The Socio-educational, Psychological and Family-Related Antecedents of Entrepreneurial Intentions among Spanish Youth

sus ainabili y A icle The Socio-educa ional, Psychological and Family-Rela ed An eceden s o En ep eneu ial In en ions among Spanish You h M. Camino Escola -Llamaza es 1,* , Isabel Luis-Rico 2, Tama a de la To e-C uz 2, Ál a o He e o 3, Al edo Jiménez 4, Ca men Palme o-Cáma a 2and Al edo Jiménez-Eguizábal 2 1Depa amen o de Ciencias de la Salud, Uni e sidad de Bu gos, 09001 Bu gos, Spain 2Depa amen o de Ciencias de la Educación, Uni e sidad de Bu gos, 09001 Bu gos, Spain; [email p o ec ed] (I.L.-R.); [email p o ec ed] (T.d.l.T.-C.); [email p o ec ed] (C.P.-C.); [email p o ec ed] (A.J.-E.) 3G upo de In eligencia Compu acional Aplicada (GICAP), Depa amen o de Ingenie ía Ci il, Escuela Poli écnica Supe io , Uni e sidad de Bu gos, 09006 Bu gos, Spain; [email p o ec ed] 4 Depa men o Managemen , KEDGE Business School, 33400 Talence, F ance; [email p o ec ed] *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]; Tel.: +34-619285868 Recei ed: 3 Janua y 2019; Accep ed: 20 Feb ua y 2019; Published: 27 Feb ua y 2019   Abs ac : Despi e he abundan scien i ic li e a u e on en ep eneu ship, he e is s ill only limi ed in o ma ion on young s uden s’ en ep eneu ial in en ions. The easons o his, may be gene ally ound in he di e en concep ual app oaches o en ep eneu ial in en ion, and pa icula ly in he a iables ha egula e and ac as an eceden s o such in en ions. This bias has gene a ed di e en lines o in es iga ion in o he ac o s ela ing o en ep eneu ial in en ion among s uden s. One line o in es iga ion is cen e ed on he a iables ha in luence en ep eneu ial in en ion, in pa icula , ela ional, educa ional, and psychological a iables, and ano he is cen e ed on he an eceden s o en ep eneu ial in en ion, amongs which is en ep eneu ial in e es . In his pape , we seek o analyze he ela ionship be ween he en ep eneu ial in e es o Spanish you h and a se o socio-educa ional, psychological, and heal h- ela ed a iables using p incipal componen analysis. A p e iously alida ed ad hoc ques ionnai e was adminis e ed o 1764 s uden s (15–18 yea s old). No ably, ew Spanish you h exp essed signi ican ly high en ep eneu ial in e es ; hose who did we e mos ly men wi h a amily adi ion o en ep eneu ial pa en s, who held high pe cep ions o hei heal h and quali y o li e, and conside ed i impo an in business o de ec oppo uni ies be o ehand and o c ea e employmen . Thei p incipal mo i es we e o imp o e hei p o essional de elopmen , o pu hei ideas in o p ac ice, and o achie e economic independence. This pape p oposes he ea ly de ec ion o en ep eneu ial in e es s in young people in o de o ein o ce hese in e es s as po en ial long- e m ini ia i es. Keywo ds: you h; seconda y educa ion; en ep eneu ial in en ion; en ep eneu ial in e es ; psychological a iables 1. In oduc ion En ep eneu ship is an ac i i y o g ea in e es , especially due o he need o o e come he cons an and bu geoning economic p oblems cu en ly expe ienced by many coun ies in e ms o unemploymen , economic g ow h, and inno a ion [1–5]. In he las decades, esea ch in e es in en ep eneu ship has gained momen um in bo h he impe us gi en o i as an in e disciplina y esea ch p og am [ 6 – 8 ], and in inc eased esea ch p oduc ion [ 1 , 9 , 10 ] on he opic. Howe e , despi e scien i ic p og ess, he beha io and e iciency o Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252; doi:10.3390/su11051252 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 2 o 21 he an eceden s o en ep eneu ial ini ia i es and beha io s a e unknown, making i di icul o explain a la ge pa o he a ia ions in his ac i i y [11–13]. Addi ionally, in Spain and he Eu opean Union, young people a e among hose mos a ec ed by he c isis and imbalance o he economic sys em, and hey a e equen ly unawa e o he oppo uni ies o e ed by en ep eneu ship as an inc easingly accessible al e na i e [ 14 ]. In his sense, se e al in es iga ions ha e ocused on you h en ep eneu ship. Fo example, Ku owska-Pysz [ 15 ] s udied he e ec i eness o Academic Incuba o s o En ep eneu ship (AIE) in Poland wi h a g oup o young people in seconda y educa ion and highe educa ion. The aim was o p omo e manage ial compe encies in s uden s, and o mula e ecommenda ions in e ms o he de elopmen o manage ial skills o u u e en ep eneu s. Ku owska-Pysz [ 15 ] saw ha s uden s who pa icipa ed, pe cei ed he de elopmen o desi able ai s and he s eng hening o speci ic en ep eneu ial and managemen compe encies, which inc eased hei mo i a ion o s a a business a e lea ing he incuba o . Simila ly, Johansen [ 16 ] pe o med a quan i a i e s udy o o me pa icipan s in Junio Achie emen -Young En e p ise (JA-YE) Eu ope p og ams and he ound ha usually pa icipan s in en ep eneu ship educa ion p og ams a e mo e likely o become en ep eneu s. The s udy o Finis e a do Paco e al. [ 17 ] showed a clea impac o gene al educa ion on en ep eneu ship and en ep eneu ial ac i i y. This has led o an inc eased in e es om esea che s in en ep eneu ship educa ion p og ams. Fu he mo e, some wo ks sugges he idea ha ea ly o mal en ep eneu ship educa ion can ha e an impac on he a i udes o s uden s, in luencing hem in he di ec ion o hei u u e ca ee , inc easing hei p opensi y o en ep eneu ship when hey become adul s [18,19]. 1.1. Theo e ical Backg ound The complex na u e o en ep eneu ship and o he a iables in ol ed in en ep eneu ial p ocesses (psychological, socio-educa ional, and amily o ela ional) ha e awakened he in e es o pa o he scien i ic communi y in de e mining which aspec s in luence indi iduals’ en ep eneu ial ini ia i e, especially in young people [ 20 – 27 ]. In his con ex , we unde s and en ep eneu ship as a complex human capabili y due o he con luence o ac o s ha make i di icul o iden i y e ec i e p edic o s o en ep eneu ial in en ions and beha io s [14,28]. I is p ecisely he p ocess p io o ac ion whe e en ep eneu ial in en ion and i s in luen ial a iables assume ele ance o explain he wo in e ela ed p ocesses ha cons i u e en ep eneu ship: Disco e y o oppo uni ies and hei exploi a ion. These p ocesses d i e a la ge pa o he a ia ions o any subsequen ac i i y, which is poin ed ou in he heo y o planned beha io [12,13,26,29,30]. I is known ha human in en ionali y immedia ely p ecedes ac ion, si ua ing i sel as a cen al ac o o planned beha io [ 31 – 33 ]. Thus, en ep eneu ial in en ion can a ise as a planned beha io , bo h in he es ablishmen o he i m and in he imp o emen o in a-en e p ise en ep eneu ship [26,34–39]. Despi e he empi ical alida ion o hese p oposals ha ha e deepened ou unde s anding o en ep eneu ial ini ia i es, he e is s ill only limi ed e idence on he aspec s ha p ecede and s imula e en ep eneu ial in en ions [ 39 – 42 ]. As Lane o e al. [ 36 ] and Liñan and Chen [ 26 ] poin ou , he easons o he lack o esea ch on en ep eneu ial in en ions may be due o he esea che s’ di e en concep ual app oaches owa d en ep eneu ial in en ion, in pa icula wi h ega d o he a iables ha egula e and ac as an eceden s o such an in en ion [43–45]. In his ega d, he e is ag eemen be ween esea che s in conside en ep eneu ial in en ion as a mul idimensional cons uc ha is de e mined by a a ied se o aspec s [ 46 ]. Fo example, Fayolle and Gailly [ 27 ] poin ed ou he ele ance o social s a us, cul u al no ms, and he model o pa en s and close ela i es. In pa icula , hese au ho s showed in hei s udy ha he ini ial le el o en ep eneu ial in en ion appea s o be a key indica o o he s uden s’ p o ile and be e o ien hem. Liñan [ 47 ] poin ed ou he impo ance o social alues ela ed o en ep eneu ship and he pe cep ion o pe sonal skills, as aspec s ha a ec en ep eneu ial in en ion. The au ho assigned a ele ance o en ep eneu ial skills as oppo uni y ecogni ion, c ea i i y, p oblem sol ing, leade ship, Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 3 o 21 communica ion, inno a ion, and ne wo king c ea ion. Finally, Finis e a do Paco e al. [ 17 ] ound in hei esea ch ha pe sonal a i udes a e e y impo an o explain he en ep eneu ial in en ion. This lead hem o asse ha he educa ion and aining should cen e hemsel es much mo e in changing o s imula ing pe sonal a i udes, a he han in p o iding echnical knowledge abou businesses. Howe e , he in es iga ion on en ep eneu ial in en ion among s uden s is s ill a an explo a o y s age ha is unde going heo e ical and concep ual de elopmen [ 26 , 48 , 49 ]. In his sense, Fayolle and Liñan [ 48 ] saw ha he unde s anding o en ep eneu ial in en ion can con ibu e o design o mo e e ec i e educa ion ini ia i es. In addi ion, he excessi e use o uni e si y s uden s in con enience samples and he ew s udies wi h adolescen s ha e limi ed he gene aliza ion o he esul s o he popula ion o po en ial non-uni e si y en ep eneu s [50,51]. This bias has gene a ed di e en lines o in es iga ion in he s udy o he ac o s ela ing o en ep eneu ial in en ion among s uden s. The scien i ic li e a u e co e s wo o he mos ele an ones: One is cen e ed gene ally on he a iables ha in luence en ep eneu ial in en ion and pa icula ly on he a iables o a ela ional o amily na u e, as well as educa ional and psychological a iables; and he o he is cen e ed on he s udy o he an eceden s o in en ion, including en ep eneu ial in e es . The i s o he esea ch lines cen e ed on he a iables ha in luenced en ep eneu ial in en ion, in pa icula ela ional, socio-educa ional, and psychological ac o s (see Figu e 1). The insu icien p edic i e powe o each one may be highligh ed as well as he need o iden i y he psychosocial and educa ional p o iles o u u e en ep eneu s o es ablish aining ac ions [28,31,32,52]. Sus ainabili y 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 22 communica ion, inno a ion, and ne wo king c ea ion. Finally, Finis e a do Paco e al. [17] ound in hei esea ch ha pe sonal a i udes a e e y impo an o explain he en ep eneu ial in en ion. This lead hem o asse ha he educa ion and aining should cen e hemsel es much mo e in changing o s imula ing pe sonal a i udes, a he han in p o iding echnical knowledge abou businesses. Howe e , he in es iga ion on en ep eneu ial in en ion among s uden s is s ill a an explo a o y s age ha is unde going heo e ical and concep ual de elopmen [26,48,49]. In his sense, Fayolle and Liñan [48] saw ha he unde s anding o en ep eneu ial in en ion can con ibu e o design o mo e e ec i e educa ion ini ia i es. In addi ion, he excessi e use o uni e si y s uden s in con enience samples and he ew s udies wi h adolescen s ha e limi ed he gene aliza ion o he esul s o he popula ion o po en ial non-uni e si y en ep eneu s [50,51]. This bias has gene a ed di e en lines o in es iga ion in he s udy o he ac o s ela ing o en ep eneu ial in en ion among s uden s. The scien i ic li e a u e co e s wo o he mos ele an ones: One is cen e ed gene ally on he a iables ha in luence en ep eneu ial in en ion and pa icula ly on he a iables o a ela ional o amily na u e, as well as educa ional and psychological a iables; and he o he is cen e ed on he s udy o he an eceden s o in en ion, including en ep eneu ial in e es . The i s o he esea ch lines cen e ed on he a iables ha in luenced en ep eneu ial in en ion, in pa icula ela ional, socio-educa ional, and psychological ac o s (see Figu e 1). The insu icien p edic i e powe o each one may be highligh ed as well as he need o iden i y he psychosocial and educa ional p o iles o u u e en ep eneu s o es ablish aining ac ions [28,31,32,52]. Figu e 1. Fac o s in luencing en ep eneu ial in en ion, g ouped acco ding o he model o Sonnen el e al. [53] Rega ding ela ional ac o s ( amily space), he social models p o ided by he amily se ing posi i ely in luence he de elopmen o a p o essional ca ee h ough sel -employmen [54,55], i.e., coming om a nuclea amily wi h a business link means ha he pe son is in oduced li le by li le in o he wo ld o en ep eneu ship [28]. Wi h ega d o socio-educa ional ac o s (a social space and a wo kplace), on he one hand, hese ac o s a e linked o sociological (demog aphic) aspec s, such as age, gende , employmen si ua ion, income, ci il s a us, and p o essional s a us [56]. On he o he hand, hey a e linked o empowe men in socie y h ough educa ion and a e di ec ly ela ed o en ep eneu ship a es, he eby calling o he inclusion o en ep eneu ial compe ence in educa ional cu icula [3,57–59]. Figu e 1. Fac o s in luencing en ep eneu ial in en ion, g ouped acco ding o he model o Sonnen el e al. [53]. Rega ding ela ional ac o s ( amily space), he social models p o ided by he amily se ing posi i ely in luence he de elopmen o a p o essional ca ee h ough sel -employmen [ 54 , 55 ], i.e., coming om a nuclea amily wi h a business link means ha he pe son is in oduced li le by li le in o he wo ld o en ep eneu ship [28]. Wi h ega d o socio-educa ional ac o s (a social space and a wo kplace), on he one hand, hese ac o s a e linked o sociological (demog aphic) aspec s, such as age, gende , employmen si ua ion, income, ci il s a us, and p o essional s a us [ 56 ]. On he o he hand, hey a e linked o empowe men in socie y h ough educa ion and a e di ec ly ela ed o en ep eneu ship a es, he eby calling o he inclusion o en ep eneu ial compe ence in educa ional cu icula [3,57–59]. Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 4 o 21 Since he s udy o psychological ac o s (pe sonal space) began, esea che s ha e aimed o iden i y he cha ac e is ics, a ibu es, and di e en ia ing ea u es o hose people who de elop en ep eneu ship h ough wo heo e ical app oaches: T ai heo y [ 9 , 60 – 62 ] and he cogni i e app oach [ 31 , 63 , 64 ]. The app oach o ai heo y is based on he assump ion ha en ep eneu s ha e di e en pe sonali y ai s han ha o non-en ep eneu s. In o he wo ds, al hough we know ha en ep eneu ial beha io is a p oduc o many in luences, his heo y de ends he idea ha he people who conduc en ep eneu ial ac i i y ha e a psychological p o ile ha p edisposes hem o ac in an en ep eneu ial manne , and hus di e en ia es hem om o he s. In his esea ch, we seek o de e mine he cha ac e is ics o he pe sonali y ai s o he en ep eneu . Some o he a ibu es ha usually coincide in he igu e o he en ep eneu and ha con ibu e o bo h se ing a i m in mo ion and i s success a e: A p opensi y o assume isk and wi hou any ea o ailu e, he need o pe sonal sel - ealiza ion, an in e nal con ol/locus o con ol, a need o au onomy and independence, a p oac i e pe sonali y, and en ep eneu ial sel -e icacy, among o he s [61,62,65–67]. The cogni i e app oach o he en ep eneu , in con as , a ises as a esponse o he limi a ions o ai heo y. I s objec i e is o explain en ep eneu ial beha io h ough cogni i e p ocesses. In o he wo ds, i seeks o explain whe he en ep eneu s hink and p ocess in o ma ion in di e en ways han non-en ep eneu s do, and whe he hose di e ences could p edic which people migh s a a business. These cogni i e aspec s a e belie s, alues, cogni i e s yles, and men al p ocesses. Among he mos widely s udied cogni i e aspec s in he li e a u e, we highligh he ollowing: Sel -e icacy, sc ip s, s yle and cogni i e heu is ics, cogni i e maps, mo i a ions, and emo ions [63,64,68–71]. The second esea ch line analyzes some aspec s o he an eceden s o en ep eneu ial in en ion by cen e ing on en ep eneu ial in e es ; his analysis is based on he Social Cogni i e Ca ee Theo y (SCCT) o Len e al. [ 72 , 73 ]. SCCT explains he mechanisms h ough which indi iduals exe cise con ol o e he beha io s in ol ed in he de elopmen o hei ca ee s. This is especially use ul in explaining he ini ial phases o ca ee decisions, and he oca ional beha io o adolescen s and young adul s imme sed in hei p epa a ions o access o he wo ld o wo k [36]. Acco ding o SCCT, he de elopmen o ca ee goals (ca ee choice p ocess) is concei ed as a sequence o in e es s, in en ions, and beha io s ha a e p esen ed as occupa ional choices whe e ca ee in en ions a ise om he p e ious aining o oca ional in e es s [ 72 ]. The in e es s s imula e he ca ee in en ions o choice o goals ( he plans o dedica ing onesel o a ce ain ac i i y and o achie e a ce ain esul in he u u e), which inc ease he p obabili y o making a ca ee choice beha io (speci ic ac ions ha ma k he en y o he indi idual in o an academic o p o essional line o wo k) [ 74 , 75 ]. F om his s andpoin , in e es s a e de ined as ea ly pa e ns o a ac ion owa ds occupa ional- ela ed ac i i ies [ 76 ], ca ee in en ions o se -choice goals a e plans o dedica e onesel o a ce ain ac i i y, and ca ee choice beha io s a e speci ic ac ions ha ma k he en y o he indi idual in o a p o essional ca ee [36]. The cons uc o en ep eneu ial in e es and i s consequen impac on he cons uc ion o employmen p ojec ion has ypically been s udied in adolescence [ 77 , 78 ], a ime when he consolida ion o p o essional in e es s is conside ed o s a . In Spain, Lane o e al. [ 36 ] iden i ied a posi i e and di ec e ec o en ep eneu ial in e es in uni e si y s uden s on he in en ion o en e en ep eneu ship, and an indi ec one on beha io h ough he media ion o he in en ion. 1.2. The Cu en S udy He e, he ques ions ha we aise in his s udy a e mo i a ed by se e al aspec s: An a emp o b ing oge he wo main lines o esea ch in he s udy o en ep eneu ial in en ion; he necessi y o imp o ing he ield’s knowledge o he indi idual and con ex ual p ocesses in ol ed in he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial ini ia i e among young people; and he sca ci y o wo ks wi h seconda y s uden s. The e o e, we will y o answe he ollowing ques ions: Do young s uden s ha e a high o a low in e es in en ep eneu ship? Do hese young people, wi h high o low en ep eneu ial in e es , pe cei e hei heal h and quali y o li e in a di e en way om non-en ep eneu s? Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 5 o 21 Which aspec s do hey conside o be mo e impo an when engaged in en ep eneu ship? A e he e di e ences be ween hem in he mo i es and pe cei ed di icul ies when hey e alua e en ep eneu ship as hei u u e choice o ca ee ? The objec i e o his s udy, in esponse o he gaps men ioned abo e in heo e ical in es iga ion, p oposes, h ough P incipal Componen Analysis (PCA), o desc ibe he associa ion in Spanish you h be ween in e es in en ep eneu ship, as an eceden s o en ep eneu ial in en ion, and he p incipal a iables ha in luence ha in en ion. PCA has been selec ed, as i is a widely acknowledged as a dimensionali y educ ion echnique ha ob ains he bes new axes in e ms o minimiza ion o he econs uc ion e o . By applying PCA, an in ui i e and in o ma i e isualiza ion o he analyzed da a is ob ained, going one s ep u he han adi ional echniques. This s udy also examined socio-educa ional (gende , employmen si ua ion o pa en s, aining ecei ed, and me hodology), psychological (in e nal locus o con ol, p oac i e app oach, need o achie emen , sel -e icacy, isk p opensi y, mo i a ion, and pe cei ed di icul ies) and heal h and quali y o li e (physical a i ude, physical heal h, co po al sa is ac ion, and sa is ac ion wi h li e) a iables. The esul s o his s udy will con ibu e o g ea e knowledge o en ep eneu ial in en ion among young Spanish s uden s and hei po en ial aining o business c ea ion. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods 2.1. Design This in es iga ion is a ques ionnai e-based ans e sal desc ip i e s udy o a popula ion wi h a p obabilis ic sample ha o ms pa o a p ojec coo dina ed a he na ional le el and de eloped by he uni e si ies o Ba celona, Bu gos, Deus o, La Rioja, and San iago de Compos ela and he UNED. In addi ion, he Uni e si y Pablo de Ola ide de Se ille and he Uni e si y o Valencia assis ed wi h he da a collec ion ac i i ies. 2.2. Pa icipan s and P ocedu e The s udy popula ion was composed o 15 o 18 yea s old seconda y educa ion s uden s en olled in eaching cen e s in Spain. The sampling size, 1764 s uden s, was calcula ed a a con idence le el o 95% and wi h an e o ma gin o 2.3% on he basis o da a con ibu ed by he Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e and Spo s o he academic yea 2010–2011. Simple andom sampling was used, and he se p opo ions we e conse ed in each o he Au onomous Regions, and a each o he gene al ie s o educa ion (67% o s uden s om p e-uni e si y high school s udies; 32.7% o s uden s om in e media e oca ional aining cycles; and 10.3% om basic oca ional aining). The las sampling uni s we e selec ed du ing he 2013–14 academic yea by selec ing educa ional cen e s a andom om each au onomous egion on he basis o wo c i e ia: Selec ion o a u al cen e in each au onomous egion and a p opo ion o one p i a e s a e assis ed cen e o e e y h ee public educa ional cen e s. The ques ionnai e was adminis e ed in a single session a each one o he selec ed cen e s o he numbe o s uden s necessa y o co e he sampling quo a. This ield wo k was de eloped du ing he mon hs o Ma ch and June 2014. By employing da a om his yea , we a e able o collec compa able da a on s uden s ollowing he same educa ional law ha was exis ing in Spain om 2006 o 2014. A new legisla ion was in oduced he ollowing yea , al hough he comple e implemen a ion is expec ed o conclude in 2020. P io o he applica ion o he ins umen s, pe mission was eques ed om bo h he Gene al Di ec o a e o Educa ion o each au onomous egion and he di ec o s o he educa ional cen e s, once hey we e in o med o he a ionale behind he esea ch. Two p e iously ained esea che s assis ed in pe son a each cen e o he adminis a ion o he ques ionnai e in o de o ensu e a duly s anda dized p o ocol o ac ion. Women comp ised 50.1% o he sample (n = 885) and men 49.9% (n = 879). The a e age age was 17.6 yea s (SD = 1.60) and 89.6% o he sample we e o Spanish na ionali y (n = 1581). Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 6 o 21 The p esen s udy was unded by he Minis y o Economy, Indus y and Compe i i eness and he Eu opean Regional De elopmen Fund (Spain), which equi es no e hics commi ee app o als o s udies in he ield o social and legal sciences. 2.3. Measu es The ques ionnai e was di ided in o a ious hema ic sec ions due o he di e en in e es s o each o he collabo a ing uni e si ies: S uden s; li e a he educa ional cen e ; leisu e ime; amily li e; heal h and quali y o li e; s udies and he employmen ma ke in he u u e; and en ep eneu ship. A pilo es in eigh Au onomous Regions was comple ed o alida e he ques ionnai e, es ablishing he s a i ica ion o he inal sample and i s p opo ionali y as c i e ia. The numbe o ques ionnai es amoun ed o 10% o he subsequen sample. The pilo su ey and esul s we e hen e alua ed by 14 expe s om se en Spanish uni e si ies, who app o ed he de ini i e e sion and a ed i as highly eliable. In pu sui o ou objec i e, we analyzed he hema ic sec ions ela ing o sociodemog aphic in o ma ion, in e es in en ep eneu ship, and a iables ela ing o heal h and quali y o li e, as well as psychological, educa ional, and occupa ional a iables. In pa icula , he ollowing ques ions we e analyzed: Q.1–Q.10, in o ma ion was ga he ed on sex; yea o bi h; numbe o people li ing in he house; amily si ua ion; amily ela ion; coun y o o igin o a he , mo he , and s uden ; pos code; weekly allowance; le el o s udies; and employmen o a he and mo he ( amily and demog aphic a iables om hema ic sec ion “S uden s” in he ques ionnai e). Q.36, ga he ed in o ma ion on heal h and cu en quali y o li e (heal h a iable om hema ic sec ion “Heal h and Quali y o Li e” in he ques ionnai e). This a iable was measu ed using a 5-poin Like Scale. Q.37, ga he ed in o ma ion on si ua ions in which s udying helps and si ua ions in which wo king helps (psychological a iable om he hema ic sec ion “S udies and Employmen Ma ke ” in he ques ionnai e). This a iable was measu ed using a 5-poin Like Scale. Q.38, ga he ed in o ma ion on he mos impo an aspec s o en ep eneu ship (psychological a iable om he hema ic sec ion “En ep eneu ship”). This a iable was measu ed h ough he selec ion o he h ee mos impo an aspec s. Q.40, ga he ed in o ma ion on he deg ee o in e es in en ep eneu ship (psychological a iable om hema ic sec ion “En ep eneu ship”). This a iable was measu ed using a 5-poin Like Scale. Q.42, ga he ed in o ma ion on he mo i es o c ea ing a i m (psychological a iable om he hema ic sec ion “En ep eneu ship”). This a iable was measu ed h ough he selec ion o he h ee mos impo an mo i es. Q.43, ga he ed in o ma ion on he di icul ies o c ea ing a i m (psychological a iable om he hema ic sec ion “En ep eneu ship”). This a iable was measu ed h ough he selec ion o he h ee mos impo an di icul ies. Q.44, ga he ed in o ma ion on he p esence o di e en me hodologies and capabili ies in aining (psychological a iable om he hema ic sec ion “En ep eneu ship”). This a iable was measu ed using a 5-poin Like - ype scale. 2.4. Da a Analysis A e selec ing he ques ionnai e ques ions, a code was used o iden i y each i em, he eby lea ing a se o 1633 i ems and 92 ea u es pe i em. In o de o analyze such a mul idimensional da ase , PCA was been applied. This s a is ical me hod o da a analysis is based on e-dimensioning he da a ( educing he numbe o ea u es); in o he wo ds, he end-pu pose is o educe he amoun o ea u es in a da ase wi h mul iple ea u es, seeking o minimize he loss o in o ma ion, as a as possible, o he new da a. Compa ed o ea u e selec ion echniques, whe e he mos in o ma i e ea u es om he o iginal da ase a e selec ed, Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 7 o 21 PCA lies in he ca ego y o ea u e ex ac ion, whe e o iginal ea u es a e combined o gene a e a educed se o new ea u es. In he case o PCA, he new ea u es (p incipal componen s) ob ained om ha e-dimensioning a e he esul o a linea combina ion o he o iginal a iables and, in u n, will be independen om each o he . In p esen pape , e e y i em in he da ase is isualized h ough a 2D display whe e he coo dina es a e he p incipal componen s. Thus, he ob ained ep esen a ion can be isually analyzed in o de o ge deep knowledge om a p e iously unknown da ase . This is he usual me hodology in he ield o Explo a o y P ojec ion Pu sui . PCA was ini ially de eloped by Pea son [ 79 ] a he s a o he 20 h cen u y and hen s udied and u he de eloped by Ho elling [ 80 ]. PCA has wo possible unc ions: The op imal p ojec ions o a gene al N-dimensional space on o a space o educed dimensionali y ( he p incipal componen s a e he i s s ep o iden i y he possible la en o non-obse ed a iables ha gene a e he da a) and i pe mi s he ans o ma ion o he o iginal and gene ally co ela ed a iables in o new unco ela ed a iables, acili a ing he in e p e a ion o he da a. I one begins wi h a se o mul i a iable da a, he end pu pose is o map ha se on o a smalle numbe o a iables, in dec easing o de o impo ance and wi h minimal loss o in o ma ion, in such a way ha he esul ing a iables a e a linea combina ion o he o iginal a iables and independen om each o he . The o hogonal base ha maximizes he a iance o he da a mus be ound in o de o p ojec he da a on o a space o educed dimensionali y. To do so, i is necessa y o es ablish he p ojec ion ha has he maximum a iance, which will co espond o he i s ec o o he base ( i s p incipal componen ). Subsequen ly, one mus de e mine he p ojec ion ha con ains he highes emaining a iance, which will co espond o he second ec o o he base (second p incipal componen ), and so on successi ely. P ojec ing he da a on o he i s p incipal componen will educe he dimensionali y ha will be accompanied by as much a iance in he da a as possible. Acco ding o Bishop [ 81 ], PCA may be desc ibed as a map o ec o s, X d , p ojec ed on o an N-dimensional space on ec o s Y d in an M-dimensional space, whe e M< = N. X may be ep esen ed as a linea combina ion o a se o No hono mal ec o s, Wi: x= N ∑ i=1 yi×Wi The Wi ec o s sa is y he ollowing ela ion o o hono mali y: W i×Wj=δij whe e, δij is he K onecke del a. 3. Resul s The ques ionnai e da a we e analyzed wi h PCA and he ob ained p ojec ions is shown in Figu e 2, whe e each poin is a ep esen a ion o one o he 1633 cases wi h hei o iginal 92 ea u es. In he analysis o he image, g oups o da a can be easily iden i ied, and hey ha e been labelled consecu i ely (Figu e 2). Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 8 o 21 Sus ainabili y 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 22 Figu e 2. Resul s o he PCA analysis o he da a. Fo each one o he g oups iden i ied in Figu e 2, he a e age alue o esponses o ques ion Q.40 e e ing o he deg ee o he esponden s’ en ep eneu ial in e es has been calcula ed as well as he numbe o pa icipan s ha a e ga he ed in each g oup. These igu es a e shown in Table 1: Table 1. A e age sco es o en ep eneu ial in e es and numbe o pa icipan s pe g oup. PCA G oup A e age en ep eneu ial in e es Numbe o pa icipan s 1.1 2.13 47 1.2 1.76 3 1.3a 1 25 2.1 1.5 4 2.2 1 1 3.1 2.6 5 4.1 3.22 9 4.2 4 8 4.3 b 2.5 30 5.1 3 18 Figu e 2. Resul s o he PCA analysis o he da a. Fo each one o he g oups iden i ied in Figu e 2, he a e age alue o esponses o ques ion Q.40 e e ing o he deg ee o he esponden s’ en ep eneu ial in e es has been calcula ed as well as he numbe o pa icipan s ha a e ga he ed in each g oup. These igu es a e shown in Table 1: Table 1. A e age sco es o en ep eneu ial in e es and numbe o pa icipan s pe g oup. PCA G oup A e age En ep eneu ial In e es Numbe o Pa icipan s 1.1 2.13 47 1.2 1.76 3 1.3 a1 25 2.1 1.5 4 2.2 1 1 3.1 2.6 5 4.1 3.22 9 4.2 4 8 4.3 b2.5 30 5.1 3 18 5.2 3.08 12 5.3 3 9 To al numbe o pa icipan s 171 a The da a ex ac ed om g oup 1.3 a e excluded om he esul s o his s udy because he 25 pa icipan s p esen ed in alid eplies in he majo i y o he a iables unde s udy. b G oup 4.3, because o i s posi ion on he map, would ep esen he emainde o he pa icipan s (1462 pa icipan s) who we e no included in any o he g oups ob ained wi h PCA. The da a e ealed wo la ge g oups: One wi h signi ican in e es (high en ep eneu ial in e es g oup; M = 3.10) and ano he wi h li le en ep eneu ial in e es (low en ep eneu ial in e es g oup; Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 9 o 21 M = 1.59) (see Table 2). The sco es o he low en ep eneu ial in e es g oup anged be ween 0 and 2.5, and hose o he high en ep eneu ial in e es g oup be ween 2.6 and 5. Table 2. Rep esen a ion o he a e age sco es in en ep eneu ial in e es acco ding o he PCA p ojec ion g oupings. PCA G oup A e age En ep eneu ial In e es Numbe o Pa icipan s A e age Global En ep eneu ial In e es o he PCA G oups To al Numbe o Pa icipan s in he PCA G oups (146 S uden s) High en ep eneu ial in e es g oups a 4.1 3.22 8 4.2 4 9 3.1 2.6 12 5.3 3 18 5.2 3.08 9 5.1 3 5 3.10 61 (41.8%) Low en ep eneu ial in e es g oups 4.3 2.5 30 1.1 2.13 47 1.2 1.67 3 2.1 1.5 4 2.2 1 1 1.59 85 (58.2%) a I Figu e 1. is obse ed, he a angemen o he PCA g oups wi h high en ep eneu ial in e es o ms an open U on he le hand side, i.e., su ounding he p incipal poin cloud. Conside ing ha g oup 4.3 ep esen ed he emainde o poin s no ound in any PCA g oup (1462 s uden s) and he e o e had low sco es o en ep eneu ial in e es , i could be conside ed ha 61 (3.8%) s uden s o he whole sample p esen ed high le els o en ep eneu ial in e es and 1547 (96.2%) s uden s p esen ed low le els o en ep eneu ial in e es . Ha ing a anged he g oups in acco dance wi h he PCA p ojec ions and he sco es o he en ep eneu ial in e es a iable, each g oup was cha ac e ized in acco dance wi h he esponses o he ques ions ha we e in oduced o cons i u e he uni o analysis. The esul s shown in Table 3we e ob ained om he i s block o ques ions, e e ing o he da a p o ile (Q.1–Q.10) o he s uden s in he su ey. Bo h he high and low en ep eneu ial in e es g oups we e composed mos ly o men (62% and 59%, espec i ely), hough he g oup wi h low en ep eneu ial in e es was mo e balanced be ween men and women. In mos cases, he pa en s o he membe s o bo h g oups we e educa ed up o seconda y s udies. The pa en s o he g oup wi h high en ep eneu ial in e es we e showed a highe numbe o sel -employed (37%), whe eas he pa en s o he low en ep eneu ial in e es g oup we e gene ally employees (50%). The mo he s o he high en ep eneu ial in e es g oup we e in equal pe cen ages ei he unemployed o housewi es, whe eas he mo he s o he low en ep eneu ial in e es g oup we e p incipally wo king as employees. The a e age sco es ob ained by he PCA g oups in he block o ques ions (P.36) e e ing o heal h and quali y o li e (Figu e 3) showed ha he membe s o he g oup wi h highe en ep eneu ial in e es we e mo e sa is ied wi h hei heal h and quali y o li e. In pa icula , hey ob ained highe sco es in a “Good s a e o heal h a p esen ” (M = 4.15), “Sa is ac ion wi h bodily appea ance” (M = 3.64), and “Good physical o m” (M = 3.57). In addi ion, hey conside ed hemsel es o be physically ac i e (M = 3.45) and, in gene al, hey we e happy wi h hei li es (4.08), in con as o he ema kably low sco es o he g oup wi h low en ep eneu ial in e es (1.76) in esponse o his las ques ion (“In gene al, I am happy wi h my li e”). On he o he hand, he only a iable whe e bo h g oups sco ed in a simila way, abo e he a e age, was in con en men wi h hei bodily appea ance, i.e., he s uden s om pos -compulso y seconda y educa ion in his sample we e con en wi h hei bodies. Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 16 o 21 ILC, in insic and ex insic mo i a ion, sea ching o and iden i ying oppo uni ies, sel -e icacy, a posi i e a i ude owa ds he en ep eneu ial beha io needed o sel -su iciency, independence, a need o achie e (sel - ul illmen ), amily en ep eneu s, and aining in en ep eneu ial skills a e all posi i ely associa ed wi h en ep eneu ial in en ions in su eys o Spanish you h [ 60 , 61 , 89 , 91 , 99 , 100 ]. Consequen ly, hese esul s e eal he impo ance o ea ly de ec ion o en ep eneu ial in e es s among seconda y school s uden s so ha hey can be ein o ced as po en ial business ini ia i es in he long e m. Simila ly, wi h his s udy we espond o demands ha au ho s like Liñan and Chen [ 26 ] he need o c oss-cul u al s udies o assess he e ec o di e en cul u es and alues on he en ep eneu ial in en ion o be be e unde s ood. Fu he , his pape con ibu es o he li e a u e by un angling he di e en social, educa ional, and psychological as well as en ep eneu ial in e es main p e-exis ing cha ac e is ics in a sample o young people in Spain. Besides, ano he con ibu ion lies in he inding o he simul aneous ele ance o heal h ela ed aspec s and en ep eneu ial in e es , a domain ha has no ecei ed a lo o a en ion ye in he li e a u e. As a inal con ibu ion o his wo k, he u ili y o PCA has o be highligh ed as well as i s applica ion in in es iga ions o a social cha ac e [ 80 , 81 ] as i yields pa e ns ha dese e in-dep h s udy and pe mi decision-making. By un eiling he ele ance o he in e nal locus o con ol, mo i a ion, need o achie emen , he sea ch and iden i ica ion o oppo uni ies, au onomy and independence and sel -e icacy, he esul s o he pape ha e impo an implica ions o mul iple ac o s in cha ge o he sus ainabili y o you h en ep eneu ship in Spain. Fi s , policy-make s such as he Minis y o Economy and Compe i i eness and also he Minis y o Educa ion, Cul u e and Spo should ake hese esul s in o conside a ion when designing and implemen ing p og ams o de ec and suppo om an ea ly s age en ep eneu ial in e es among s uden s. In o de o ully eap he expec ed bene i s, such p og ams should also include a sui able aining o eache s in which hese capabili ies a e emphasized. In ac , he esul s highligh ha aining a school migh no be enough, and ins ead sugges ha lea ning should ake place ac oss bounda ies and wi h in e ela ions wi h o he agen s in he socie y such as he amily and p o essional associa ions. Fu he , uni e si ies should collabo a e wi h comme ce chambe s, clus e s, and p o essional ne wo ks in o de o c ea e sus ainable oppo uni ies o young people o o e come some o he challenges iden i ied in his pape . Fo ins ance, hese agen s can p omo e he c ea ion o incuba o s and ins i u ions ha acili a e access o unding (business angels, c owdsou cing, e c.) One o he limi a ions o his wo k a e ela ed o he c oss-sec ional na u e o he s udy, since he causal ela ion be ween he a iables unde s udy and en ep eneu ial in e es canno be de ec ed. The e o e, in a u u e in es iga ion, longi udinal designs a e p oposed in which e idence migh be unea hed ega ding he ela ions be ween he a iables in he con ex o he e ec s ha a e iden i ied. Ano he limi a ion is ela ed o he yea o da a collec ion. In his case, u u e s udies could also analyze s uden s ollowing he new educa ional law passed in 2014 and implemen ed in he subsequen yea s, in o de o compa e he esul s be ween di e en coho s o s uden s and he e ec i eness o he new legisla ion. Fu he , he single-i em na u e o he measu es also cons i u es a signi ican sho coming o he ques ionnai e. Despi e he alidi y and eliabili y o he ques ionnai e was con i med h ough a pilo es conduc ed in eigh au onomous communi ies o Spain, and e alua ed by 14 expe s belonging o se en Spanish uni e si ies and i s eliabili y has been con as ed in p e ious s udies using his same ques ionnai e, i would be ad isable o co obo a e he esul s employing o he al e na i e measu es. Finally, u u e s udies could also employ addi ional echniques such as clus e analysis o linea eg ession o enla ge he indings and add ess addi ional esea ch ques ions. Despi e he a o emen ioned limi a ions, we belie e ou pape con ibu es o he apidly e ol ing ield o en ep eneu ial in en ion. Howe e , we also belie e ha mo e e o is needed o heo e ically and empi ically de elop his cons uc . We hope ou pape encou ages o he esea che s o conduc u he s udies, and enla ge ou unde s anding o his ascina ing opic. Sus ainabili y 2019,11, 1252 17 o 21 Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.C.E.-L. and I.L.-R.; me hodology, M.C.E.-L. and I.L.-R.; so wa e, A.H.; alida ion, C.P.-C., A.J.-E. and T.d.l.T.-C.; o mal analysis, A.H.; in es iga ion, M.C.E.-L., T.d.l.T.-C. and I.L.-R.; esou ces, A.J.-E. and C.P.-C.; da a cu a ion, I.L.-R.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, M.C.E.-L.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.J., T.d.l.T.-C.; isualiza ion, M.C.E.-L., I.L.-R, A.H. and A.J.; supe ision, A.J., T.d.l.T.-C.; p ojec adminis a ion, A.J.-E.; unding acquisi ion, C.P.-C. Funding: This esea ch was unded by MINISTRY OF ECONOMY AND COMPETITIVENESS. 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