wasted on paperwork and preparation for new buildings ( Neha-Tamara, The Guardian). However, There is a programme that seems to be working satisfactorily. Let's analyse it in the following section. 33 1.6 Parent Know-How Helpline Parent Know How was designed to provide information, help and support for children and parents. It was funded in 2007 by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF).It was broken down in seven different lines; they are as follow (Hall ,3):  Advisory Centre for Education helpline (ACE) :provides free, independent and legally accurate advice on the whole range of education issues: school exclusions, special educational needs, school admission and choice, bullying, attendance issues and disputes or discrimination. It covers children in state funded education aged 5-16.  Children’s Legal Centre helpline (CLC): gives free legal advice and information on all aspects of law and policy affecting children.  Contact a Family helpline (CAF): offers advice and information on any aspect of caring for a disabled child. It covers all disabilities, including the rarest conditions.  Family Rights Group helpline (FRG): supports parents and other family members whose children are involved with, or need, social care services. This service is a source of specialist information about families’ legal rights and what they can expect of the social care system.  Gingerbread helpline (GB): aims to offer information and help that lone parents can trust and to provide follow up support and advice to those who need it.  Parentline Plus helpline (PLP) : gives immediate help via a helpline to parents from a volunteer parent support worker 24 hours a day, seven 34 days a week. They offer support on a wide range of issues, from problems coping with babies and toddlers, to teenage issues such as anti-social or risky behaviour, as well as bullying, discipline and the impact of divorce.  Young Minds helpline (YM): provides help to anyone who has concerns about a child or young person’s mental health or emotional wellbeing. Helplines were accessed to a varying degree by different caring roles. There are some fluctuations in the uptake between the service provider; a third of recorded calls to CAF were from parents of a child with a disability, reflecting their remit for working with disabled children and their families. ACE was also effective at reaching this target group, at almost one in five of recorded calls. Both of these helplines far exceeded the average at 4%. ( Hall, 16) Step-parents (both male and female) and grandparents made up only a very small proportion of the recorded callers. The exception to this was FRG, which received one in five calls from grandparents, including other relatives who are the primary carers for children who are unable to live at home ( Hall, 17). ACE reported to have offered its services for families of prisoners. This work had been developed in parallel to the programme, with a different funding stream ( Supporting Women Offenders and Their Families, 7). The following table shows the percentage of recorded service users by caring role: 41 The 1988 Education “Reform” Act was the most important Education Act since 1944. The Act, sometimes referred as The Baker Act, after secretary of state Kenneth Baker, was about individualism, entrepreneurism and competitiveness, achieved through bringing education into the marketplace by consumer choice. The major feature was the parental rights to choose schools and financial management of budgets by schools. LEAs could no longer fix admission limits and schools were to publish examination results. This was intended to ensure that popular schools would expand and unpopular schools close. Thus, the Act was to punish the teacher unions, kill off LEAs and wipe out comprehensive schools by stealth (Tomlinson, 52). The main sections in the 1988 Education Act are as follows ( Tomlinson, 55):  National Curriculum and assessment. All maintained schools to provide a broad and balanced curriculum for pupils 5-16 which includes the National Curriculum (NC) and religious; attainment targets, programmes of study and assessment. Information on the curriculum and assessment.  Open enrolment .School admission procedures changed to ensure that schools enroll pupils up to a relevant standard number. LEAs or governors could fix higher limits.  Local management of schools. Schools to be delegated their total budget through a formula worked out by each LEA and approved by the secretary of state. Governors given powers to manage the school budget and hire staff. 42  Grant-maintained schools financed directly by central government; parents' right to be held to decide whether the school should opt out of LEA control.  City technology colleges. The secretary of state to be given powers to enter agreement with sponsors of CTCs and colleges for arts and technology.  Higher and further education. Polytechnics and some large colleges of higher education removed from local authority control. A Universities Funding Council and a Polytechnic and Colleges Funding Council set up.  Abolition of ILEA. The Inner London Education Authority to be abolished by April 1990 and local control of education to pass to twelve new LEAs and the City of London.  Miscellaneous. A number of other provisions included a redefinition of free education to payment for school extras were clarified and permission given for voluntary contributions to schools. In the three years following the Act an avalanche of curriculum documentation, guidance, circulars and regulations descended on primary and secondary schools. Schools were overwhelmed by these powerful accountability measures, even when a curriculum was to be flexible, slippage toward a 43 standardized homogeneous curriculum was inevitable (Smith,H.,2014:36). Teachers were forced to put in place market-oriented strategies; high levels of stress and illness, lower teacher morale, early retirement and recruitment problems were the levers for the loss of prestige for teaching posts during the 1990s (Tomlinson, 62). From the 1990s onwards, the different educational bills have dramatically downgraded teaching; all of them have been developed from the 1988 Educational Reform. All this took place through an array of policies, acts, strategies and services; some of them will be developed in the following pages.  The Structure of the School Curriculum.  Primary Curriculum.  Secondary Curriculum.  National Curriculum Review Delayed. 44 2.2 The Structure of the School Curriculum In the 1988 Education Reform Act, it is established by law that there should be a national curriculum and provided that, as an integral element of this, there should be " arrangements for assessing pupils at or near the end of each key stage for the purpose of ascertaining what they have achieved in relation to the attainment targets for that stage" ( "Education Reform Act",1 2:2). The school curriculum is the sum of the National, Basic and Local curricula. This is illustrated in the following diagram. Figure 1: The School Curriculum. Source: The Framework for the National Curriculum. N.p: DfE, 2009. 18.Print. The National Curriculum put forth two basic aims. "The school curriculum should aim to provide opportunities pupils to learn and to achieve" ("The National Curriculum 200"4,10) plus " promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life" ("The National Curriculum 2004",11). It makes clear that these two aims reinforce each other. Development in both areas is essential to raising standards of attainment for all pupils ("The National Curriculum 2004",12). However, the implementation of the aims seems to be a hard task. Schools subjects are grouped in two categories; statutory subjects which teachers are 45 legally bound to enforce by law and non-statutory subjects which teach if they can afford the time to do so (Chatzifotiou,2002:290) . In other words, the statutory part of the curriculum is interested in promoting information-based knowledge (traditional subjects), while the non-statutory part in value-based issues (spiritual, cultural, social and moral subjects). The Basic Curriculum describes the statuary requirements for curricular provision in addition to the National Curriculum. These are compulsory requirements but schools are able to determine for themselves the specific nature of this provision. Schools are currently free to complement the National and the Basic Curricula with other curricular elements that are determined at school or community level. Local Curriculum is termed to describe this additional part of the school curriculum. The table below summarises the different parts of the school curriculum. Table 1 : Different parts of the School Curriculum. Source: The Framework for the National Curriculum. N.p: DfE, 2009. 19.Print. 46 On top of that , the ample array of terminology to refer to the school subjects is endless .There is not a very clear distinction between core subjects, non-core subjects, foundation subjects and other compulsory requirements; according to Tim Oates, expert panel chair of the 2011 National Curriculum review, core subjects should be specified for each key stage through detailed Programmes of Study and Attainment Targets and foundation subjects should be specified for each relevant key stage through significant but refined and condensed specifications (20). Nevertheless, the NC ensures that pupil's acquisition of knowledge is monitored at every step and that all pupils are receiving that knowledge; thus, it gives priority to statutory subjects (Chatzifotiou.,2002: 294); due to the fact that pupils are regarded as future workers and citizens who need to deal with the " continued globalisation of the economy and society, with new work and leisure patterns and with the rapid expansion of communication technology" ("The National Curriculum 2004",10). 2.3 Primary Curriculum The National Curriculum determines the content of what will be taught, and sets attainment targets for learning as well as it gives teachers, pupils, parents, employers and their wider community a clear and shared understanding of the skills and knowledge that young people will gain at school. ("The National Curriculum 2004", 3) However, historian Richard Aldrich claimed that the 1988 National Curriculum was little different from its 1904 Board of Education predecessor. In figure 1, the 47 1904 regulations are included plus the curriculum specified in the 1967 Plowden report as well as the National Curriculum as it stood in 2009 (Alexander,12). Table 2 : National Curriculum throughout time. Source: Alexander , R J .Towards a new Primary Curriculum. Cambridge: U of Cambridge, 2009. 13.Print The overprescription and overcrowded content of the National Curriculum is also underlined as a real setback ("Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum",37). "The National Curriculum acted as a straitjacket, not a framework" (Cowley,1998:81). Besides, teachers faced with not only the pressures of league tables but also with the competition for places as a consequence of parental choice, leaving them with insufficient time to enable children to engage adequately with subjects required by law (Cowley, 1998: 82). With such a concern, there was a widespread support from schools for a revised primary curriculum. Also, continuity and progression in learning from the age 5 to 11 was a focus for the worthwhile knowledge, skills and understanding for a broad and balanced education ("Independent Review of Primary 48 Curriculum",39); in addition, schools to be successful were to have a flexibility model rather than an overprescriptive one providing national curricula guidelines with localized interpretation and implementation( Cowley,1998:91). Six areas of learning, English communication and language, Mathematics, Science and Technology, History and Geography, Arts and Physical Development, Health and Wellbeing, as figure 2 depicts, was strongly recommended, which would provide powerful opportunities for children to use and apply their knowledge and skills across subjects. In this manner, rather than delaying the start of subjects in the curriculum, there were groupings closely related subjects into areas of learning and reducing the amount of prescribed content ( "Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum", 16). Figure 2: Framework for the primary curriculum. Final Report.2009. Source: Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum. Nottingham: DCSF Publications, 2009.46 Print. With similar concern for mood and dynamics rather than structure, others argued that the standards drive had turned children off school learning and the fun and excitement should be injected into the curriculum to ward off disengagement (Alexander, 40). In this sense, a very controversial Student- 49 centred curriculum integration appeared; students were to be involved in classroom decisions and curriculum planning (Brough,2012:345). On the other hand, within the subject-centred model, the concern with literacy and numeracy was brought up. The National Literacy Strategy, NLS was incorporated into the Primary National Strategy as a means of raising standards ( Beard , 5).What’s more, the curricular progression set out for the early primary phase builds on prior learning and experience from the Early Years Foundation Stages (EYFS). This would provide children with a smoother transition from the EYFS areas of learning and development to a primary curriculum also based on the six areas of learning. In figure 3,a curricular progression from 0 to14 is shown ( "Independent Review", 43). Figure 3: The independent review. Final Report.2009. Source: Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum. Nottingham: DCSF Publications, 2009.45 Print. In November 2011, the Secretary of State for Education, Michael Gove, announced a major review of the National Curriculum in England. He said: 50 We have sunk in international league tables and the National Curriculum is substandard. Meanwhile the pace of economic and technological change is accelerating and our children are being left behind. The previous curriculum failed to prepare us for the future. We must change course. Our review will examine the best school systems in the world and give us a world-class curriculum that will help teachers, parents and children know what children should learn at what age ("National Curriculum Review Launch", Nov 2011,Press release). The Government’s ambition was to reduce unnecessary prescription, bureaucracy and central control throughout the education system meaning taking a new approach to the curriculum. (National Curriculum Review Launch, Nov 2011,Press release). The implemented curriculum, the process of teaching as interpreted by its users plus the attained curriculum, the learning experiences by learners, broke in ( De Groot-Reuvekamp, 2014: 489). Thus, the National Curriculum is to allow teachers to decide how to teach in the most effective manner the essential knowledge all children should acquire and to design a wider school curriculum that best meets the needs of their pupils. Therefore, the current syllabus at primary school is the following: Literacy and Maths, which are currently compulsory including Science, Design and Technology (ICT),History , Geography, Art and Design, one Modern Language. Music, Physical Education, Religious Education (parents have the right to withdraw children from these lessons if they choose).In addition, schools are encouraged to teach: PSHE (personal, social and health education), Citizenship, Sex education - every primary school must have a written policy on 57 Nevertheless, many teachers fall somewhere in the middle of this continuum. They are neither strictly learner-centred nor only curriculum-centred. Teachers use what works for them based on their fundamental belief structures. The objective of the National Curriculum is to be the agenda for teaching and learning in schools. It also sets standards for each subject, outlining targets that children should be encouraged to achieve. Additionally, the National Curriculum determines the assessment methods that are used to measure children’s progress. The UK government is determined to hold up National Curriculum as learning and teaching guide. 58 59 Chapter 3: Vocational Training Economic success depends on the supply and utilisation of well-trained employees. Young people depend on the quality of training to prepare them for work and responsible adulthood. Vocational training Education was created in order to give a chance to those non-academic students who were lost in the traditional learning process; in doing so , this potential workforce could find its place in the labour market. Qualifications achieved at school are increasingly supplemented by further education and job-related training to equip people with the skills required by a modern labour market ( 21st Century Challenges.com) UK public expenditure on education and training has doubled in real terms over the last 24 year ; from £43 billion in 1987/88 to a planned spend of £87 billion in 2010/11 (Barnes, 5). Let's have an insight of the vocational training education in the UK. 3.1 Introduction Since Prince Albert established the Royal Commission in 1851 policy-makers have struggled to provide young people with a proper technical and practical education; the first system of vocational education initially developed independently of the government, with bodies such as the Royal Society of Arts and City & Guilds setting examinations for technical subjects. ( "The Wolf Report", 4) As the future prosperity of a country depends on building an advanced economy founded on high-level technical skills, no young people should be in education 60 or training programme which denies them the chance to progress. The Education Act 1944 was the first to contribute to the spiritual, moral and physical development of the community playing emphasis on preparing students for adult and working life and on providing a skilled workforce (4). Ironically, education and training have been heavily segregated along gender lines, usually in favour of boys and young men. The 1975 Sex Discrimination Act marked an end to support for the traditional and male-oriented patterns and practices within employment and education ("The Curriculum Journal",1999: 209). The Business and Technology Education Council was founded to confer further and higher education awards, particularly to further education colleges in the United Kingdom. In the following decade, in 1986, the Working Group consultancy reported the Review of Vocational Qualifications as a recommendation to introduce National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) in order to address weaknesses in the then current system. The Equal Opportunities Commission engaged in a range of curriculum development work to build equality into all teaching and learning opportunities. ("The Curriculum Journal",1999: 210). The solution proposed was that a clear, coherent and comprehensive system was to be relevant to the needs of employment and thus the national vocational qualifications should mirror as: "statement of competence clearly relevant to work and intended to facilitate entry, or progression in, employment, further learning" ( Cloonan, 55). As an outcome, the publication of the 1986 White Paper Working Together: Education and Training caused the set-up of the National Council for Vocational 61 Qualifications (NCVQ). It tried to ensure that the transition across the schoolwork interface provided accessible and appropriate routeways for each individual, irrespective of their gender ("The Curriculum Journal",1999: 212). Figure 1: Employees' job-related training: by sex and occupation, 2010. Source: Barnes, Louise. Education and Training: Social Trends 41. N S: South Wales, 2011.20 .Print Figure 1 shows that training varies by occupation. The proportions receiving training are lower for those in skilled trades, working with process plant and machines and in elementary occupations. In 2010,men were more likely than women to have had training in sales and customer services (13.8 per cent compared with 9.7 per cent) and in administrative and secretarial occupations (11.8 per cent compared with 9.1 per cent). More than one in five women (23.1 per cent) in professional and associate professional and technical occupations (21.2 per cent) had received job-related training (Barnes, 21). 62 In parallel, the Industry Training Organisations were funded. Its main objective was to evolve the occupational standards, working alongside with the Qualifications and Credit Framework. Both underlined the importance of employers’ criteria in the design of the qualifications so as to produce a more appropriately skilled workforce (Businessball.com). Besides, the workforce has to adapt itself to the different economic and social trends due to the constant change of the labour market. The Labour Force Survey table below shows how different the market needs were in 2001 and 2009 and thus the preparation of the employees. Figure 2:Occupational shift.2001-2009. Source: Office for National Statistics. < http://www.ons.gov.uk/>. In order to promote equality and a better adaptation to labour market needs ,some of the policies, acts, strategies and services will be developed in the following pages.  The Structure of NVQs.  Apprenticeships.  Train to Gain.  Achievements. 63 3.2 Structure of NVQs Nowadays, there is no formal definition of “vocational education” in England. In terms of structures of education and training systems, the National Curriculum does not apply in post-compulsory education. Students choose courses of study from the range offered by the school or further education college. However, no one can predict the precise nature of employment opportunities likely to be on offer at any one time. As a result, it is not clear the form a vocational preparation should take (Halliday,2010: 160). Vocational education has been subject to rapid and repeated change over the years and an increasingly wide range of academic and vocational qualification is available. The most important ones are as follows ( Wenchap, 10) :  GCEs or A-levels in applied subjects: are intended to offer a preparation for employment as well as a route to higher-level qualifications.  Diplomas: combining theoretical study with experience There are available at three different levels: Foundation (equivalent to three GCSEs), Higher (equivalent to seven GCSEs) and Advanced (equivalent to three and a half A-levels)  Key skills qualifications are available in the individual key skills of communication, application of number and information technology.  National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) enable students as well as employees to gain recognized qualifications for specific occupations. They recognize work-based competences. 64  Apprenticeship programmes are the schemes for young people. There are at several different levels: Young Apprenticeships (YAs) for 14 to 16-year-olds provide an opportunity to send students up to two days a week in the workplace. Entry to Employment (E2E or Pre-Apprenticeships) for young people aged 16 to 18,to prepare them for apprenticeships and employment. Apprenticeships are a work-based training option for young people and employers and are based on NVQs. Advanced Apprenticeships are largely intended for school leavers aged 16+ but are also open to more mature trainees. Most advanced modern apprentices have employed status and are paid a salary by their employer The following table provides a useful view of NVQs compared to other qualifications. Table 1 : NVQ correlations. Source: Health Impacts of Education Rewiew. IPH:2008,11.Print. 65 But the worst fear was the uncontrolled situation of too many children leaving school too early and unskilled causing a very high youth unemployment among 14-19 year olds due to the fact that employers value the right skills for the workplace rather than the knowledge acquired in the classroom (Vignoles, 1012). In order to shift the situation, there are two major policies in relation to attempts to raise participation in post-compulsory schooling. The first is the qualification reform designed to enhance the attractiveness and labour market value of vocational qualifications. The second was the introduction of an Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA). Figure 3: Study of Young People studying NVQs in England. Source: Skills for Sustainable Growth.Full Report.BIS.2010,30.Print 66 Figure 3 shows the proportion of young people studying vocational qualifications by socio-economic background. Those at 16, higher professional background students represent 6 per cent in contrast with lower supervisory students which are 13 per cent , being the latter the maximum expression at this age. At 17, higher professional background again represent the lowest percentage , 8 per cent, meanwhile lower supervisory students are the highest percentage, 18 per cent. At 18, the highest percentage is on lower supervisory students, 27 per cent, meanwhile lower professional background students are the lowest percentage, 18 per cent. What’s more, the EMA scheme was closed to new applicants on 1 January 2011. The 16-19 Bursary Fund replaced it. It is new scheme intended to help the most vulnerable 16-19 year olds in full-time education. The scheme is made up of two parts: a payment of £1,200 to the most vulnerable young people (young people in care, care leavers, in receipt of Income Support, in receipt of both Disability Living Allowance and Employment Support Allowance); and a discretionary fund directly to providers or to the local authority ("The 16-19 Bursary", 4). On top of that, Raising the Participation Age (RPA) came into effect from summer 2013. The law has changed to increase the age at which students are required to participate in education or training; if a student is in Year 10, he/she will have to continue in education or training until the end of the school year in which he/she turns 17 and If he/she is in Year 9 or below, he/she will have to continue until his/her 18th birthday (" Important information for Parents leaflet"). 73 3.5 Achievements The Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation (Ofqual), which is a non-ministerial government department that regulates qualifications, exams and tests, covers all National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ), Vocationally Related qualifications (VRQ), Qualifications and Credit Framework (QCF) qualifications, and Operational qualifications (OQ), at all levels ( GOV.UK) 3.5.1 NVQs The NVQs are work-related, competence-based qualifications which cover a broad range of occupations and are delivered in a workplace setting. NVQs are made up of units taken from the National Occupational Standards (NOS), which define the knowledge, understanding and competence required to perform a particular job. The standards for NVQs are designed and set by the appropriate sector skills council or sector body ( "Statistics Bulletin", 11). From July to September 2011, 124,250 NVQ achievements were recorded at all levels meaning a decrease of 64 per cent, which partly reflects the restructuring of some qualifications. These achievements covered 911 different qualifications ("Statistics Bulletin", 2). In terms of Subject Sector Area (SSA), Health, Public services and Care recorded the highest number of achievements, with 38,850 achievements, representing 31 per cent. The second largest area was engineering and manufacturing technologies with 35,250 achievements, representing 28 per cent. Figure 8 gives a better idea of the NVQ achievements by SSA. 74 In terms of level, the majority of NVQ achievements were at level 2, with 71,650 achievements, representing 58%. However, all SSAs have declined in achievements since the previous year. Figure 9 illustrates the achievements at all levels. Figure 8: NVQ achievements by SSA. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,16.Print. Figure 9: NVQ achievements by level. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,17.Print. 75 3.5.2 VRQs The VRQs are work-related, competence-based qualifications designed to provide learners with the skills and knowledge needed to do a job. They are related to employment but, unlike NVQs, do not necessarily require a work placement and are not purely based on the National Occupation Standards (Canterbury College.ac.uk). From July to September 2011, 561,950 VRQ achievements were recorded at all levels, a decrease of 48%, which also reflects the restructuring of some qualifications. These achievements covered 1,206 different qualifications offered by 76 different awarding organisations (Statistics Bulletin ,18). In terms of SSA, ICT recorded the highest number of achievements, with 153,350 achievements, representing 27% as oppose to Health, Public Services and Care which was the largest sector in 2010; due to the fact that many of the qualifications have moved onto QCF. Figure 10: VRQs achievements by SSA. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,23.Print. 76 In terms of level, the majority of VRQ achievements were at level 2, with 373,200 achievements, representing 66 per cent of VRQ achievements. Figure 11: VRQ achievements by level. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,25.Print. 3.5.3 QCFs The QCF is a credit-based framework which enables learners to accumulate and transfer credit towards a regulated qualification. It is designed to give learners, learning providers and employers an inclusive and flexible regulated qualifications framework containing units and qualifications that recognise the widest possible range of quality-assured learner achievements ("Qualification and Credit Framework", 4). The QCF introduces a standard currency for learner achievement across the qualifications systems through the award of credit. One credit is equivalent to ten hours of learning. There are three sizes of QCF qualification: award, 77 certificate or Diploma. Awards consist of 1–12 credits, certificates 13–36 credits, and diplomas 37 credits or more ("Statistics Bulletin" ,26). From July to September 2011, 1,393,650 QCF achievements were recorded, an increase of 67 per cent reflecting the restructuring of many qualifications, which have then been put onto the QCF. These achievements covered 4,161 different qualifications offered by 98 different awarding organisations. ("Statistics Bulletin",26). In terms of SSA, Retail and Commercial Enterprise recorded the greatest number of achievements with 231,900 achievements, representing 17% in contrast with Languages as well as History with just 2 per cent. Figure 12: QCF achievements by SSA. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,29.Print. 78 In terms of level, the most common level was level 2, with 699,150 achievements, representing 49% in contrast with level 5-8 representing just 1 per cent. Figure 13: QCF achievements by level. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,30.Print. In terms of size of qualification, the most common size was award (credit value of 1–12, corresponding to 10–120 hours of learning), with 691,600 achievements, representing 50%.The least common size was Diploma with 301,000 achievements. Figure 14: QCF achievements by size. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011.31.Print. 79 3.5.4 OQs OQs, (Operational Qualifications) develop the skills and capabilities needed for a particular occupation or job. Skills are developed to an industry standard and to a level of competence needed in a workplace. OQs are assessed in a workplace environment but are not NVQs. (Qualification & Credit Framework, 10).From July to September 2011, 3,600 OQ achievements were recorded at all levels, a decrease of 44% .These achievements covered 60 different qualifications ("Statistics Bulletin ",32). In terms of SSA, Education and Training was the highest number of achievements recorded with 2,800 achievements, representing 78%.Both Agriculture, Horticulture and Animal Care, and Arts, Media and Publishing had 400 achievements. Health, Public Services and Care, Preparation for Life and Work, and Business, Administration and Law had less than five achievements each. In terms of level, the majority achievements were at level 3, with 2,500 achievements, representing 69% in contrast with level 2 representing 11 per cent with 398 achievements. Figure 15: OQ achievements by level. Source: Statistics Bulletin.Vocational Qualifications Quartely.July to September 2011,34.Print. 80 3.6 Conclusion The number of NVQs/SVQs achieved in the UK has decreased sharply over the last three years from 1.0 million in 2009/10 to 65,000 in 2012/13, a decrease of 94%.The reduction in the number of NVQs and VRQs achieved can be directly attributed to the introduction of QCF qualifications from September 2009 as all newly regulated qualifications are now approved by OfQual as QCF qualifications ( Figure 16). Figure 16: Achievement of NVQs, VRQs and QCFs in the UK. Source: . Evans, Jessie. Vocational Qualifications. DfBIS. March 2014. Print. In terms of occupations by skill level, in 2013, there was a similar percentage of men and women working in the lowest skill category, consisting of the elementary occupations, as figure 17 shows; the main differences between men and women were in the two middle skilled groups of upper middle and lower middle. On the other hand, 37% of men were employed in the upper middle skilled roles compared with 18% of women and conversely 46% of women were employed in lower middle skilled roles compared with 24% of men. 81 Figure 17: Occupations by skill level. Source: Full Report-Women in the labour market. 2013. National Statistics.Print. The UK government is trying to make all its population able to find a job as well as to minimise the gap between men and women in the workplace. Many new and improved old educational programmes have been offered; unfortunately, the financial crisis has been a sharp setback in their development; the years to come are the only hope to see if the situation changes for better. 82 89 mobility. Table 2 shows a decrease in all accepted applications in HE except for Other sector , which has an improvement from 22.0 % to 25.8%. Table 2: Accepted applicants in HE. Source: UCAS. < http://www.ucas.com/data-resources/data-tables/>. In order to better the social mobility, all HE institutions have established their own institutional financial support for students from lower income backgrounds as well as information, advice and guidance programmes. These schemes have been shown significantly to improve participants’ likelihood. The Higher Education Progression Framework Guide published in 2008 is regarded as a valuable resource to fall back on in this kind of matters. Here some examples follow:  The University of Leeds runs a Reach for Excellence programme providing support over a two year period for local, highly able 16-year- 90 olds from disadvantaged backgrounds. This programme includes advice sessions, university visits, lectures, individual mentoring and a summer school. 85% of success has been reported.(University of Leeds)  The Universities of Manchester, Birmingham and Nottingham are running a year-long Academic Enrichment Programme for year 12 students whose parents have not been to university and who are not in professional occupations. 97% of students on this programme applied to a research-led university. ( Guide to Widening Access Schemes, 25)  The Step Easter scheme at the University of Cambridge targets state school students whose schools don’t offer support for their Sixth Term Examination Paper and who already have a conditional offer to study Maths at Cambridge. It offers a four day residential course in the Easter break during which the students receive extra tuition. 80% of success is expected. ( UC. Faculty of Mathematics) Figure 2 shows the most widespread activities take place at higher education providers, schools, colleges and in the community. Individual activities last from an evening to a week and series of activities may extend over longer periods. 91 Figure 2:different widening participation activities by HE providers. Source: Widening participation in HE in England. HC 485.Session 2001-2002:18 Jan 2002.16.Print. On the other hand, there has been an increase in mobility of the highly-skilled from the UK to another European country. Mobility is strongly desired to add new complimentary skills and better individual employability, but it is also considered as a threat of losing the best-educated graduates resulting in " brain drain" due to the labour market situation. It has been suggested that the mobile graduates might be part of a new European élite, the so called highlyskilled " Eurostars" ( Behle, 2014 :292). 92 4.4 The student finance plan The expansion of H.E. appears to have actually acted to increase educational inequalities during the last fifteen years; although disadvantaged background students were more likely to go on to higher education this never caught up with the advantaged background peers. This situation is still a major problem in the UK because more able children from less advantageous economic backgrounds are missing out ( Machin, 14). Figure 3: Participation rates of young people. Source Students at the Heart of the System. London: BIS, June 2011,56.Print. Thus, the relative chance of people from low-income backgrounds studying at the most selective third of universities has worsened. The most advantaged 20 per cent of the young population were around six times more likely to attend a selective university in the mid-1990s but seven times more likely by the mid2000s ( Harris, 17). 93 As a consequence, the subject of how to finance HE has been high on the agenda of successive UK governments since the 1960s. The UK has moved from a situation where the taxpayer footed the entire bill, to a system where HE participants contribute part of the cost. This so-called ‘cost-sharing’ has always been plagued with controversy, with fears that it would lower participation, particularly among youths from low income backgrounds ("The Impact of HE Finance",3). The first most dramatic changes in UK student finances occurred as a result of the 1998 Teaching and Higher Education Act; tuition fees were introduced for degree courses for the first time ever. Maintenance grants were reduced substantially and subsequently abolished and replaced by maintenance loans in 1999. Eight years later, in 2006, another policy change occurred as a result of the 2004 Higher Education Act. Deferred fees were introduced, considerably higher than before, for all students, regardless of background making a severe effect on low income background students ("The Impact of HE Finance",8). Figure 4 shows how fees and loans have gone up throughout the years; grants have been increased but not to the level of a complete coverage. Figure 4: Fee , Grant and Loan eligibility: Full support students. Source The Impact of HE Finance . London: BIS, September 2010, 14.Print. 94 On top of that, many students, their families and in some cases their school or college-based advisors were not aware of the level of bursaries for poorer students. Financial packages were not widely explored until students had accepted an offer or even arrived at university ( Harris, 67). Hence, additional advice and guidance to ensure that choices are well-informed and suited to the individual’s needs, interests and goals were set up. The Realising Opportunities Scheme and the Extended Project Qualifications were created in order to widely publicise the availability of higher bursaries (Harris, 59). For this reason, advocates of widening participation strongly opposed the introduction of tuition fees and the replacement of grants with loans. According to BIS, by the end of 2010-11 there were around £3.2 million income contingent student loan borrowers with outstanding loans of around £35 billion and it is expected to increase rapidly in the coming years to almost £70 billion by the start of 2017-18 as figure 5 depicts. Figure 5: Students’ loans. Source Students at the Heart of the System. London: BIS, June 2011.,23.Print. 95 4.5 Post-Study Work visa. The International students are academic, cultural and economic assets to the UK. The UK’s universities are international organisations and depend on international mobility of students and staff to deliver teaching, research and knowledge exchange of the highest quality ("Response to The student Immigration system",6). In 2010/11, according to UK Council for International Students Affairs, there were 428,225 international students at UK higher education institutions within a total student population of 2,396,051; 214,540 students were on undergraduate programmes, 171,270 students on postgraduate taught programmes and 42,415 students on postgraduate research programmes. This can be better understood in the tables below: Table3: Top non-EU and EU sending countries. Source: UK Council for International Student Affairs. < http://www.ukcisa.org.uk/>. 96 Table 4: All non-UK domicile in HE.2011. Source: UK Council for International Student Affairs. < http://www.ukcisa.org.uk/>. The contribution of these students is significant to the British local economies. For example, in the north east the total revenue of higher education was £967 million in 2007/8. International revenue amounted to nearly £123 million which, together with the estimated off-campus expenditure of international students, £111 million, represented a total of £234 million of export earnings. Universities in the region provided £13,715 full-time equivalent jobs across a range of occupations ( "Making an economic impact", 6). However, the Government is to apply overly restrictions on immigration as visa abuse is to be cracked down. The Tier 1 (Post-Study Work without the need of a sponsor) visa category aims to retain the most able international graduates who have studied in the United Kingdom. Successful applicants are free to seek employment but Tier 1 visa "leave to remain" is to be closed to all applicants on 6th April 2012 since it is used as a way to enter and stay in the UK where they then apply for dependants and ask for benefit rights. However, other Tier 1 categories can be applied, only if he/ she has an exceptional talent ( 75 points All non-UK domicile in HE Full time Part time Total Postgraduate research 35,805 6,610 42,415 Postgraduate taught 137,795 21,970 159,755 Postgraduate other 4,320 7,285 11,515 First degree 175,315 9,12 184,440 Other undergraduate 11,910 181,190 30,100 Total non-UK 365,045 63,180 428,225 97 under the points-based system) or self-employed (£50,000 - £200,000 investment required) or highly skilled ( points based on qualification, English language skills, UK experience, age, previous earnings and maintenance ("Tier 1 Policy Guidance", 8). Besides, minimum English language competence levels are to be prescribed undermining the UK’s success as a destination for English language study and the English language sector. Table 5: Visa statistics by country. Source: UK Council for International Student Affairs. < http://www.ukcisa.org.uk/>. The effects of public funding cuts mean that income from international students is critical to institutions’ financial health. Traditional institutions expect international mobile students to fit into their educational system but they find it difficult to adjust . Thus, a more internationalized curriculum is also expected to be prepared for a more effectively global culture (Kelly, 2012: 25). 98 4.6 BAME students In January 2009, Race for Opportunity, part of Business in the Community agency, published Race to the Top. This report identified that ethnic minorities was not in line with their representation in the overall UK population. To challenge this, people from minority backgrounds need to ensure they progress to higher education, with one fifth of the emerging workforce and children in primary and secondary education being BAME, Black, Asian or Minority Ethnic (3). As a public body, Universities have an extra duty to promote equality, known as the Equality Duty. Most Universities Executive Boards have established an Equality Executive Group with responsibilities for reviewing and making recommendations to the Board on the development of equality and diversity within the University ("Equality Scheme 2011-2015",9). The Equality Schemes build on the achievements and identify what further actions can be taken in order to give an equal chance to all students ( Equality Scheme 2011-2015,5). Table 6 : Accepted applicants. Ethnic group. Source: UCAS. < http://www.ucas.com/data-resources/data-tables/>. 105 4.9 Conclusion The university sector is critical to any country's future. Universities educate leaders and entrepreneurs; they create new ideas and provide opportunities for students of all backgrounds to increase standards of living for themselves and future generations. Widening university participation and attainment is one of the most relevant goals of any country; not all HE participation has equal economic value. The return to a degree varies markedly according to the degree subject studied and the type of higher education institution attended. Such differences should also be of policy concern as they are likely to have a long term impact on students’ economic prospects in the labour market. Thus, decisions made by the Government are effecting a radical change in HE. Institutions are managing a reduction in public funding and a transition to a new system of graduate contributions is on the way. On the other hand , as the UK takes in many different ethnic groups as a consequence of the aftermath of the WWII, the actual British society has to be represented in all social layers. BAME students are demanding more BAME professionals in order to have better role models. Non-stop efforts are being made so as to illustrate every social section of its citizens. Most forgotten but not less important are people with any kind of disability. Disability awareness initiatives intend to raise the profile of the disabled. The issue may be about more flexible learning, teaching, assessment and barrierfree environment rather than training academic staff to deliver a benevolent humanitarianism ( O'Connor, 1995: 101). 106 It cannot be forgotten that every single student is essential for a country. As Alan Turing once said "Sometimes it's the people no one imagines of who do the things no one can imagine" (The Imitation Game film). 107 Chapter 5 : Teaching Recruitment Teachers are the people who educate the youth of society who in turn become the leaders of the next generation of people. So, teachers certainly have a significant mark on the development of young children and even older children alike, as they are teaching them and helping them develop their knowledge so that they can go on in life and be responsible and productive members of society. Thus no education system can be better than the quality of its teachers. Practice must be at the core of teachers' preparation (Loewenberg, 2009: 497).The most successful countries are those where teaching has the highest status as a profession. Let's have a closer look. at what the British Government do to make this happen. 5.1 Introduction Teachers are our society’s most valuable asset. There is no profession more vital and no service more important than teaching. They are the means by which every child will become the adult they aspire to be ( "The Importance of Teaching White Paper 2010",7). Student learning has been proved to depend most of all on the knowledge and skills of teachers .According to the Key Data on Education in Europe 2012 report ,primary school teachers in the UK are outnumbered by pupils 19.9 to one, the highest of any country in the EU and well above the average of 14.5 and only two per cent of the top graduates opt to train as teachers compared to ten per cent in Finland and five per cent in South Korea - both of which are 108 recognised as having world-leading education systems (26). In view of increased expectations for quality teachers and demands for more teachers, if the UK is expected to have one of the best education systems in the world then it needsto have the best teachers. Thus, it is vitally important that public policies make teaching a more attractive profession in order to achieve more complex and ambitious goals. The aim is to prepare youth for the demands of the 21st century (Loewenberg, 2009: 497). Despite the compelling nature of this situation, policies and countless bills indicate that state and local employment and benefit policies often work against this priority. They restrict employment opportunities for experienced teachers and for new recruits. As a result, many good teachers leave the profession prematurely and similarly, many talented individuals are discouraged from considering teaching as a career ("Teacher Recruitment Staffing Classrooms with Quality Teachers",1-7 ) In order to build the best educational system ,some of the policies, acts, strategies and services will be developed in the following pages.  Teacher training.  Teaching standards.  Teacher workforce.  Teachers' pay. 109 5.2 Teacher training So far, the most common focus for recruitment has been on academic credentials and cognitive ability. However, there has been found little relationship between teachers' academic credentials and student achievements. Thus, a persistent disagreement over whether to prioritize recruitment or preparation has been a serious issue ( Ronfeldt, 2013: 320). To make things a bit more difficult, in October 2010, the Minister for the Cabinet Office, Francis Maude, announced a serious financial reform of all public bodies. In response, the Department for Education has implemented a huge change programme, with several of its bodies closing and others becoming part of the Department. As a result, there are now four new executive agencies responsible for key delivery functions – the Standards & Testing Agency, the Teaching Agency, the National College and the Education Funding Agency. The Standards & Testing Agency opened on 1st October 2011; the other three agencies on 1st April 2012 ("The National Archives", ALB). Under the Training and Development Agency for Schools ( TDA) and its predecessor, the Teacher Training Agency, England has developed new routes into teaching. It now has the largest range of training options as well as the commitment of recruiting more males and more racial-minority teachers ( Ronfeldt, 2013: 321). The nature of the new teacher training options are described further down (Training of Teachers Report, 13-14) :  Undergraduate-level training options include the threeor four-year Bachelor of Education degree or the threeor four-year Bachelor of 110 Arts/Bachelor of Science with Qualified Teacher Status degree—though these programmes can be completed in two years.  Postgraduate options include the one-year Postgraduate Certificate in Education(PGCE), which confers masters-level credits, and the Professional Certificate in Education (PgCE). There are extended, 18month, versions of the PgCE/PGCE targeted at potential mathematics and science teachers, as well as part-time and distance learning options.  School-centred initial teacher training involves training in at least two schools. These trainees typically complete a PgCE/PGCE through a higher education institution as part of their training.  Employment-based initial teacher training involves training as a teacher while working in a school. Trainees are employed in schools as unqualified teachers. There are a number of different employment-based options: the two-year undergraduate Registered Teacher Programme; the one-year postgraduate Graduate Teacher Programme; and the oneyear Overseas Trained Teacher Programme. The salary and training costs are covered by the TDA.  Return to Teach Programme for those who simply need to qualify to teach in England, or to refresh their training.  ‘Transition to Teaching’ scheme, for career changers interested in teaching ICT, mathematics or science. It also funds subject knowledge enhancement courses of three or six months’ duration for those interested in teaching mathematics, chemistry or physics. 111 Training Options 1 : Undergraduate Postgraduate •School-centred Employment-based Other 3-4 year Bachelor of Education. 3-4 year Bachelor of Arts/Science Qualified Teacher Status degree 1 Derived from HC275-I. Training of Teachers: Fourth Report Session 2009-10. 112 5.3 Teaching Standards The idea of standards for the teaching profession has been circulating for much of the latter part of the 1990s.Since then, the main aim has been to improve educational performance as well as the practices in the classroom. Thus, standards define what teachers should be able to do and what they should know ( Sachs, 2010: 175). Due to the difficulty in defining what standards should be, amendments to the definition have been constantly made. As a result, the concept of standards as quality assurance set in so as to elevate the status of the teaching profession in the eyes of the general public. Even sometimes, the term professional standards is used interchangeably with professional certification and licensing ( Sachs, 2010: 177). Another weak point to mention is the use of the word " knowledge"; teachers are viewed as holders of knowledge to be imparted, they are supposed to profess " secure" subject knowledge and understanding although little is said about the nature of such knowledge ( Stevens, 2010:189). Apart from teaching, personal and professional conduct is also covered by the standards; among other obligations, teachers are asked to maintain high standards of ethics and behaviour within and outside school ("Teachers' Standands",5). The new Teachers’ Standards, published in September 2012, replaced the existing standards for Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) and the Core professional standards, previously published by the Training and Development Agency for Schools ("Teachers' Standands",3). 113 The QTS standards comprise 33 separate entities, divided into three sections professional attributes (nine standards), professional knowledge and understanding , and professional skills (each containing 12 standards); additionally, the length, detail and breadth of each standard varies considerably ( Stevens, 2010. 188). The new standards are to be applied to all teachers regardless of their career stage, and define the minimum level of practice expected of teachers. They affect to all of those who begin their training for QTS on or after 1 September 2012. Where programmes have started before 1 September 2012 and are due to finish after 1 September 2012, the relevant accredited providers will need to ensure that programme design and delivery, and the assessment of trainee teachers ( "Teachers' Standands",3). Therefore, teachers and trainers are dual professionals; they are both subject and vocational specialists and experts in teaching and learning. Figure 1: Professional standards. Source: Professional Standards for Teachers and Trainers .ET Foundation.co.uk 114 In 2014, almost three-quarters of teachers reported feeling moderate or extreme pressure from administrators to improve test scores and even they have considered leaving their post because of standardized testing ( Lancasteronline.com). 5.4 Teachers workforce Despite the expansion of higher education in the UK, the teaching profession has experienced significant shortages. Recruitment in this profession, especially teaching in the state maintained sector has received considerable policy attention in recent years. Various financial incentives have been devised to try to attract graduates into teaching. In 1998, new teachers in shortage subjects (mathematics, science and modern language teachers) were given an initial lump sum payment of £4,000 under the ‘Golden Hello’ scheme introduced by the Government. The latest incentives include a package which pays off the student loans of newly qualified teachers working in shortage subjects in England and Wales as well as a housing loan scheme was devised in October 2003, under which teachers in London are eligible for an interest-free home loan of up to £50,000 (Dolton, 89). Additionally, the advertising “Use your head. Teach” campaign, costing around £12 million, was a great effort to recruit and retain teachers. However, the decrease has taken place as figures show in the number of full-time equivalent school staff in local authority maintained schools and Academy schools in England table. (TES.com) 121 However, for the first few years of a teacher’s career, the teacher can find him/herself progressing to a leadership pay scale, or even a headship pay scale. These pay scales include: advanced skills teacher pay scale, excellent teacher pay scheme , leadership group pay scale, and head teacher pay scale . The scales will depend on position, experience and location, as well as on the school. To have an overview of the mentioned scales, here is an example: Table 2: September 2012 Scales Source: 2008 Teacher's Pay Statistics. House of Common, England. Print. There can be an additional payment to a teacher for taking on sustained additional responsibilities for which the teacher is accountable. It is known as Teaching and Learning Responsibility payment: Special educational needs allowance is also provided with an incentive. 122 Table 3: Payments for Teaching and Learning responsibilities. Source: Teacher's Pay 2013-2014 Guide. Print. Besides, the introduction of a Performance Threshold in 2000 let teachers at the top of the existing salary scale be eligible to apply to cross this threshold by making an application showing their proficiency in each of five areas. If successful, they are awarded a £2,500 a year salary increase ( Wragg, 16). The Threshold assessment is open to all qualified teachers who, at the time when they apply, are employed as a teacher by a local authority or a governing body of a local authority maintained school. It operates on the basis of annual application “rounds” which determine the dates by which applications must be made and assessed and the dates on which successful teachers progress to the Upper Pay Scale. Table 4:Teachers who applied to cross the pay threshold Source: Wragg, T et al . Performance-related Pay. Exeter. U of Exteter, n.d Print. 123 Also, teachers may be eligible to join home ownership schemes for help buying a home. There are 3 types of scheme: first Buy equity loans, shared ownership and new buy ("Qualify Teaching Staff". GOV.UK). 5.6 Conclusion Education is a basic human right and a significant factor in the development of communities. It is also one of the most important investments a country can make in its people and its future, and it is critical to reducing poverty and inequality. However, the situation in the UK is a bit different. Teachers, especially new teachers, are leaving the profession for a multitude of different reasons. A career in teaching doesn’t offer promotions. aises based on merit are nonexistent and bonuses are few and far between plus keeping up with the standards, the pressure of testing, crowded schedules and classes, all of which add to the challenges facing today's teachers. On the other hand, the challenge of providing quality minority teachers continues to be the number one issue; programme plans for minority teacher recruitment have been implemented (Kearney, 4). But they seem not to have attracted enough new professionals due to the fear of potential racial from abuse fellow-teachers, parents and local communities plus the feeling that the national curriculum hampers the cultural and social significance of their communities ( Cunningham, 3). In 2014 more than 4,000 teachers a month left the profession because of the workload and the increasing expectation to take part in out-of-school hour's activities (The Guardian.com). 124 By 2050, the UK will require 53, 000 new recruits in order to have a workforce of more than 507,000 qualified teachers to support the demands of its growing population. In order to secure this long-term workforce, the number of teachers working in the UK needs to increase by more than 1,600 per year from 2008 (Randstad.co.uk) The different programmes described in this section correspond to the real need of teacher supply in the UK. The teaching profession has not been well dealt with for years; so attractive incentives have been designed to attract the attention of a possible workforce to ensure the well-doing of new generations. 125 Chapter 6 : Academies The launch of the Academies Programme in 2000 was something dramatically different in order to make significant and necessary improvements to the prevision of education in urban areas (Gunter, 2014: 301). Thus, the landscape of secondary education has undergone a transformation since then, with a rapid expansion of independent academies. The Government introduced the Academies Bill at the end of May 2010. The Academies Act 2010 came into force in time to allow the first converter academies to start in September 2010 (Bolton, 1). Academies are all-ability state schools which, unlike maintained schools, are run by private companies with charitable status and funded directly by central government via a legally binding ( West, 2013 : 138). Let's have a closer look at this new concept. 6.1 Introduction In 1979, when the Conservative Government was first elected into office, the school system in England was a national system, locally delivered. Major education reforms were implemented including the introduction of market principles into school-based education. As part of these reforms, City Technology Colleges, CTCs, were introduced focusing on science and technology education (West, 2013: 139). Initially, they were intended to address the problem of failure within English schools with low academic achievement, or schools situated in communities with few or no academic aspirations. Often these schools have been placed in "special measures" after an OFSTED inspection, a term denoting a school that 126 is "failing or likely to fail to give its pupils an acceptable standard of education" ( "Education Act 2002", 45-47). Due to the Education Reform Act 1988, CTCs were allowed to operate outside local education authorities. CTCs became "technology colleges" and were known as so in 1993 because of the White Paper which proposed the creation of such a term (West, 2013: 142). In 1997, more changes to education policy followed the election of the Labour Government. The specialist schools programme was re-launched. This type of school was initiated in 2000 and known as a city academy. They were legally created by the Learning and Skills Act 2000, which amended the section of the Education Act 1996 relating to City Technology Colleges. But the term was changed to academy by an amendment in the Education Act 2002. Academies were proving successful results and the Academies Act 2010 was passed. The White Paper The Importance of Teaching expressed the desire for the academies programme to be extended. In order to have a better understanding of the development of academies , the following pages will be dealing with:  The converter chain landscape.  The sponsored academy chain landscape.  The impact of academy chains.  The organisation and management of academy chains.  Sponsorship and governance of academy chains.  The future development of academy chains. 127 6.2 The converter chain landscape The growth in school autonomy has been a distinctive feature of the English education system over the past 25 years. Academisation is used to describe a range of structural changes( Gunter, 2014: 303) Academies – and converter academies in particular – are the most recent manifestation of this policy. According to National College for School Leadership, at the beginning of 2012 around a quarter of the 1,775 schools that had either converted to or applied for academy status had done so as part of a chain. The DfE had been notified of 122 converter chains, 68 secondary-to-secondary chains, 27 primary-to-primary chains and 27 cross-phase chains. In addition, 93 converting academies had become part of a sponsored chain by themselves becoming sponsors of academies, by joining an existing chain or by converting as part of a school improvement initiative. Figure 1 shows the number of converter academies in these different types of chain. Figure 1: Number of academies converting by phase. Source: Hill, R, et al. The growth of academy chains: implications. Nottingham: NCL, 2012.13..Print 128 There are three main types of converter academy chain: ●Multi-academy trusts has a master funding agreement with the secretary of state for education and a supplementary funding agreement for each academy within it. The trust has responsibility for the performance of all the academies within it. As Figure 2 shows, the governance of the trust operates at two levels: foundation members who constitute the charitable trust and the board responsible for the operation and performance of the trust’s academies. Alternatively, the trust can set up an advisory body for each academy with no delegated powers. Figure 2: Structure of a multi-academy trust. Source: Hill, R, et al. The growth of academy chains: implications. Nottingham: NCL, 2012. 14..Print 129 So, for example the Academy Federation of North Bedfordshire. brings together four academies: Sharnbrook Upper School (13-19); Lincroft School (9 to 13); Harrold Priory Middle School (9-13); and, Margaret Beaufort Middle School(913). The schools have been federated under one Governing Body since September 2009 but In 2011 it became part of a multi-academy trust ( TES NEWS.co.uk. North Bedfordshire Schools, letter from the Chair of Governors). ●Umbrella trusts sets up an overarching charitable trust. This trust in turn establishes individual or multi-academy trusts to run the schools coming under the umbrella of the overarching trust. Each of the individual academy trusts within the umbrella has a separate funding agreement with, and articles of association approved by, the secretary of state. As Figure 3 describes, the umbrella trust can choose how much control it exercises over the trusts within the umbrella, according to either how well a school is performing or how far it wants to determine the relationship it has with an academy. Figure 3: Structure of an umbrella trust. Source: Hill, R, et al. The growth of academy chains: implications. Nottingham: NCL, 2012.16.Print 130 An example of a faith-based academy trust working within an umbrella trust is the Becket School in Nottingham along with its partner primary schools ,Blessed Robert Widmerpool, Our Lady and St Edward’s and St Edmund Campion. The Trust works in close partnership with the Nottingham Roman Catholic Diocesan Education Service and with local community schools ( "2013 South Nottingham Catholic Academy Trust Report",6). ● Collaborative partnerships : In this model the heads or principals of converting academies agree to work together in areas where they see some mutual benefit. With this model the secretary of state enters into a separate funding agreement with each academy. There is no need for shared governance arrangements between the academies involved and in these cases the partnership is much looser than the others , as Figure 4 illustrates. Figure 4: Structure of a collaborative partnership. Source: Hill, R, et al. The growth of academy chains: implications. Nottingham: NCL, 2012. 18.Print In July 2010, 63% of Bromley schools either converted to academy status or were actively exploring conversion to academy status. They jointly procured the 233 11.2 Progression According to the 2011 National Plan for Music Education, schools and hubs have an important role to ensure equality of access to opportunities by undertaking a regular needs analysis across all children and all kind of state schools in their area (17). It is obvious that students' abilities and level of engagement will be different. Thus, hubs are to consider how to engage and foster their interests as well as stretch their boundaries so as to experience a range of musical genres and activities which they might not otherwise have explored. Figure 1: Quality roadmap.2010-2015. Source: Sprott H.Introducing the Certificate for Music Educators. England: Arts Council.,2012. N. p. Print. 234 In addition, barriers are to be broken down through innovative approaches to teaching and making music in order to reach all children. On top of that, a funding module, entitled the Youth Music Programme, was launched on November 2011 focusing on children in challenging circumstances including those who are NEET, in the youth justice system, in pupil referral units, or who are looked after (YouthMusic.org) . Further below, a progression in music education is displayed for a better understanding of the education path . Figure 2: Progression in music education.2011. Source: The Importance of Music: A National Plan for Music Education. England: DfE, 2011. 18.Print. The National Youth Music Organisations (NYMOs, which include the National Youth Orchestra, the National Youth Brass Band, and the National Youth Choir) and those that operate the Music and Dance Scheme (MDS) act as an important pinnacle of musical achievement. DfE’s MDS pays bursaries; the scheme provides means-tested fee support and grants at eight independent specialist schools, 15 Centres for Advanced 235 Training (CATs) and 6 Conservatoires for children aged 8 to 18 (11 to 19 for dance) who have outstanding potential to train for a career in dance or music. For aided boarding pupils, any pupil whose parents have a relevant income of around £12,620 (2012/13) or less is entitled to a free place. For aided day pupils, the threshold is around £15,965, below which the pupil receives a free place. Grants for pupils attending a CAT are also means-tested £3577 a year as full amount from September 2013 (DfE). 11.3 ABRSM ABRSM is the exam board of the Royal Schools of Music, delivering over 650,000 exams every year in over 90 countries It is a registered charity established by the Royal Academy of Music, the Royal College of Music, the Royal Northern College of Music and the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland. The four Royal Schools are themselves also registered charities. ABRSM is the leading authority on musical assessment ("Music Education Council 2011-12 Annual Report",4). The Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music’ was founded in 1889 in response to a proposition by Sir Alexander MacKenzie, principal of the Royal Academy of Music, to Sir George Grove, director of the Royal College of Music, that their two pre-eminent musical training institutions would be united to create an examining body ( ABRSM.org). Throughout 2011 ABRSM continued to focus on professional development for teachers worldwide through innovative courses and online learning resources and a range of short workshops and seminars. ABRSM held over 30 workshops for teachers, including a series of 10 Continuing Professional Development 236 workshops which took place in Manchester and London, focussing on topics including the Art of Accompaniment and Preparing for Performance, and a series of Introduction to Instrumental and Vocal Teaching workshops which took place across the UK ( "The Annual Review 2011",21). Throughout 2012, online learning has proved to be popular with Being an Effective Teacher course which has been taken by more than 200 teachers around the world since its launch in 2010, another popular course is CT ABRSM Plus which has run as well in Hong Kong, Singapore since 2012 ("Inspiring Musical Achievement",12-15 ). .Below, some statistics related to diplomas by results can be found: DipABRSM: Diploma of ABRSM; LRSM: Licentiate of the Royal Schools of Music; FRSM: Fellowship of the Royal Schools of Music UK & Ireland, 2012 Fail Pass Distinction Total DipABRSM 376 463 90 929 LRSM 44 60 14 118 FRSM 10 11 --- 21 Table 1: ABRSM diplomas by results. 2012. Source: ABRSM. <http://us.abrsm.org/es/press/exam-statistics/diplomas-by-result/>. 237 Table 2 : ABRSM diplomas by results. 2012. Source: ABRSM. <http://us.abrsm.org/es/press/exam-statistics/diplomas-by-result/>. UK and Ireland, practical, 2012 Grade Fail Pass Merit Distinction Total Grade 1 1,217 28,980 29,294 16,043 75,534 Grade 2 1,685 26,466 19,443 8,433 56,027 Grade 3 1,447 22,365 16,565 6,447 46,824 Grade 4 1,384 17,344 11,197 4,118 34,094 Grade 5 1,842 45,181 9,586 4,118 30,727 Grade 6 708 5,693 3,668 2,081 12,480 Grade 7 708 4,149 3,016 1,958 9,831 Grade 8 716 3,110 2,904 3,070 9,800 Table 3: ABRSM practical assessment by grade. 2012 Source: ABRSM.< http://us.abrsm.org/es/press/exam-statistics/graded-music-exams-by-result-practical/>. Rest of World, 2012 Fail Pass Distinction Total DipABRSM 963 543 66 1,572 LRSM 98 109 32 239 FRSM 20 13 --- 33 238 UK and Ireland, theory,2012 Grade Fail Pass Merit Distinction Total Grade 1 255 776 1,817 3,903 6,751 Grade 2 147 588 1,414 2,261 4,410 Grade 3 523 1,461 1,607 730 4,321 Grade 4 166 621 846 636 2,269 Grade 5 3,036 7,285 7,474 3,772 21,567 Grade 6 235 398 152 27 802 Grade 7 21 100 81 11 213 Grade 8 97 139 65 11 312 Table 4: ABRSM theory assessment by grade. 2012 Source: ABRSM.< http://us.abrsm.org/es/press/exam-statistics/graded-music-exams-by-result-theory/# />. Taking into account all the data expressed in the tables above, in terms of diplomas by results, in the UK and Ireland, for Dip ABRSM there is a 49.8% of passes in contrast to 34.5% for the rest of the world, whereas for fails there is a 40.4% for the UK and Ireland and 61.2% for the rest of the world out of 929 and 1,572 entries respectively; for LRSM, 50.8% and 45.6% for passes meanwhile there is a 37.2% and 41% for fails out of 118 and 239 entries respectively; for FRSM, there is a 52.3% and 39.3% for passes and 47.6% and 60% for fails out of 21 and 33 entries respectively. In terms of practical and theory assessments in the UK and Ireland, in grade 1, 98.3% and 96% for passes and 0.1% and 0.3% for fails out of 75,534 and 6,751 respectively; in grade 2, 96.9% and 96% for passes and 0.3% for fails in both categories out of 56,027 and 4.410 entries; in grade 3, 96.9% and 87% for 239 passes and 0.3% and 1.2% for fails out of 46,824 and 4,321 entries respectively; in grade 4, 95.9% and 81% for passes and 0.4% 0.7% for fails out of 34,094 and 2,569 entries; in grade 5, 94% and 85% for passes and 0.5% and 1.4% for fails out of 30,727 and 21,567 entries respectively; in grade 6, 94.3% and 70% for passes and 0.5% and 2.9% for fails out of 9,831 and 802 entries respectively; in grade 7, 92.7% and 90% for passes and 0.7% and 0.9% for fails out of 9,831 and 213 entries respectively and finally in grade 8, 92.6% and 68.9% for passes and 0.7% and 3.1% out of 9,800 and 312 entries respectively. 11.4 Music For Youth Deciding what music to listen to is a significant part of deciding and announcing to people not just who you want to be but who you are. Thus, music can be used as a tool of self-presentation, a device for mood regulation and a means for communication with others (Patti, 2010: 370). MFY offers young people the opportunity to perform live in music festivals across the UK, celebrating the breadth of music-making by young people both in and out of school. The MFY season is designed to inspire musicians at every level of experience, in a supportive environment ( "MFY guidelines"). It was founded in 1970, the first event staged was the National Festival on 10 and 11 July 1971 at the Lyceum on The Strand. Following this, a nationwide series of Regional Festivals were introduced and there was a large increase in entries for the second National Festival in Fairfield Halls, Croydon in 1972. The National Festival moved to London's South Bank Centre in 1981 and to Birmingham in 2005 (MFY.org.uk). 240 MFY encourages a festival atmosphere at all its events. There are, however, stages of progression within the season between the Regional Festival Series, National Festivals and Schools Prom through a carefully considered selection process. Typically, in any one year, 1,900 groups (45,000 young musicians) take part in the Regional Festival Series, with up to 300 groups then being invited to perform at the National Festivals in Birmingham and Scotland, and a final 40 groups in our annual Schools Prom concerts at London’s Royal Albert Hall (" MFY guidelines"). The gateway to the MFY Season, the Regional Festival series, as figure 3 shows, comprised 74 festivals which took place in 62 venues across the UK. These Festivals are a great opportunity for groups of all experience, background and genre to perform to new audiences, listen to other groups from their local area and get valuable feedback from the MFY Music Mentors ("Music Education Annual Report", 17). Following the 2011 Regional Festivals, the week-long National Festival took place in Birmingham from 4-9 July, celebrating the enormous diversity and enthusiasm of youth music making from across the UK. 345 groups performed on the main stages of the festival and took part in inspirational workshops and activities throughout the week. The culmination of the MFY Season is the Schools Prom concerts at the Royal Albert Hall. The concerts celebrate some of the most talented young music ensembles in the UK and aims to foster the creation of powerful new music which stretches young people's potential as performers, innovators, creative collaborators, composers and leaders. The 2011 concerts involved close to 3,000 performers, aged 721 ( MFY.org.uk). 241 Figure 3: MFY festivals. 2011. Source: MFY.< http://www.mfy.org.uk/aboutmfy/whatismfy />. With this programme it can be seen that children and young people are the government's focus in order to build a common affinity from the most important early stages in the cognitive development; in doing so, these musicians can easily relate to each other and thus a more cohesive society is the expected outcome. A rapport amongst them is what will unite them as one country with a wide cultural variety within it. 242 0,00% 5,00% 10,00% 15,00% 20,00% 25,00% 30,00% Violin Accoustic guitar Keyboard Flute Clarinet Recorder Trumpet Cello Voice 2005 2007 11.5 The Music Industries Association. The Music Industries Association (MIA) is the UK trade association that represents the musical instrument industry, representing over 350 manufacturers, distributors, retailers, publishers and educators, which collectively generates annual sales of over £600 million of instruments and associated products. It has the mission of “Creating and Encouraging Music Making" ( MIA.org). The reaction to the decline of the number of children learning traditional musical instruments, as figure 4 shows, resulted in the creation of different programmes based on analysing academic and medical research work from all around the world. Figure 4 : Decline in musical instruments 2005-07. Source: Paton, G. "Traditional musical instruments in decline". The Telegraph. News.22 Nov.2007.Print. 249 educating some 25,000 children. A further 13 cathedral foundations, who draw their choristers from local schools, hold associate membership. In total CSA members look after nearly 1700 boy and girl choristers. (Choir Schools' Association.org.uk). Some schools cater for children up to 13.Others are junior schools attached to senior schools through to 18. Many are Church of England but the Roman Catholic, Scottish and Welsh churches are all represented. Most choir schools are independent but five of the country’s finest maintained schools are CSA members. In 1991 the Conservative Government established a “modest grant scheme of £20,000 ” for choristers at CSA schools. The late Dame Angela Rumbold, then Minister of State at the Department of Education and Science (DES), was persuaded that there should be similar arrangements for choristers as they existed to help very promising young instrumentalists and dancers. The need to maintain Britain’s choral heritage was clearly understood. In recent years the MSD has also enabled talented youngsters to attend 21 regional centres for CATs ( "Reaching Out", 4). The National Youth Choirs of Great Britain launched a new musicianship programme in the spring of 2011, starting with the four junior choirs and now expanding to include all NYCGB choirs. The aim of the programme is to develop their ears and improve their sightsinging skills. Originally set up as a single choir of 100 of the best young singers in Britain, NYCGB now consists of eight choirs, around 750 young people aged 9-24.( NYCGB.org.uk) : 250  Boys’ Choir is for trebles in school years 5-10 and Cambiata Voices, for boys undergoing voice change in school years 6-10; these choirs train together.  Girls' Choirs Junior and Senior, for girls in school years 6-10, which also train together.  Training Choirs North and South, which are girls and boys mixed in school years 9-13.  The National Youth Choir, for mixed voices in school years 11 to age 22  Chamber Choir for young professionals and those studying to become professional singers up to age 25. Apart from the academic benefits of the choir programmes, it has to be mentioned that the third main reason for the increase of attendance in the church is the existence of a choir. The table below displays the attendance increase in some parishes: 251 Table 6: Increase in worship in October 2013. Source : Holmes, John and Ben Kautzer. Church Growth Research. Durham: n.p, 2013.34 .Print 11.8 Conclusion When young people make music together, they work toward a common goal that has the potential to change lives profoundly for the better. All secondary schools in England, and about three quarters of primary schools, have at least some minority ethnic pupils ( "Aiming High", 5). The great majority of teachers across the UK may expect to work with minority ethnic pupils at some point in their career. Thus, the importance of uniting all of them with a strong bond. This is the first time that a National Plan for Music Education has set out a central strategy for schools, arts and education organisations to drive excellence in music education. This National Plan is clear about the importance of music, it is to ensure not just that more children have access to the greatest of art forms, but that they do better as a result in every other subject. Sunday Attendance Weekday Attendance Total Attendance % Weekday Attendance %Weekday Adds to Sunday Attendance Birmingham 243 287 530 93 % 102% Gloucester 315 357 672 65% 113% Southwell 328 527 585 46% 78% Wakefield 602 182 784 29% 30% 1,532 1,039 2,571 252 253 Conclusion Undoubtedly, the world is changing; society is evolving. My curiosity to know how younger generations were being prepared for the near future triggered my interest. So, when I started this dissertation, my objective was to understand where Education was heading since societal trends always reflect upon Education. This thesis has tried to analyze the evolution and the implication of the most relevant educational policies throughout a period of 10 years. Policy making has been carried out based on the different and new needs of society in a specific time span. The most significant drive for White and Green Papers, Codes of Practices and Regulations and Education Acts has been the economic and human flow into the UK; this has been made following the ruling political trend. Traditionally Education has been more pre-occupied with the pressures of the present rather than the anticipation of the future. A new context is being unfolded , in which changes have to be carried out in order to meet the new needs of individuals and ever modifying societies . Technology has been transforming human life. The mechanization of agriculture transformed the labour market in the first half of the 20th century; more recently, in the computer age, the pace of technological changes is very rapid, combined with demographic, political and economic trends; it has altered work and social lives in manners that have significantly modified today's people ( Jerald,1) Among general trends, it can be highlighted, between positive ones, a knowledge explosion and a quest for better quality of life; on the other hand, between the negative ones, it can be highlighted an environmental degradation, population growth and a crisis of human values ( Singh, IX). 254 Nowadays, children and young people who are in school will be manning the work places in the near future; Education has to leave behind its old role of transmitting the past and reinvent itself with strategies to effect changes ( Singh, 4). British government is determined to create a sense of unity among children and young people, addressing the whole child, the whole person plus providing them with the right tools for a successful labour livelihood. Education is not only a human right in itself, but also an important vehicle for a wider and fuller achievement of human rights (Quennerstedt, 2013:116) One of the most clear instances of attempting to unify a population is found in the USA, where the national flag is raised everywhere to remind its citizens that they belong to the same country, due to its profound immigration history, as well as an array of educational programmes for those who need to fit in, the so called " melting pot" drift . The UK does not need to raise its flag, although the Scottish have recently, in 2014, opted to stay with the UK. Nevertheless, great effort is made to reach a point where all its citizens see themselves as British. This is only achieved through Education. Children are the foundation and the most relevant asset of a country , thus the British government is on the right path but it cannot be forgotten that it is not an easy objective to pull off and new areas of conflicts, tensions and confrontations might arise. The future of Education then may be viewed as a series of issues of choices. In this time, the process of developing educational goals is an important element of policy-making and planning. There is the universalized education reaching out to whole populations within the " knowledge-based society" (Singh, 43). This kind of education takes place in an institutional structure that has grown in 255 complexity since it has to cover individual empowerment and development without leaving aside the cultivation and the nurturing of social commitment. Many countries are responding to global changes by establishing curricular reforms in order to keep up with the new societal trends (Kyunghee, 2013: 1) All changes in the National Curriculum are not valid without the commitment of the students. Many of the problems in delivering knowledge are the waning effort of the students to get involved. No matter how attractive a teacher can make his or her subject, if the student does not want to take part in the process. Effort, sacrifice and study are concepts which are no longer politically correct since they are related to the old days but not everything from the old days should be banned just for the future's sake. Another 21st century problem is the radical changes in the world of work as a consequence of the technological development together with the forces of globalisation. There is a mismatch between the skills imparted by the education system and those demanded by the workplace. Besides, globalisation means that workers have greater mobility across borders, yet opportunities are not uniform from one country to another. The days of a lifetime job, typical in the post WWII Japan, are over; those days are being replaced by a context where flexibility and adaptability of skills are essential ( Balcar,10) Vocational education and training system enables a relatively successful transition from school to work and ensures low youth unemployment (Beicht,2014:248). Many would-be students dismiss promising careers simply because of the stigma attached to technical and vocational occupations. Germany is always taken as an example of how well Vocational Training Education works; it is a system very wellplanned and structured alongside with 256 a very important industry which has devised extremely useful work placement programmes in order to give students a real insight of the workplace, the wellknown dual system. As long as industry is not strong and powerful, which comes along with a solid economy, there is nothing to do to better the social conception and the labour usefulness of Vocational Training Education. On the other end of the schooling ladder, in the prestigious HE, according to Altbach et al ,an academic revolution has taken place marked by unprecedented transformation in scope and diversity due to a greater social mobility, new patterns of funding and increasingly diversified education systems. The Bologna Process and Lisbon Strategy in Europe are the clearest examples of international engagement, an estimate of 8 million students will be studying outside their home countries by 2020 ( 7); besides, another setback is the cost barrier to access because even when tuition is free, students have to bear indirect costs. This can be put down to the neoliberal idea that HE is regarded as a private good and thus to be paid by the "users" ( Marxistleftreview.org) Since the presence of international students in British universities is a reality, English has become the dominant language of scientific communication, making mobility of students and staff much easier. To meet the increasing social demand for HE, governments must seek alternatives sources for such an expansion ( Lee ,2008:189). Yet, the 11S terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre in New York in 2001 and the aftermath global despair made VISA applications harder to obtain. British government still has to fight against dishonest applicants whose only intention is to stay illegally in the country. Therefore, many students must compete for scarce places in universities plus 257 the fact that they have to enrol as full fee-paying internationals. On top of that, HE faces the demand of BAME students who strongly request more BAME professors and lecturers. It is true that many education systems face a real challenge in taking on teachers and retaining them once they are hired. 27 million teachers will be needed around the world by 2030(Unesco.org). Thus, many countries have transformed the organization in their schools in order to set them free from feeling overloaded with administrative work, high number of classes or large class sizes plus a wide range of incentive measures have been introduced.. The difficulty of providing properly qualified teachers in certain subjects is a fact (Barmby, 2007:248) Large numbers of professionals abandon their careers because of work-related issues. Besides, BAME teachers are not willing to take the risks since they are afraid of being the target of discrimination from administration, parents and students. In order to reverse that situation, teachers' status has to be restored in society. They educate the future of a country and their contribution seems not to be wellregarded; in countries such as Finland, teachers are extremely respected besides the fact that the profession gives them social status; another example, in Japan, teachers are the only subjects who do not need to bow in front of the Emperor; a more valued conception of teaching is specially needed so as to attract more people into the profession. Until then, the difficulty of recruitment will never cease. Another difficulty is the attainments of goals, the UK Government meant all students in England to score A* to C in the five core GCSE subjects; academies were thought to be the solution; nevertheless, in 2010 only one in six students 258 actually achieved it, in more than half of state secondary schools less than 10% accomplished it and in 270 schools there were no students success (Hampson,5). Students themselves may feel successful when they get a job and start living a life independently from their parents. However the number of unemployed young people has increased dramatically these last years (The impact of long-term Youth Unemployment, 2) Thus, the transformation of secondary education in order to improve students' academic results is on its way. Although, the complexity of the different organisations within academies as well as the funding problems plus the diversion from the main goals made the institution crumble. But, on the contrary, this failure cannot play down the government effort in trying to find out and devise new formulas to make the best of each student. When today's students graduate, they will be competing globally for their jobs. Businesses are demanding so-called "higher-order" skills such as decisionmaking, prioritizing, strategizing and collaborative problem solving ( "Teaching Higher-Order Thinking", 53); as victims of the achievement gap, students need to master these new skills in order to have an even chance. We are in a period of uncertainty and evolution where the objectives of target are clear but the way to achieve them is still on trial because teachers have to deliver new skills which have never been academically taught to them before. Nowadays, schooling venues are finding harder and harder to keep up with social trends ;In terms of behaviour, bullying has always been an issue within schools; adolescents use technological devices not only for communication but also for humiliating peers and staff. Bullying was considered as a rite of passage but there are more serious consequences behind that old conception. 265 Appendix 1: British-Spanish educational system. UNIVERSITY UNIVERSIDAD BA/BSC degree..................................... grado Master's degree........................................ máster PHD............................................... doctorado Vocational courses / apprenticeship: level 1 (without or GCSE grades D-U).............................Formación profesional básica level 2 ( 5 good GCSE grades A+-C)...............................Ciclo formativo grado medio. level 3 ( 2 A-levels)..........................................................Ciclo formativo grado superior. level 4/5 : awarded with Higher National Diploma (HND) level 6 : access to University. KEY STAGE 1 Nursery 4 years old INFANTIL (0-6) Reception 5 years old Year 1 6 years old Year 2 7 1 PRIMARIA KEY STAGE 2 Year 3 8 2 Year 4 9 3 Year 5 10 4 Year 6 11 5 KEY STAGE 3 Year 7 12 6 Year 8 13 1 ESO Year 9 14 vocational courses level1 2 ESO KEY STAGE 4 Year 10 15 3 ESO Year 11 16 4 ESO GCSE KEY STAGE 5 Year 12 17 1BACHILLERATO 2 Year 13 18 A-LEVELS SELECTIVIDAD 266 Appendix 2: the NVQ structure. source: Canterbury College. <www.cant-col.ac.uk/apply/qualifications-and-levels> 267 Appendix 3: Chronology of Acts. 1948 British Nationality Act distinguishes between citizens of independent Commonwealth countries (mainly white) and those in colonies and dependent territories. Empire Windrush brings 492 workers from Jamaica. 1958 Race riots in Nottingham and Notting Hill. West Indians attacked by white people. 1959 Conservatives elected for the third time since 1951. 1960-1 Proposed immigration restrictions lead to beat-the-ban immigration from the Indian sub-continent. Birmingham Education Department sets up the first Department for teaching English as a second language. Birmingham Immigration Control Association and South Residents Association set up and oppose immigration of “New Commonwealth” (non-white) citizens. 1962 Conservatives Immigration Control Act. Commonwealth Immigrants Advisory Council set up to advise the Home Secretary. 1962 Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) established. Association for Teachers of English to Pupils from Overseas (ATEPO) set up. 1963 HM inspectors produce · English for immigrants” and set up short courses for English as a second language. Edge Hill College, Lancashire introduces first teacher training course for teaching immigrants children. Protest by white parents in Southall. London, against a school with 60 per cent immigrant children. Education Minister Edward Boyle rejects the idea of segregated education. 268 1964 Voucher system produce restricts immigration. Labour elected. Conservative wins Smethwick, West Midlands, using the slogan “If you want a nigger neighbor, vote Labour”. Campaign Against Racial Discrimination set up (CARD) and a Commonwealth Immigrants Advisory Council recommends the school dispersal of immigrant children. 1964 Ministry of Education becomes Department for Education and Science (DES). 1965 The DES recommends in Circular 7/65 that no school have more than 30 per cent immigrant children. Several LEAs adopt dispersal by bussing. The North London West Indian Association worries about children referred to ESN (educationally subnormal) schools. The first Race Relations Act passed in October, education not mentioned. A Race Relations Board and a National Committee for Commonwealth Immigrants set up ( Chaired by Archbishop of Canterbury). 1965 Circular 10/65 requests all schools to reorganize on comprehensive principles. Home office produces a White Paper, Immigration from the Commonwealth. 1966 Labour re-elected, Smethwick regained and the new MP declares “we have buried the race issue”. Home Secretary Roy Jenkins envisages a society based on cultural diversity, mutual tolerance and equal opportunity. 1966 Local Government Act, via Section 11, in which the Home Office provided a 50 per cent rate support grant for staff in high 269 immigrant areas. DES arranges for first collection of statistics of New Commonwealth children. Leeds project to develop English teaching materials set up. Census shows “coloured population” of UK as being 924,000, mainly from India, Pakistan, Jamaica and other Caribbean countries. 1967 Enoch Powell suggests that coloured immigrants, especially from Kenya, be kept out of England. Plowden report on Children and their Primary Schools includes a chapter on immigrant children. 1968 Home Secretary James Callaghan introduces a Commonwealth Immigration Act ( passed in a week). Those who are partials with a father or grandfather born in UK have priority. Powell proposes a Ministry of Repatriation and on 20 April makes an anti-immigration speech, pro-Powell marches take place in London and other towns. Black Peoples Alliance set up at a conference in Leamington Spa. 1968 Second Race Relations Act passed. Education not mentioned. Parliamentary Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration set up. Prime Minister Wilson sets up an Urban Aid fund which includes help for New Commonwealth children. 1969 House of Commons Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration report on The Problems of Coloured Schools Leavers. North London West Indian Association lodges a complaint of racial discrimination over ESN schooling. Arthur Jensen publishes “How much can we boost IQ and scholastic ability” in the Harvard 270 Educational Review. Rose et al. publish Colour and Citizenship: a report on British Race Relations. 1970 Bernard Coard galvanizes lack parents with a speech and subsequent publication on How the West Indian Child is made ESN in the British School System. 1970 Conservatives elected. Circular 7/70 cancels the expectation that all secondary schools will become comprehensive. 1971 Immigration Act further restricts immigration. Right of abode limited to partials, others to obtain a work permit and register with the police. UK Immigrants Advisory Service in operation. Home Office sets up Race Relations Research Unit. 1971 Julia McNeal and Margaret Rogers publish The Multiracial School, with chapters written by teachers. Eysenck publishes Race, Education and Intelligence suggesting that blacks and the Irish have lower IQs than other groups. 1971 DES Survey 10, Potential and Progress in a Second Culture, and Survey 13, The Education of Immigrants, outline policy objectives. Townsend publishes a survey of LEA responses to Immigrant Pupils in England. 1972 DES discontinues the collection of statistics on immigrant pupils. (With 3.3 per cent-280,000-recorded as immigrant.) School leaving age raised to 16. 1972 David Lane, Conservative Minister for Race Relations says Britain is an overcrowded island and no more immigrants should come. 271 Expulsion of Ugandan Asians by Idi Amin. Enoch Powell predicts a national catastrophe if more immigrants arrive. 27,000 arrive from Uganda and 21,000 pass through “camps”. Leicester city council reports that “Leicester is full” and urges migrants to go elsewhere. 1973 Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration produces a report on education, making 24 recommendations. Trevor McDonald becomes ITN’s first black newsreader. ( He retired in 2005). 1973 West Bromwich by-election. National Front candidate comes third, ahead of the Liberal Party. War in the Asian subcontinent. Pakistan secedes from the Commonwealth. Bangladesh now a separate country. 1974 DES produces Educational Disadvantage and the Needs of Immigrants. Centre for Disadvantage set up in Manchester (closed 1980). Community Relations Commission (CRC) produces a pamphlet on the educational needs of minority group children with 12 recommendations. National Association for Multiracial Education set up (NAME). 1974 Second PSI report into Racial Disadvantage in Britain ( Smith 1977) introduces the concept of indirect discrimination, taken up in 1976 Race Relations Act. 1974 Labour forms a minority government after a General Election. Roy Jenkins (Home Secretary again) announces an amnesty for illegal immigrants. 272 1975 Black parents and students movement set up in north London. Home Office White Paper on Racial Discrimination and Lord Bullock’s report on A Language for Life published. 1976 Third Race Relations Act. Education is mentioned under sections 17-20, 36 and 71. Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) set up. Working party of Chief Education Officers seek alternative funding to Section 11 grants. Prime Minister Callaghan makes speech at Ruskin College attacking education as failing to prepare a workforce properly. 1977 EEC Directives on The Education of Children of Migrant Workers. 1977 Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration reports on The West Indian Community, makes eight recommendations on education and a call for an inquiry into the education of West Indian children. A DES Consultative Paper, Education in Schools , stresses that “ we are a multiracial and multicultural country”. The Inner London Education Authority produces the first LEA policy on multicultural education. Black Paper 5 (Cox and Boyson attacks comprehensive educational and “Marxist infiltration” in education. 1977 National Front marches in London and Birmingham. In the Stechford and Ladywood by-elections in Birmingham, Liberals again beaten into third place by the National Front. Strikes by Asian workers at Grunwick. Laboratories in London. OPCS census reports 1.77 million “coloured population” (3.3 per cent of total population) 273 1978 Home Office replies to the Select Committee report on the West Indian Community, paras 17-24 on education. The government accepts the need for an inquiry into black school achievement, The Warnock Committee reports on Special Education Needs-no mention of black parents and their concerns over special education. Viv Anderson becomes first black footballer to play for England. 1979 Rampton Committee set up to inquire into the education of children from ethnic minority groups. Conservatives win the General Election. Mrs Thatcher reluctantly allows the committee to continue. 1980 Education Act and a Framework for the School Curriculum (DES). 1980 Conservatives Education Act introduces first attempts at a market in schooling by allowing parents to express a preference of school. Comprehensive schooling declared to be no longer national policy. 1981 Rampton interim report on West Indian Children in our Schools (DES 1981a) makes 81 recommendations. Sir Anthony Rampton resigns and is replaced y Lord Swann. A Schools Council survey makes 58 recommendations on multi-ethnic education. 1981 British Nationality Act further excludes Commonwealth citizens from entering the UK. (96,000 settled minorities apply for British citizenship in 1982). 1981 White Paper The New Training Initiative (D. of Employment). 1981 Special Education Act. Categories of Handicap abolished to be replaced by the concept of Special Educational Needs (SEN). 274 1982 Approximately 20 LEAs have written multicultural education policies. Home office issues new guidelines for claiming Section 11 funding. Around 40 black supplementary schools known to be in operation. Falklands War against Argentina. 1982 Technical and Vocational Education Initiative (TVE I) introduced; Scarman Report on the Brixton Disorders. 1983 Conservatives re-elected. Schools Council for the Curriculum and Examinations abolished, replaced by School Curriculum and Development Committee and Schools Examination Council. 1983 White Paper Teaching Quality (DES.) 1984 Population with New Commonwealth origins recorded as 2.2 million. 1984 Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE) set up, and all courses are required to include training for a multicultural society; Education (Grant and Awards) Act and Green Paper Parental Influence at School (DES). 1985 Swann Report Education for All published, with ten pages of recommendations, stressing that all those involved in education should share in developing a democratic pluralistic society with equal opportunities. 1985 White Paper on Better Schools published (DES 1985b) stressing that pupils are to be given an understanding of the (unspecified) traditions and values of British society. 1986 Parliament ratifies the Single European Act which allows free movement of EC nationals between member states. 281 2007 Teaching 2020 a paper setting out the government's vision for schooling in the future; School leaving age the government announced its intention to raise the SLA to 18, possibly in 2013. 2007 GTC called for all national school tests for 7, 11 and 14 year olds to be scrapped. 2007 Green Paper Raising Expectations: staying in education and training post-16 argued that all young people should stay in education or training up to the age of 18. 2007 Diversity and Citizenship report pupils should have the skills to 'participate in an active and inclusive democracy, appreciating and understanding difference'. 2007 Education department split in two: Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) and Department of Innovation, Universities and Skills (DIUS). 2007 Faith in the System: faith schools agreed to 'promote social cohesion'. 2007 Further Education and Training Act 2007 new arrangements relating to further education and the Learning and Skills Council for England. 2007 The Children's Plan ambitious plan for all future government policy relating to children, families and schools. 2008 Sale of Student Loans Act 2008 allowed the government to sell off student loans. 282 2008 Special Educational Needs (Information) Act 2008 amended the 1996 Education Act in relation to the provision and publication of information about children with special educational needs. 2008 Children and Young Persons Act 2008 new arrangements for the provision of social work services. 2008 Education and Skills Act 2008 raised the education leaving age to 18; Key Stage 3 SATs effectively abolished. 2008 Education for All: final report of the Nuffield Review of 14-19 education and training. 2008 Testing and Assessment report by the House of Commons Children, Schools and Families Committee (CSFC). 2008 NUT members staged one-day strike over pay (24 April). 2008 Ofqual (Office of the Qualifications and Examinations Regulator): launched on 16 May, led by Kathleen Tattersall. 2008 National Challenge launched by Balls: targeted 638 'failing' state secondary schools. 2008 SATs fiasco: widespread IT problems; delayed and inaccurate results; QCA chief executive Ken Boston resigned. 2008 Academies: 51 opened in September. 2008 Tories' free schools policy announced by Michael Gove (shadow education secretary). 2008 IRPC Interim Report Interim Report of the Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum 2008 School Admissions Code: revised version published in December. 283 2009 Cambridge Primary Review Towards a New Primary Curriculum Past and Present and The Future 2009 Homophobic bullying in Britain's schools: report by Stonewall. 2009 CSFC Report National Curriculum report by the House of Commons Children, Schools and Families Committee. 2009 IRPC Final Report Final Report of the Independent Review of the Primary Curriculum 2009 Learning Behaviour: Lessons Learned report follow-up to the Steer committee's first report Learning Behaviour (2005). 2009 Macdonald Report Independent Review of the proposal to make Personal, Social, Health and Economic (PSHE) education statutory 2009 SATs: boycott proposed by NUT and NAHT. 2009 DIUS abolished after just two years: responsibilities transferred to new Department of Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS). 2009 Eleven plus abolished in Northern Ireland, but grammar schools (mostly Roman Catholic) vow to set their own tests. 2009 Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 2009 created a statutory framework for apprenticeships. 2009 White Paper Your child, your schools, our future wide-ranging proposals including the removal of central government prescription of teaching methods and reduction in the use of the private consultants to improve schools. 2009 A New Framework for Higher Education (Department of Business, Innovation and Skills): set out ten to fifteen year strategy. 284 2010 Cambridge Primary Review Children, their World, their Education: final report. 2010 Steer Report Behaviour and the role of Home-School Agreements advice on implementing changes to home-school agreements as specified in the Children, Schools and Families Bill. 2010 Child Poverty Act 2010 targets and provisions. 2010 Children, Schools and Families Act 2010 based on 2009 white paper but much reduced because of the impending election. 2010 Equality Act 2010 wide-ranging Act which replaced nine major Acts of Parliament and almost a hundred sets of regulations which had been introduced over several decades. 2010 SATs: a quarter of all primary schools boycotted the tests. 2010 Academies Act 2010 provided for massive and rapid expansion of academies. 2010 Budget cuts: government proposed cuts of up to £3.5bn in the schools budget. 2010 IRPC primary curriculum proposals: scrapped. 2010 School sports partnerships: Cameron called for a review of the decision to scrap the scheme. 2010 Diplomas: Labour's flagship policy scrapped. 2010 QCDA: scrapped. 2010 Extension of free school meals: pilot schemes mostly scrapped. 2010 Building Schools for the Future: scrapped. 285 2010 Browne Report Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education recommendations mostly ignored. 2010 Higher education: fewer places and vastly increased tuition fees, the latter despite Liberal Democrat pre-election promises. 2010 White paper The Importance of Teaching wide-ranging document covering teaching, leadership, behaviour, new schools, accountability etc. 2011 Education Act 2011 increased schools' powers relating to pupil behaviour and exclusions, further diminished the role of local authorities, further expansion of academies etc. 2011 Tickell Report The Early Years: Foundations for life, health and learning made recommendations relating to the EarlyYears Foundation Stage. 2011 Bew Report Independent Review of Key Stage 2 testing, assessment and accountability recommended that published test results should be more comprehensive and seen as a part of a bigger picture. 2011 DfE The Framework for the National 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Training our next generation of outstanding teachers implementation plan from the DfE. 2012 Equality Act 2010: Advice for school leaders, staff, governors and local authorities non statutory advice from the DfE. 2012 Admissions Code: Admissions Code , Admission Appeals Code 2012 Ofsted Report Moving English forward action to raise standards in English. 2012 Lingfield Report Professionalism in Further Education the interim report of the Independent Review Panel. 2012 HCEC Report Great teachers: attracting, training and retaining the best a report by the House of Commons Education Committee. 287 2012 White Paper Reform of provision for children and young people with Special Educational Needs 2012 Henley Report Cultural Education in England an independent review for the Department for Education and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. 2012 Lingfield Report Professionalism in Further Education the final report of the Independent Review Panel. 2012 Statutory Framework for the EYFS: Setting the standards for learning, development and care for children from birth to five 2013 EYFS Profile Handbook published by the Standards and Testing Agency. 2013 Revision of the National Curriculum. 2014 Children and Families Act 2014 covering adoption, family justice, special educational needs and disabilities, childcare, welfare of children. 2014 Sense and Instability examining how changing government policies have affected the skills landscape over the past three decades. 2015 Academies and free schools report ; academies and free schools had had little or no effect on improving standards. 2015 Warwick Commission Enriching Britain: Culture, Creativity and Growth: argued that creativity, culture and the arts were being systematically removed from the education system. 288 289 Works cited. 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Oct 2014. <http://www.21stcenturychallenges.org/> 315 Resumen La Segunda Guerra mundial terminó con la victoria aplastante de los aliados, sobre Alemania y Japón en 1945. Las estructuras, tanto políticas como sociales, fueron totalmente destruidas en todo el mundo. La mentalidad de postguerra estaba caracterizada por un gran deseo de recobrar la estabilidad económica y la integridad política a través de la cooperación internacional para evitar futuros conflictos bélicos. Durante los años 50, Reino Unido aún sufría las consecuencias de la Segunda Guerra mundial. Los ciudadanos tenían que identificarse con un carnet de identidad y las amas de casa tenían que hacer cola con sus cartillas de racionamiento. Churchill, considerado héroe de guerra, reencarnaba la nueva esperanza, al ser reelegido presidente del país, Primer Ministro, bajo un mandato conservador. Su objetivo era dar una nueva oportunidad a todos los británicos para aliviar la dureza y la crueldad de la guerra. Durante los años 60, el Primer Ministro conservador Harold Macmillan se encontró con una difícil crisis económica. El crecimiento del país era lento, con una ratio de la mitad del crecimiento de los países europeos líderes en aquel momento. El partido Laborista, con Harold Wilson como Primer Ministro desde 1964 a 1970, se vio obligado a devaluar la moneda nacional en 1967 para dar una solución al panorama financiero del país. El declive de la economía de Reino Unido hizo que los sindicatos salieran a la calle a luchar por los derechos de los trabajadores. Durante los años 70, como consecuencia del conflicto árabe-israelí, los países árabes redujeron la producción de petróleo y subieron el precio del crudo como venganza por la ayuda occidental que estaba recibiendo Israel. Para muchos 316 países con una economía basada en el petróleo y con ninguna otra fuente de energía alternativa, la subida de precio fue devastadora. Las áreas más afectadas fueron Japón y la Europa occidental, entre ellos Reino Unido. Durante los años 80, la vuelta a los valores victorianos reforzó la creencia de que el individuo tenía que aceptar la posición jerárquica que conllevaba su clase social, género y raza. La competitividad, el individualismo, la segregación y la exclusión era parte de la vida cotidiana. Durante los años 90, John Mayor, Primer Ministro desde 1990 a 1997, heredó de Margaret Thatcher un sistema educativo decadente por la falta de inversión y por la falta de oportunidades debido al gran desequilibrio social existente en aquellos años. Muchos de los cambios en el sistema educativo se llevaron a cabo siguiendo una doctrina política determinada. Decisiones imprudentes y disparatadas fueron el resultado de la rivalidad entre partidos políticos sin tener en cuenta lo mejor para la población; aunque otras decisiones se tomaron con afán de mejorar tuvieron resultados pésimos. La mayoría de las fuentes primarias que he utilizado para la realización de esta tesis han sido documentos oficiales tales como proyectos de ley, leyes, códigos de prácticas, legislaciones e informes. Distinta y variada documentación se ha elaborado constantemente para saciar las necesidades sociales, cumplir con la demanda del mercado, establecer la competitividad entre colegios y otros muchos objetivos. En relación con las fuentes secundarías, existe una gran variedad de literatura; ésta ha sido fundamental para la elaboración de mi trabajo. Las fuentes más relevantes para el análisis de mi tesis han sido las bases de datos online, 317 periódicos y reseñas; como por ejemplo BBC News y The Guardian además de libros tantos impresos como libros en versión digitalizada, cada vez más comunes en la red. La existencia de páginas webs especializadas en educación ha sido una ayuda inestimable; un claro ejemplo es la página web del Departamento de Educación británico (www.education.gov.uk). En cuanto a la recopilación de datos, por un lado, la información cualitativa implica la obtención de datos abiertos a la interpretación. Dicha información se ha recopilado a través de la interpretación de reseñas históricas, lo que ha constituido la esencia de mi estudio. Por otro lado, la información cuantitativa implica la información que es cuantificable, es decir, la que no está abierta a interpretación. El uso de dicha clase de información ha sido limitada. Pero, en cualquier caso, ha sido utilizada para aclarar o reforzar información. Tanto las ilustraciones como las tablas usadas a lo largo de toda la investigación han ayudado a entender mejor posturas antiguas y actuales; también a definir conceptos con explicaciones más claras dando lugar a la disipación de cualquier duda en la explicación de algún concepto. Las implicaciones de los documentos de educación más relevantes han sido analizadas en los once capítulos que componen esta tesis cubriendo la educación infantil y primaria, el Currículum Nacional, formación profesional, estudios universitarios, la contratación del profesorado y empleados públicos, la aparición de las academias, el acoso escolar, la multiculturalidad en las aulas, los presupuestos, la transmisión de las tradiciones y la importancia de la música. La lectura y reflexión de la documentación oficial se ha llevado a 318 cabo para poder avanzar adecuadamente en la elaboración de cada uno de los capítulos. Como resultado de la mencionada metodología, el desarrollo de los temas de cada capítulo se resume de la siguiente manera: En el capítulo 1, se definen los diferentes aspectos relacionados con la educación infantil y primaria para poder conocer mejor lo que implica la educación en tan tempranas etapas. Está consagradamente probado que la población más joven necesita un entorno seguro donde cuidar su salud mental y física para conseguir un rendimiento académico óptimo. Los niños son el futuro de un país. Como grupo comparten características similares; aunque hay diversas definiciones con respecto a lo que es una generación. Kupperschmidt define generación como un grupo identificable, o cohorte, que comparte edad, ubicación y eventos significativos en las etapas más críticas del desarrollo (The Health Care Manager, 200:66). Palese, Pantali y Saiani sostienen que una generación es aquellos nacidos en una misma franja histórica (The Health Care Manager, 200:182). M. Crumpacker y J.D Crumpacker añaden que la ratio de nacimientos junto con los eventos históricos definen cada generación (Public Personnel Management, 2007: 350). Estos grupos desarrollan una pauta única de comportamiento basado en las experiencias comunes. Tajfel define identidad social como “una parte esencial del individuo que se deriva de su aceptación como miembro en un grupo social (o grupos) junto a la carga emocional que conlleva dicha pertenencia” (Nezlek, 2007:244; mi traducción). Por lo que, todos los programas desarrollados en los últimos 10 319 años, tienen como objetivo el comprender las características y necesidades de las nacidos en Reino Unido. Uno de los ejemplos más claros del intento de unificar una población se sitúa en EE.UU, donde la bandera nacional se alza a cada pocos metros para recordar a sus ciudadanos que todos ellos pertenecen al mismo país. Esto es debido a su profunda historia de inmigración, junto con el amplio abanico de programas educativos para aquellos que necesitan integrarse, el denominado “melting pot”. Reino Unido no necesita alzar su bandera; aunque los escoceses recientemente, en 2014, han votado por seguir perteneciendo a Reino Unido. De todas formas, un gran esfuerzo se está llevando a cabo para lograr que todos los ciudadanos se consideren británicos. La población estudiantil en general pasa junta muchas horas en el colegio y es allí donde todos los esfuerzos deben dirigirse para ofrecer una identidad sólida y una orientación laboral coherente. En el capítulo 2, se analizan los cambios más importantes en la estructura del Curriculum Nacional para primaria y secundaria. Las modificaciones son debidas a planteamientos teóricos o a intereses políticos del partido en el gobierno. Han habido diferentes enfoques en el proceso de aprendizaje a lo largo del tiempo; tres de las muchas teorías sobre el aprendizaje se pueden considerar como los tres pilares de la creación y de las modificaciones posteriores del Curriculum Nacional. El cognitivismo se enfoca en la actividad mental; los procesos mentales como pensar, recordar y la capacidad de resolver problemas son objeto de exploración y estudio; el humanismo cree que es necesario estudiar a la 320 persona como un todo, ya que defiende la importancia de los cambios que el individuo sufre en distintas etapas durante el proceso de madurez a lo largo de la vida; y por último, el tercer pilar es el pensamiento de las habilidades del siglo XXI ; las competencias tradicionales, la competencia digital, la retención de conocimiento, la competencia mediática, y las habilidades de aprendizaje son esenciales para obtener éxito en la vida académica y laboral en una era tan digitalizada como la actual (Learning-Theories.com). La flexibilidad y la adaptación son esenciales. Los días de un trabajo para toda la vida, típicos del Japón de postguerra, ya no existen; han sido reemplazados por trabajos donde la adecuación y la transformación de las habilidades son primordiales para el éxito ( Balcar , 10). El objetivo del Curriculum Nacional es ser el parámetro de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje en las escuelas. También establece niveles mínimos para cada asignatura y los objetivos que debe alcanzar el alumnado. Además, fija los criterios de evaluación para valorar el progreso del alumno. El Curriculum Nacional es considerado por el gobierno británico como la guía esencial de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje en todo el país. En el capítulo 3, se explica la relevancia de dar una segunda oportunidad a ese alumnado que no se siente cómodo con el sistema académico tradicional. La existencia de la formación profesional es una salida para los que no encuentran su lugar en el sistema educativo. La participación en dichos cursos facilita que el alumnado pueda adquirir los requisitos necesarios para tener una vida laboral activa y participar en la economía del país. La formación profesional se creó para que ese sector de la población pudiera desenvolverse de forma autónoma en el mercado laboral. 321 Muchos estudiantes rechazan una prometedora carrera en la formación profesional por el estigma relacionado con dichos estudios. Alemania se ha considerado siempre un claro ejemplo del buen funcionamiento de la formación profesional; tienen un sistema extraordinariamente bien organizado y estructurado junto con una sólida industria que ha diseñado programas de prácticas en los cuales el alumnado consigue saber perfectamente lo que le espera en una situación real, es lo que se conoce como “sistema dual”. De todas formas, las titulaciones ofertadas en Reino Unido están cada vez más complementadas con programas de reciclaje y prácticas en empresas para ofrecer a los alumnos un contacto real con el mercado laboral deseado ( 21st Century Challenges.com). El presupuesto en formación en Reino Unido se ha duplicado a lo largo de los últimos 24 años, de £43 billones (alrededor de €54 billones) en 1987/88 a £87 billones (alrededor de €110 billones) en 2010/11 (Barnes, 5). El gobierno británico intenta por todos los medios que toda su población encuentre un trabajo además de minimizar la discriminación laboral entre hombres y mujeres. Nuevos programas y programas actualizados se están ofertando aunque desgraciadamente la crisis económica ha sido un golpe duro para la inversión; en los años venideros, sólo se espera que la crisis desaparezca y se vuelva a invertir. En el capítulo 4, se examina la educación universitaria como una forma de contribuir a la riqueza nacional y al bienestar económico del individuo. Las universidades, consideradas fábricas del conocimiento, tienen un papel crucial en la producción de riqueza. 322 Según Altbach et al, una revolución académica está tomando forma con una transformación sin precedente en el alcance y en la diversidad como causa de la gran movilidad social, nuevas formas de pago, y a la cada vez mayor variedad de programas en el sistema educativo. Los tratados de Boloña y de Lisboa son el ejemplo más claro de un compromiso europeo internacional; se estima que 8 millones de estudiantes cursarán estudios universitarios fuera de su país de origen para el 2010 (7). El ataque terrorista del 11S en las torres gemelas, the World Trade Centre, de Nueva York, en 2001 junto al terror global que provocó dio como resultado que la aprobación de las solicitudes de VISA fuera mucho más difícil de conseguir; además del gran obstáculo que supone el precio de las matrículas universitarias y los gastos indirectos que los estudiantes deben afrontar. Esto se debe a la idea neoliberal de que la educación superior es un bien privado y como tal debe ser pagado por sus usuarios (Marxistleftreview.org). Otro reto para el gobierno británico es la gran demanda por parte de los estudiantes de minorías étnicas de tener profesores pertenecientes a dichas minorías étnicas para tener un modelo a seguir más próximo. Los estudiantes con discapacidad son cada vez más visibles y sus necesidades cada vez más cubiertas. En el capítulo 5, se ven las características más significativas de la contratación del profesorado, su formación, los requisitos mínimos y su sueldo. El profesorado es un elemento clave en la vida de los estudiantes por lo que el derecho básico a la educación no sería posible sin ellos; los futuros líderes del mañana pasarán por sus aulas siendo la transmisión del conocimiento el medio para llegar al éxito ya que los profesores amplían la capacidad de decisión para 329 parte esencial de la comunidad aceptando la perspectiva del grupo como la propia (Abrams and Hogg, 147). A los nacidos en Reino Unido hay que sumarles aquéllos que provienen de una inmigración por razones económicas, por asilo político o por hambruna en sus países de origen aumentando los efectos del concepto de la diáspora (Brah, 178); mantener la cultura de origen en los países anfitriones produce que la identidad nacional se desquebraje poco a poco. La oleada actual de conflictos en Oriente Medio, especialmente en Siria con el grupo extremista islámico ISIS, la presión demográfica , las incesantes guerras étnicas en África, el tráfico humano y la inmigración económica de los Balcanes hace que Europa viva una crisis humanitaria sin precedentes. La masiva llegada de personas, huyendo de sus países, tiene que ser acomodada e integrada en la sociedad del país anfitrión. Exponerlos al patrimonio cultural y a las tradiciones del país es fundamental para asegurar una integración completa, aunque muchas veces el integrarse no siempre es fácil. La sociopsicología intenta entender la naturaleza y las razones del comportamiento humano que más tarde se materializará en una conducta social (Baaron,5); así pues fomentar el respeto a través de festivales, visitas y programas culturales es un procedimiento sutil para construir una imagen de lo que se entiende por “ británico” tanto para nacionales como para no nacionales; dando como resultado una sociedad más cohesiva donde cada miembro de la sociedad se siente vinculado a su prójimo. El gobierno tiene un gran interés por mantener a sus súbditos unidos bajo un mismo sentimiento de nación. La educación, en todos sus niveles, es primordial para llevar a cabo dicha empresa; a las nuevas generaciones se les provee de 330 todo lo necesario para sentirse pertenecientes a un mismo país sin tener en cuenta sus antecedentes; es una cuestión de tiempo el saber si tanto esfuerzo gubernamental ha dado sus frutos en una sociedad más compacta y sólida. En el capítulo 11, el objetivo es dar una visión general de los distintos programas de música. La música es esencial para el aprendizaje y el desarrollo del ser humano y también constituye una importante fuente de ingresos para el gobierno británico puesto que engloba tanto a los artistas como a la audiencia. El término inglés “ enculturation” o inmersión en la música y en las prácticas musicales del entorno del sujeto es un factor fundamental para el aprendizaje y el desarrollo de la inteligencia emocional y las destrezas sociales ( Green, 5 ) Para el desarrollo de una persona como ser humano se necesita algo más que datos académicos, las artes en general son el alimento del alma y nutrir este aspecto es vital para construir una sólida personalidad. La música se usa como una herramienta terapéutica para incrementar el conocimiento del individuo sobre sí mismo y sobre los demás; también a la música se la valora como un dominio donde las identidades se desafían, se desglosan, se reafirman y se reconstruyen (Worldpopmusic.com). Así pues, es transcendental para el individuo y para el grupo estar expuestos a los beneficios de la música. Cuando un grupo de personas se reúnen para crear música, trabajan por un objetivo común desencadenando un vínculo intangible que produce cambios en las personas involucradas; dicho vínculo es el medio para reconocer y tolerar diferencias. (“Aiming High”, 5). Es inevitable que minorías étnicas tanto en el profesorado como en el alumnado se encuentren en algún momento de sus trayectorias académicas; 331 ante lo cual es la primera vez que se establece oficialmente un plan nacional para la educación musical para todos los centros educativos de Reino Unido. Se fortalece el alma al mismo tiempo que se refuerza los buenos resultados académicos. Como conclusión, se puede observar que la educación está tomando un camino incierto por la necesidad de adaptarse a un nuevo sistema, el cual se debe amoldar a las exigencias sociales; la globalización, la economía, la tecnología, la inmigración y las minorías étnicas son los factores principales alrededor de los cuales se realiza la reorganización educativa. El profesorado actual está preparando a un alumnado para un futuro sin fronteras; no solamente facilitándoles las destrezas necesarias sino también confiriéndoles el conocimiento necesario para construir una identidad común que les haga sentirse más próximos los unos a los otros en una sociedad multicultural. Esta tesis muestra los distintos enfoques que Reino Unido ha tomado para dicha finalidad. Desde una perspectiva postcolonial, el declive del imperio británico y la creación de la Commonwealth despertaron falsas esperanzas en los antiguos colonizados. Los súbditos del Imperio se trasladaron a la madre patria con la creencia de tener una oportunidad de mejorar sus vidas. La tierra de las oportunidades se tornó en otro infierno ya que los británicos no estaban preparados para aceptar otras culturas ocasionando una integración parcial mas no completa de los recién llegados; los sueños de aquéllos que pisaban Reino Unido por primera vez se fracturaron al tener que vivir una adversidad inesperada, la discriminación, como consecuencia de la supremacía blanca. 332 La interacción de las minorías étnicas como grupo y la socialización de sus miembros es vital para erradicar los conflictos sociales. Desde entonces, la situación ha mejorado pero no se ha llegado a ninguna solución permanente. Desde una perspectiva antropológica, es obvio que el comportamiento de los británicos ha cambiado a lo largo del tiempo acomodándose a las tendencias sociales del momento. La adaptación y la aceptación de los cambios sociales requieren su tiempo aun cuando estos se cumplen a base de legislación oficial, la cual forma un cuerpo legal para guiarles hacia una evolución sin prejuicios. En este sentido, la integración laboral es esencial. La supervivencia se fundamenta en trabajo, comida y cobijo. El acceso a condiciones humanas dignas se realiza a través del trabajo que a su vez se obtiene gracias a una sólida formación académica. Las familias, los centros educativos y los gobiernos tienen que esforzarse conjuntamente para proporcionar las oportunidades necesarias. A la sociedad se la considera como un cuerpo humano, todos los aspectos sociales funcionan como órganos vitales, tienen su función propia que es primordial para su funcionamiento global (Livesay, 2). Para mí, esta tesis ha sido un viaje hacia una nueva forma de entender hacia dónde va la educación. No sabía lo que me iba a encontrar. Solamente he estado aceptando lo que me he estado encontrando en el camino. La evolución del sistema hacia una incondicional flexibilidad es indispensable para que los cambios se produzcan sin traumas y acordes a las tendencias sociales, políticas y económicas del momento. El futuro es incierto a lo que una actitud positiva y comprensiva para lo que aún no ha llegado es la única manera de mejorar. 333 Sinceramente creo que mi tesis es una plataforma para futuras investigaciones. Las sociedades no dejan de cambiar y nuevas modificaciones serán requeridas tan pronto como nuevos modelos emerjan. Por lo cual sería muy interesante analizar los programas educativos expuestos en esta investigación en un lapsus de tiempo de diez años; de esta manera se podría ver la eficacia de los mismos en la preparación de una sociedad hacia una nueva era.