Three archaeomagnetic applications of archaeological interest to the study of burnt anthropogenic cave sediments

1 Th ee a chaeomagne ic applica ions o a chaeological in e es o he s udy o bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s Á. Ca ancho1*, Á. He ejón2 and J.M. Ve gès3, 4 1. Á ea de P ehis o ia. Dp o. de Ciencias His ó icas y Geog a ía. Uni e sidad de Bu gos. Edi icio I+D+I. Plaza Misael Bañuelos s/n. 09001, Bu gos, Spain. E-mail: aca anc[email p o ec ed] 2. Dp o. Física, Uni e sidad de Bu gos. Escuela Poli écnica Supe io , A da. Can ab ia S/N 09006, Bu gos, Spain. 3. IPHES, Ins i u Ca alà de Paleoecologia Humana i E olució Social, C/Ma cel.lí Domingo s/n, Campus Sescelades (Edi ici W3), 43007 Ta agona, Spain 4. Á ea de P ehis o ia, Uni e si a Ro i a i Vi gili (URV), A inguda de Ca alunya, 35, 43002 Ta agona, Spain Abs ac Recen a chaeomagne ic s udies ca ied ou on Mid- o La e Holocene bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s ha e shown ha unde ce ain condi ions, hese ma e ials a e sui able geomagne ic ield eco de s. A chaeomagne ic analyses ca ied ou on hese con ex s cons i u e a ich sou ce o in o ma ion no only o geophysical pu poses -in e ms o econs uc ing he a ia ion o Ea h's magne ic ield in he pas - bu also om he a chaeological poin o iew, o example by a chaeomagne ic da ing. He e, we epo h ee di e en a chaeomagne ic applica ions o he s udy o bu n ca e sedimen s: (i) a chaeomagne ic da ing; (ii) de e mining palaeo empe a u es and (iii) assessing pos - deposi ional p ocesses. The i s case s udy is a da ing a emp ca ied ou on a La e Holocene (B onze Age) bu n le el om El Mi ado Ca e (Bu gos, Spain). Using he di ec ional Eu opean secula a ia ion cu e, se e al da ing in e als we e ob ained o he las bu ning o his combus ion ea u e. Conside ing he a chaeological e idence and he independen adiome ic (14C) da ing a ailable he possible ages ob ained a e discussed. This is he i s a chaeomagne ic da ing ob ained in hese con ex s so a . The second case s udy is an applica ion o he me hod o de e mine he las hea ing empe a u es eached by he ca bonaceous acies o hese i es. S epwise he mal demagne iza ion o o ien ed samples can be used o quan i a i ely es ima e hea ing empe a u es. An in e media e no mal pola i y componen in e p e ed as a pa ial *Manusc ip Click he e o iew linked Re e ences 2 he mo- emanence (pTRM) wi h maximum unblocking empe a u es o 400 – 450 ºC was sys ema ically iden i ied, e ealing he las hea ing empe a u es expe ienced by his acies. These empe a u es we e con i med wi h pa ial he momagne ic cu e expe imen s. Finally, a chaeomagne ic analyses on a pa ially bio u ba ed bu ning e en we e pe o med in o de o e alua e un il wha spa ial ex en he bu n sedimen s we e a ec ed by pos -deposi ional mechanical al e a ion p ocesses. Fo each case s udy, he a chaeological implica ions a e discussed highligh ing he po en ial o a chaeomagne ic me hods o e ie e a chaeological in o ma ion. Keywo ds: Fumie s, Holocene, The mo emanen magne iza ion, Secula a ia ion, Ashes, B onze Age. 1. In oduc ion Since he pionee ing wo k o B ochie (1983a,b), he s udy o Holocene bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s has expe ienced conside able p og ess. A g ea numbe o a chaeological exca a ions as well as he inc easing amoun o da a p o ided by disciplines such as soil mic omo phology (Angelucci e al 2009; Boschian 1997; Macphail e al. 1997), palaeobo any (Rasmussen 1993; Delhon e al. 2008; Cabanes e al. 2009) o zooa chaeology (Ma ín e al. 2014; Rowley-Conwy 1998) among o he s, is yielding aluable in o ma ion abou he o ma ion and use o hese deposi s. A chaeomagne ism has eme ged as one o hese lines o esea ch. Al hough i has a long adi ion in Ea h sciences i s applica ion in p ehis o ic a chaeology is s ill spo adic and i s po en ial o e ie e a chaeological in o ma ion emains unde u ilized. B oadly speaking, a chaeomagne ism deals wi h he s udy o he eco d o he Ea h´s magne ic ield di ec ion and/o in ensi y changes in he pas in bu n a chaeological ma e ials. Mos a chaeological ma e ials con ain small amoun s o e omagne ic mine als (s.l.), such as magne i e o haema i e. When hea ed o high empe a u es (> 500 – 600 ºC) and subsequen ly cooled hese mine als acqui e a emanen (pe manen ) magne iza ion pa allel o he ambien magne ic ield. Unde se e al condi ions his in o ma ion may be e y s able o e long pe iods o ime and used in a wide a ie y o applica ions, among which da ing is likely he mos known. Howe e , gi en hei e sa ili y, magne ic me hods can p o ide aluable in o ma ion anging om de e mining palaeo empe a u es (e.g., B own e al. 2009), ash sou cing (Chu ch e al. 2007) o assessing he deg ee o p ese a ion in a chaeological ca e i es (e.g., 3 Ca ancho e al. 2012). This pape p o ides a e iew o some o hese applica ions speci ically applied o an h opogenic ca e sequences. These s a ig aphic sequences usually con ain mul iple bu ning e en s gene a ed by he pe iodic bu ning o o ganic ma e ial (e.g., ege al emains and dung) p oduced by li es ock penning (Angelucci e al. 2009). Thei p ese a ion s a e is usually good, a e gene ally well-da ed by independen me hods (namely adioca bon) and ha e a b oad geog aphical dis ibu ion h oughou he Medi e anean egion (Angelucci e al. 2009). The e o e hey cons i u e a g ea sou ce o a chaeomagne ic da a and he in o ma ion ob ained has bo h geophysical and a chaeological in e es . The main goal o his a icle is o highligh he po en ial o magne ic me hods o answe a chaeological ques ions h ough h ee di e en applica ions. The i s is a da ing a emp o a i ing e en om El Mi ado Ca e (Spain) using he ecen ly designed di ec ional Eu opean Secula Va ia ion (SV) cu e o he Neoli hic (Ca ancho e al. 2013). The second is a me hodological applica ion o de e mine he las hea ing empe a u e unde gone by hese i es. The hi d consis s on e alua ing o wha ex en a bu ning e en migh be a ec ed by pos -deposi ional p ocesses. The a chaeological and a chaeomagne ic implica ions o hese cases s udies will be discussed as well as he limi s o each applica ion. 2. Ma e ials and me hods 2.1 Si es The s udied ma e ials co espond o samples om Neoli hic, Chalcoli hic and B onze Age bu ning e en s exposed in he Holocene s a ig aphies o El Mi ado and Po alón de Cue a Mayo ca es (Sie a de A apue ca, Bu gos) and El Mi ón Ca e (Can ab ia, Spain; Fig. 1a). Fo de ailed in o ma ion on he a chaeology, s a ig aphy and ch onology o hese si es he eade is e e ed o S aus and González Mo ales (2012), Ca e e o e al., (2008) and Ve gès e al. (2008; his olume). These i es gene ally con ain a g ey/whi e ash acies o a iable hickness (2-10 cm) o e a hin (~ 2 cm) black ca bonaceous subjacen acies. 2.2 Sampling A chaeomagne ic sampling was ca ied ou wi h he aid o a non- e omagne ic cylind ical ube which inco po a es a buil -in o ien a ion sys em speci ically designed 4 o so (unli hi ied) li hologies (Ca ancho e al. 2013). I s main ad an age is ha i allows a p ecise geog aphical o ien a ion o he samples besides being minimally in asi e. The ube is p essed agains e ical p o iles whe e he bu n acies ou c op. A e he azimu hal eading, he sedimen is ca e ully inse ed in cylind ical plas ic boxes (Ø 16.5 mm, 17 mm leng h; olume o abou 3.6 cm3) and s o ed in cold condi ions (3-4 ºC) un il measu emen o a oid chemical al e a ions. Samples o he mal (TH) demagne iza ion o he na u al emanen magne iza ion (NRM) we e o ien ed by he same means and in oduced in o home-made plas e cubes (Ca ancho 2010). These con ain a cylind ical hole wi h he same dimensions and olume as he plas ic capsules in o de o keep he sample in ixed posi ion. The NRM o he plas e cubes is a leas wo o de s o magni ude less han he sample´s magne iza ion. De ails o he numbe and ype o samples collec ed o each case s udy a e gi en below. 2.2.1 Case s udy 1 (a chaeomagne ic da ing) A bu ning e en (Ci1) om El Mi ado Ca e (42º 20´ 58´´ N, 03º 30´ 33´´ W; Sie a de A apue ca, Bu gos, Spain) was in ensi ely sampled o a chaeomagne ic da ing pu poses (Fig.1a-b). The a chaeos a ig aphic uni whe e Ci1 is loca ed (MIR103 – Sec o 100) has a 14C (AMS) da ing (sample code: Be a – 339094) ob ained om a cha coal agmen wi h a 2σ da ing in e al o 1510 o 1410 cal. BC (3190 +/- 30 BP). A chaeological e idence is limi ed o ew po e y emains sugges ing a possible B onze Age o he MIR103 uni . The objec i e he e was o ob ain an a chaeomagne ic da e o he las hea ing o his e en using he di ec ional Eu opean SV cu e (Ca ancho e al. 2013). The Ci1 bu ning e en is composed o an ash and a ca bonaceous acies. The ashes a e whi e on op and eddish b own on he bo om wi h a o al hickness o abou 15 cm. Jus benea h, a da k ca bonaceous (~ 2 cm) acies is p ese ed delimi ing he su ace whe e bu ning occu ed (Fig. 1). A he op o he lowe le el, jus a he base o he bu ning e en , a bu ow can be obse ed ha may ha e pa ially a ec ed he s uc u e. A o al o 29 o ien ed samples (22 ashes and 7 ca bonaceous samples) we e collec ed ollowing he sampling p ocedu e desc ibed in sec ion 2.2. 2.2.2 Case s udy 2 (es ima ing palaeo empe a u es) The samples analysed in his case s udy a e ep esen a i e ca bonaceous samples om 6 di e en Holocene bu ning e en s om El Mi ado , El Po alón and El Mi ón Ca e (Spain). They we e p e iously s udied along wi h hund eds o bu n samples in he 5 design o he i s di ec ional Eu opean PSV cu e o he Neoli hic (Ca ancho e al. 2013). The objec i e is o show how he iden i ica ion o pa ial he mal emanen magne iza ions (pTRMs) pe mi s he quan i a i e es ima ion o he las hea ing empe a u e in he ca bonaceous acies. The alidi y o his app oach was e i ied ca ying ou he momagne ic cu e analyses on bulk (uno ien ed) sample om his acies and s udying hei deg ee o e e sibili y (sec ion 4.2). The sampling p ocedu e was he same as desc ibed in sec ion 2.2. 2.2.3 Case s udy 3 (assessing pos -deposi ional p ocesses) In o de o es he eliabili y o he palaeomagne ic me hod o de e mine o wha ex en he mechanical ewo king migh ha e a ec ed an an h opic ca e i e, an a chaeomagne ic s udy o a La e Holocene bu ning e en om El Po alón Ca e (Bu gos, Spain; map o Fig. 1a) is epo ed. This bu ning e en con ains a whi e ash acies (~ 10 cm) o e a ~ 2 cm da k ca bonaceous acies bo h pa ially al e ed by an ancien bu ow (Fig. 8). The colou and ex u e o ashes on he igh side o he bu ning e en a e somewha mixed, sugges ing ha some kind o mechanical eo ganiza ion migh ha e occu ed. In con as , he ashes o he cen al and le pa a e pu e whi e ashes seemingly in si u. This e en was in ensi ely sampled collec ing 24 o ien ed samples o bo h acies (18 ashes and 6 ca bonaceous samples). The a chaeomagne ic mean di ec ion ob ained has been epo ed by Ca ancho e al. (2013). Ne e heless, he objec i e he e is o desc ibe wha magne ic ea u es display in si u samples compa ed o hose ha a e ewo ked. These esul s will allow es ing he c i e ia es ablished in a simila case s udy (Ca ancho e al. 2012) as well as e alua ing he deg ee o al e a ion ha he s uc u e migh ha e su e ed. 2.3 Labo a o y me hods All analyses we e pe o med in he labo a o y o palaeomagne ism o Bu gos Uni e si y (Spain). The measu emen o he na u al emanen magne iza ion (NRM) was ca ied ou wi h a 2G SQUID magne ome e (noise le el 5 × 10−12 Am2). Low- ield magne ic suscep ibili y a oom empe a u e was measu ed wi h a KLY-4 suscep ome e (AGICO, noise le el 3×10−8 S.I.). The NRM di ec ional s abili y was analysed by s epwise p og essi e al e na ing ield (AF) and he mal (TH) demagne iza ion. AF demagne iza ion was ca ied ou in 18–20 s eps up o maximum ields o 100–120 mT wi h he 2G magne ome e AF demagne iza ion uni . TH demagne iza ion was 6 pe o med using a TD48-SC (ASC) he mal demagne ize in 15-17 s eps up o 660 ºC. The Cha ac e is ic emanen magne iza ion (ChRM) di ec ion o e e y specimen was de e mined by p inciple componen analysis (PCA; Ki sch ink, 1980) including a leas ou demagne iza ion s eps (usually i e o mo e). In o de o s udy u he he e omagne ic mine alogy p esen , di e en ock-magne ic expe imen s we e ca ied ou wi h a a iable ield ansla ion balance (MM_VFTB). These comp ised p og essi e iso he mal emanen magne iza ion (IRM) acquisi ion cu es, hys e esis loops (± 1 T), back ield cu es and he momagne ic cu es up o 700 ºC in ai . These analyses we e unde aken on ep esen a i e bulk sample (~ 400 mg) bo h on ash and ca bonaceous samples. Cu ie empe a u es o Js-T cu es we e de e mined using he wo- angen me hod o G ommé e al. (1969). Sa u a ion magne iza ion (Ms), emanence sa u a ion magne isa ion (M s) and coe ci e ield (Bc) we e calcula ed om hys e esis loops a e sub ac ing he pa amagne ic con ibu ion. In combina ion wi h he coe ci i y o emanence (Bc ) de e mined om he back ield cu es, he domain s a e dis ibu ion was analysed in he Day diag am (Day e al. 1977; Dunlop 2002). 3. Case 1: A chaeomagne ic da ing 3.1. Backg ound A chaeomagne ic da ing is based on wo undamen al phenomena. Fi s , he abili y o e omagne ic mine als (s.l.) o acqui e a emanen magne iza ion when hea ed and subsequen ly cooled om high empe a u es pa allel wi h and p opo ional o he geomagne ic ield. This mechanism o magne iza ion is known as he mo emanen magne iza ion o TRM and is cha ac e is ic o s uc u es such as o ens, kilns and hea hs. Second, he Ea h´s magne ic ield unde goes sub le a ia ions in di ec ion and in ensi y on a imescale o 102-103 yea s on a egional scale. These luc ua ions a e known as secula a ia ion (SV) and a e ep oducible o egions no bigge han 500- 600 km o adius (Lanos 2004). O e ecen yea s g ea e o s ha e been unde aken o de i e egional SV cu es o di e en egions, pa icula ly in Eu ope. These mas e cu es a e composed o di ec ional and/o in ensi y da a o he Ea h´s magne ic ield ob ained om p e iously well-da ed bu n a chaeological ma e ials (and occasionally also om la a lows). Wi h some excep ions in Eas e n Eu ope (Tema and Kondopolou 2011; Ko ache a e al. 2014), mos Eu opean SV cu es co e he las 2-3 millennia 7 (Galle e al., 2002; Gómez-Pacca d e al., 2006; Ma on and Fe encz, 2006; Schnepp and Lanos 2005, 2006; Tema e al., 2006; Zanani i e al., 2007). S anda d a chaeomagne ic da ing wo ks on he basis o compa ing he mean di ec ion and/o in ensi y de e mined om a si e wi h he SV cu e a ailable o he egion and pe iod conce ned. Many a chaeomagne ic da ing examples a e epo ed in he li e a u e using di ec ional, in ensi y da a o bo h combined (e.g., Casas e al. 2007; Ech- Chak ouni e al. 2013). The mo e a chaeomagne ic da a added o hese egional SV cu es he be e de ined hey will be, hus imp o ing he da ing echnique. Mo e ecen ly, a chaeomagne ic da ing using geomagne ic ield models has become easible. Fo ins ance, he SCHA.DIF.3K Eu opean egional model (Pa ón-Ca asco e al. 2009) based exclusi ely on a chaeomagne ic di ec ional and in ensi y da a o he las 3 millennia, di ec ly p edic s he geomagne ic ield a he si e o in e es e en o egions whe e no SV cu e is a ailable. This a oids any e en ual eloca ion e o which has been p o ed o in oduce signi ican e o s (Casas and Inco ona o 2007). The e a e also global models o longe pe iods (e.g., Pa ón-Ca asco e al. 2010; Ko e and Cons able, 2005; Ko e e al., 2011) bu no sui ed o a chaeomagne ic da ing because hey include sedimen a y da a ha smoo h he geomagne ic ield a ia ions h ough ime. Also, new so wa e has been de eloped o ca y ou a chaeomagne ic da ing using a ious SV models (Pa ón-Ca asco e al. 2011). A chaeomagne ic da ing has a ypical ange o e o o a ew cen u ies al hough he e a e good examples eaching da ing esolu ion o a ew ens o yea s as he one epo ed om an ea ly 18 h cen u y b ick kiln by Casas e al. (2007). This depends on se e al ac o s such as sampling o analy ical e o s, inconsis en beha iou o he ma e ial o he a e o a ia ion o he Ea h´s magne ic ield. Howe e , da ing applicabili y o he me hod depends on he leng h and comple eness o he SV cu e o he egion conce ned. The longes and sys ema ic a chaeomagne ic eco ds o he las 8 ky exis o Eas e n Eu ope (Tema and Kondopolou 2011; Ko ache a e al. 2014) bu ha is no he case o Wes e n Eu ope as men ioned be o e. Cu en e o s aim o empo ally and geog aphically ex end SV eco ds using well da ed, in si u a chaeomagne ic ma e ials. Recen s udies ca ied ou on Mid o La e Holocene bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s om he Ibe ian Peninsula (Ca ancho e al. 2009, 2012, 2013) and Cen al Eu ope 8 (Kappe e al. 2014a,b) ha e allowed he ex ension o mid-Holocene imes o he a chaeomagne ic da abase and he da ing echnique. These au ho s showed how unde ce ain condi ions eliable a chaeomagne ic di ec ions can be ob ained om hese ma e ials. As mul iple bu ning e en s a e usually p esen in hese a chaeological sequences, a ious a cheomagne ic da a (spanning a ime pe iod in he ange o hund eds o housands o yea s) can be ob ained om a single si e. Combining 26 new di ec ions ob ained om Neoli hic, Chalcoli hic and B onze Age bu n le els om h ee ca es in Spain wi h he exis ing a chaeomagne ic da abase o Eas e n Eu ope (Ko e e al. 2011; Ko ache a e al., 2009), a di ec ional Eu opean SV cu e o he Neoli hic exclusi ely based on a chaeomagne ic (TRM) da a was published (Ca ancho e al. 2013). Al hough new esul s a e being epo ed (e.g., He è e al. 2013a,b), a chaeomagne ic da a o imes p io o a ound 1000 BC in Wes e n Eu ope a e a he sca ce. Bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s eme ge hus as a new geomagne ic ield eco de wi h a g ea po en ial bo h o geophysical and a chaeological pu poses. 3.2 Resul s and discussion 3.2.1 Magne ic p ope ies Na u al emanen magne iza ion alues a e be ween 4.08 x 10-5 and 8.27 x 10-4 Am2kg-1 whe eas low- ield magne ic suscep ibili y alues oscilla e be ween 6.42 x 10-7 and 4.78 x 10-6 m3kg-1. The highes alues o bo h pa ame e s co espond o he ashes indica ing a majo concen a ion o e omagne ic mine als in his acies. The Koenigsbe ge a io ([Qn = NRM/(χH) (c . S acey 1967)]) whe e χ is he magne ic suscep ibili y and H is he local geomagne ic ield s eng h, yielded alues be ween 1.6 and 19.6. These alues ag ee well wi h o he s epo ed o simila ma e ials (Ca ancho e al. 2009, 2012; Kappe e al. 2014a,b) and indica es ha he NRM is o he mal o igin. The ock magne ic expe imen s ca ied ou allowed cha ac e izing he magne ic mine alogy, domain s a e and he mal s abili y. The IRM acquisi ion cu es a e almos sa u a ed a ields o 150 – 200 mT indica ing ha hey a e domina ed by a low- coe ci i y mine al (Fig. 2). A small ac ion o a high-coe ci i y mine al (up o 5-10 % o he SIRM o Sa u a ion o IRM a 1T), mos p obably haema i e, seems also o be p esen . Howe e , i s con ibu ion o he magne iza ion is no signi ican . The Cu ie empe a u es (TC) de e mined om he momagne ic cu es pe o med on selec ed samples a e a ound 580 ºC indica ing he dominance o magne i e in bo h acies (Fig. 9 3). Occasionally, TCS o up 615 ºC ha e been obse ed in some eddish b own ashes poin ing ou ha s able maghaemi e migh also be p esen (Fig. 3b). The occasional p esence o maghaemi e has been al eady obse ed in his ype o i e (e.g., Ca ancho e al. 2009; 2013) and i would imply a he mochemical emanen magne iza ion (TCRM), making such specimens unsui able o absolu e a chaeoin ensi y de e mina ions. The high he momagne ic e e sibili y o ashes is no ewo hy, pa icula ly he whi e one (Fig. 3a). Con e sely, ca bonaceous specimens exhibi much lowe he momagne ic e e sibili y p oducing seconda y magne i e on cooling (Fig. 3c). This indica es ha hey unde wen lowe hea ing empe a u es as is explained in mo e de ail in case s udy 2 (sec ion 4). 3.2.2. NRM di ec ional s abili y and a chaeomagne ic da ing Fig. 4 (a- ) illus a es ep esen a i e NRM o hogonal demagne iza ion diag ams o bo h acies and he s e eog aphic p ojec ion wi h all he indi idual Cha ac e is ic emanen magne iza ion (ChRM) di ec ions de e mined. All specimens show a seconda y iscous componen o no mal pola i y easily emo able in he i s s eps o he magne ic cleaning (< 10 – 15 mT o < 200 – 250 ºC) pa icula ly e iden in ca bonaceous specimens (Fig. 4d-e). The NRM s abili y o he ashes is de ined by a s able, high in ensi y no mal pola i y componen almos demagne ized a 80–100 mT decaying uni ec o ially owa ds he o igin (Fig. 4a-b). AF demagne ized ca bonaceous specimens exhibi also a single componen (Fig. 4d) o occasionally wo-componen magne iza ions pa ially o e lapping. In he la e case, hese specimens we e no conside ed o calcula e he ChRM di ec ion. Th ee ou o 5 specimens sampled o TH demagne iza ion o he NRM b oke du ing labo a o y analyses. The wo emaining specimens (Fig. 4c and e) co espond o an ash and a ca bonaceous specimen, espec i ely. The ChRM di ec ion in he ash was de e mined be ween 250 ºC o 580-600 ºC. The ChRM di ec ion in he ca bonaceous specimen was de ined be ween 250 ºC and 450 ºC, e lec ing a pa ial he mo- emanen magne iza ion (pTRM) likely caused by mode a e hea ing ha his acies unde wen . This is consis en wi h he i e e sible he momagne ic beha iou o his acies (e.g., Fig. 3c) as is mo e de ailed in sec ion 4 (case s udy 2). AF demagne iza ion is adequa e o de e mine success ully he ChRM di ec ion because he main emanence ca ie is a low-coe ci i y mine al. 16 emains, mixing o bu n and na u al sedimen a y componen s and in he mos ex eme cases, he comple e homogeniza ion o he sedimen . The implica ions o hese p ocesses a e no only cul u al bu also ch onological. Some au ho s ha e no ed he impo ance o collec ing samples o he moluminiscence (TL), op ical s imula ed luminescence (OSL) and elec on spin esonance (ESR) da ing om undis u bed a eas showing he leas e idence o mine alogical change (e.g., Me cie e al. 1995; Ba eman e al. 2007). The measu emen s o he adia ion dose- a es can be se iously a ec ed and no accu a ely e lec he dose- a es p e ailing in he pas . I is easy o unde s and he signi ican consequences de i ed om he co ec assessmen o he deg ee o al e a ion caused by hese p ocesses in e ms o es ablishing a eliable age de e mina ion. Rega dless o whe he he esponsible agen is an h opogenic, biogenic o geogenic (see Goldbe g and She wood 2006 o a good syn hesis), syn/pos -deposi ional p ocesses in ca e i es can be gene ally g ouped as physical and/o chemical. The la e imply mine alogical changes and diagenesis in gene al. Pa icula ly, ash diagenesis om a chaeological ca e i es has been ex ensi ely s udied o e ecen yea s wi h di e se echniques such as soil mic omo phology, Fou ie ans o m In a ed spec ome y (FTIR), geochemis y o scanning elec on mic oscopy, among o he s (e.g., Weine e al. 1993; 2002; Ka kanas 2010; Bull and Goldbe g 1985). Pa icula ly in e es ing a e some s udies ca ied ou on Middle Palaeoli hic si es es ablishing a diach onic sequence o diagene ic al e a ion o calci e, he majo componen o wood ashes (e.g., Schiegl e al. 1996; Weine e al. 1993, 2002). Howe e , bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s (and combus ion ea u es in gene al) a e suscep ible no only o diagenesis bu also o ewo king. Tha is, mechanical dis u bances o he bu n sedimen a y acies. Mechanical ewo king o ca e i es has been adi ionally add essed h ough simple mac oscopic o ield obse a ions. The absence o some o he acies composing hese i es ( ube ied sedimen , cha coal and ashes), absence o hei la e al con inui y o mixing o bu n and unbu n ma e ial a e he main c i e ia used. Recen ly, Men ze (2014) de ailed a comp ehensi e desc ip ion o he main ea u es cha ac e is ic o ewo ked combus ion s uc u es bo h a mac o and mic oscale. The palaeomagne ic echnique has been ecen ly p oposed o e alua e mechanical pos -deposi ional p ocesses in a chaeological ca e i es (Ca ancho e al. 2012). This case s udy aims o es he eliabili y o he me hod de e mining o wha ex en he mechanical ewo king 17 migh ha e a ec ed a pa ially bio u ba ed La e Holocene bu ning e en om El Po alón Ca e (Bu gos, Spain; Fig. 8). 5.2. Resul s and discussion Rep esen a i e examples o NRM demagne iza ion diag ams co esponding o ashes om di e en pa s o he s uc u e a e shown in Fig. 8. The mal demagne iza ion o a ca bonaceous specimen om his e en is shown in Fig. 6a (P3-16; Fig. 8) and whose cha ac e is ics a e epo ed in sec ion 3.2.2 (case s udy 2). The NRM demagne iza ion diag ams o specimens o he igh side o he bu ow (Fig. 8a-b) exhibi an anomalous and uns able di ec ional beha iou . Qn a io alues a e no g ea e han 1 and ini ial magne iza ion in ensi ies (NRM0) a e one o de o magni ude lowe han hose om pu e whi e ashes. On he con a y, NRM demagne iza ion plo s o he le o he bu ow (Fig. 8c-d) a e de ined by a s able single palaeomagne ic componen , a ound 10 imes mo e magne ic han ca bonaceous samples, displaying high Qn a io alues and ep oducible di ec ions among hem. The main magne ic ca ie is a low-coe ci i y mine al as he no malized decay in ensi y plo s indica e. Acco ding o he momagne ic cu es his mine al is low-Ti i anomagne i e o pa ially maghaemi ized magne i e wi h Cu ie empe a u es o a ound 580 ºC – 600 ºC (Fig. 9a- c). Maghaemi e migh be esponsible o he in lec ion obse ed a abou 310 ºC in Fig. 9b, al hough i could also be due o change o g id s uc u e. E en when hese s uc u es we e pa ially a ec ed by bio u ba ion, i is s ill possible o e alua e whe he mechanical ewo king ex ends beyond he isual al e a ion o iginally obse ed in he ield in o de o exclude hose samples o calcula ing he mean a chaeomagne ic di ec ion. The quali y selec ion c i e ia es ablished by Ca ancho e al. (2013) o ob ain a eliable mean di ec ion in hese i es a e ela ed o he ollowing ac o s: (i) a good p ese a ion o he s uc u e (p esence o all he sedimen a y acies o each bu ning e en , meaning ashes o e unde lying ca bonaceous acies), (ii) he in ensi y o he bu ning wi h ega d o he quan i y o uel employed (ash hickness) and (iii) an e icien eco d o he magne iza ion (Koenigsbe ge a io alues g ea e han 1 and a majo i y o demagne iza ion diag ams wi h uni ec o ial NRM among he ashes). 18 The esul s in his s udy a e e y simila o hose epo ed by Ca ancho e al. (2012) whe e he magne ic beha iou o wo di e en bu ning e en s om El Mi ado ca e (one s ongly bio u ba ed and o he appa en ly in si u) was analysed and compa ed. I is e iden ha samples showing anomalous magne ic beha iou we e ewo ked by he e ec o bio u ba ion. Howe e , he in e es ing ac as his case shows is ha adjoining a eas o he bio u ba ion may also su e om ewo king and in many cases his e ec canno be easily dis inguished in he ield. Al hough in his case i did no imply mo emen o a chaeological emains in he s a ig aphy ( umie s a e usually no ich in a chaeological ma e ials), special ca e mus be aken du ing he exca a ion o hese i es. A chaeos a ig aphic 3D p ojec ions o coo dina ed a e ac s (e.g., po e y, li hic emains) can be pa icula ly use ul o a p ope a chaeological in e p e a ion. F om he magne ic poin o iew, a use ul pa ame e wi h ega d o TRM p ese a ion is he Qn a io. Koenigsbe ge alues o his collec ion a e be ween 1 and 7.3 (Fig. 10) whe eas wo ou o h ee samples wi h alues < 1 co espond o ashes om he ewo ked side (e.g., Fig. 8b). The o he is a ca bonaceous sample. On he basis o hese esul s, he ela ionship be ween he in si u na u e o he s uc u e and he p ese a ion o he TRM is ob ious. Mechanical ewo king p omo es he diso ganiza ion o he magne ic momen s o he e omagne ic g ains educing he emanence bu main aining he bulk magne ic suscep ibili y. As his pa ame e does no depend on he o ien a ion o he magne ic g ains (excluding he aniso opy), he di ec consequence is ha he TRM is los and Qn alues become conside ably educed. Mo eo e , he mul icomponen NRM s uc u e o ewo ked samples is also indica i e o al e a ion along wi h lowe magne iza ion alues. Ca ancho e al. (2012) ha e desc ibed he impo ance o combining hese analyses wi h mac oscopic ield obse a ions such as de e mining he la e al con inui y o he acies, absence o sedimen a y mix u es, e c. No signi ican di e ences in e ms o magne ic composi ion o domain s a e a ia ion a e obse ed be ween in si u and ewo ked ash samples om he ock magne ic expe imen s ca ied ou . The back ield a ios ob ained oscilla es be ween 15.79 and 22.94 mT wi hou dis inc i e di e ences be ween bo h ypes o samples. The hys e esis a ios ob ained ange om 0.116 < M s/Ms < 0.170 and 2.645 < Bc /Bc < 4.380 (Fig. 11a), indica ing a pseudo-single domain (PSD) s a e o he magne i e g ains, which sugges s ha he g anulome ic dis ibu ion o bo h he in si u and ewo ked ashes is 19 qui e simila . This homogenei y in magne ic p ope ies can also be obse ed in he ep esen a i e hys e esis loops shown in Fig. 11(b-c) and simila esul s we e epo ed in analogous s udies (Ca ancho e al 2009, 2012; Kappe e al. 2014a,b). Summa izing, i is o p ima y impo ance o a chaeomagne ic da ing pu poses o de e mine he in si u na u e o a ca e i e i only di ec ional analyses a e ca ied ou . Magne ic o ien a ion o a chaeoin ensi y de e mina ions is no indispensable, al hough he ma e ial canno be disagg ega ed. Fo a chaeologis s, he concep o “in si u” does no necessa y mean he same as o a chaeomagne is s. The la e look o bu n ma e ials ha p ese e exac ly he same posi ion as hey had when cooled. Any pos - deposi ional mo emen , no ma e how minimal, may ha e signi ican e ec s in he a chaeomagne ic esul s. A chaeologis s usually conside ha a combus ion ea u e emains in si u as long as a e ac s o sedimen s do no expe ience signi ican s a ig aphic mo emen s which may comp omise he cul u al in e p e a ion o he eco d. Using he abo e guidelines and when possible combining his in o ma ion wi h ha p o ided by o he disciplines (e.g., mic omo phology and FTIR) is he bes way o in e he p ima y o seconda y posi ion o an a chaeological combus ion ea u e. 6. Conclusions Th ee applica ions o a chaeo- and ock magne ism o he s udy o bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s ha e been epo ed in he ollowing case s udies: (i) a chaeomagne ic da ing; (ii) es ima ing palaeo empe a u es and (iii) e alua ing pos -deposi ional p ocesses. Case s udy 1: A mean a chaeomagne ic di ec ion was ob ained om a bu ning e en a El Mi ado Ca e. I s compa ison wi h he di ec ional Eu opean SV cu e yielded se e al da ing in e als. Acco ding o a chaeological e idence, he mos likely da e o he las bu ning was 1651 – 1520 y BC (95 % o con idence), sligh ly olde han an independen adioca bon da e om his uni bu bo h a e a chaeologically consis en . The ag eemen o he wo da ing me hods e eals he po en ial o an h opogenic bu n ca e sedimen s as geomagne ic ield eco de s as well as he possibili y o be da ed by a chaeomagne ism. These da a ep esen he i s a chaeomagne ic da ing ob ained in his ype o ma e ials. 20 Case s udy 2: S epwise he mal demagne iza ion o he NRM o o ien ed ca bocaneous samples is a use ul me hod o es ima e he las hea ing empe a u e. These samples show an in e media e palaeomagne ic componen o no mal pola i y ha we in e p e as a pTRM wi h maximum unblocking empe a u es o 400 – 450 ºC, ep esen ing he las hea ing empe a u e. These empe a u es ag ee well wi h hose ob ained om pa ial he momagne ic analyses. Case s udy 3: The a chaeomagne ic analysis o a bu ning e en pa ially bio u ba ed allowed o ob ain a compa a i e cha ac e iza ion o he magne ic beha iou o in si u samples agains ewo ked samples. The la e showed low NRM in ensi ies (a leas one o de o magni ude), Qn a ios < 1 and mul icomponen na u e o NRM along wi h anomalous di ec ions. Mechanical ewo king ex ends beyond he de o ma ion which one can isually iden i y in he ield. The e o e, special ca e mus be aken when exca a ing hese ea u es in o de o in e p e co ec ly he p ima y posi ion o he ma e ials. As a concluding ema k, a chaeomagne ic analyses on bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s ha e a g ea po en ial no only om he geophysical poin o iew ( econs uc ing di ec ional and/o in ensi y changes o geomagne ic ield in he pas ) bu also o a chaeological pu poses. We encou age ou colleagues o wo k on his ype o ma e ials p omo ing mul idisciplina y collabo a ion. 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Ex ended and e ised a chaeomagne ic da abase and secula a ia ion cu es Figu e 1 Click he e o download high esolu ion image 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Ci1-6 ca bonaceous Ci1-7 ca bonaceous Ci1-16 ash Ci1-19 ASH No malizedIRM Applied ield(mT) Figu e 2 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 Sample:Ci1-19 Whi eash 2.0 4.0 6.0 Temp[°C] a) 700 Sample:Ci1-16 eddishb ownash 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 Temp[°C] 0.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 1.0 2.0 3.0 b) Sample:Ci1-7 ca bonaceous 7000 100 200 300 400 500 600 Temp[°C] 0.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 2.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 c) T =613ºC C T =585ºC CT =575ºC C Figu e 3 Ci1-24 ( =4.3) ASHQn NRM =1.68x10 Am /kg 0 -4 2 A.F.(mT) M/M0 0 20 40 60 80 100 0.0 0.5 1.0 N up/W NRM 10mT 15mT 20mT 100mT a) A.F.(mT) 0 20 40 60 80 100 M/M0 0.0 0.5 1.0 N up/W 10mT 15mT 20mT 100mT NRM Ci1-25 ( =4.8) ASHQn NRM =5.40x10 Am /kg 0 -4 2 b) d) A.F.(mT) 0 20 40 60 80 100 M/M0 0.0 0.5 1.0 N up/W Ci1-5 ( =2.4)CARBONACEOUSQn NRM =1.06x10 Am /kg 0 -4 2 100mT 10mT 15mT NRM N=18Dec=20.1ºInc=56.5º =63.3 95=4.4ºka N ) c) M/M0 0.0 0.5 1.0 2000 T(ºC) 600 400 N up/W 100º 200º 250º 300º 400º 450º NRM 580º Ci1-8 ( =3.3) ASHQn NRM =9.24x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 e) N up/W Ci1-1 ( =1.6)CARBONACEOUSQn NRM =4.08x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 580º 200 0 T(ºC) 600 400 0.0 NRM 200º 350º M/M0 0.5 1.0 250º 400º 150º TH TH Figu e 4 Figu e 5 Click he e o download high esolu ion image 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 T (ºC) 0.0 0.5 1.0 M/M0 TH 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 T (ºC) 0.0 0.5 1.0 M/M0 TH 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 T (ºC) 0.0 0.5 1.0 M/M0 TH 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 T (ºC) 0.0 0.5 1.0 M/M0 TH 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 T (ºC) 0.0 0.5 1.0 M/M0 N up/W NRM 100º 260º 300º 200º 150º 325º N up/W 400º 450º 500º 600º 357º 475º 357º 400º P3-16 ( =1.18)QnNRM =5.46x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 a) TH RM2-9 (Q =1.2) nNRM =1.73x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 NRM 150º 250º 300º 200º c) 300º 400º 450º 550º 600º 300º 400º E up/N P2-01 ( =1,03)QnNRM =3,21x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 E up/N 500º 600º 542º 325º 300º 357º 400º RM1-11 ( =1.71)QnNRM =5,97x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 b) d) p-TRM E up/N E up/N 450º 530º 600º 350º 300º p-TRM p-TRM p-TRM 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 T (ºC) TH 0.0 0.5 1.0 M/M0 N11-21 ( =0.77)QnNRM =1,54x10 Am /kg 0 -5 2 ) N up/W NRM 100º 200º 250º 300º 300º 350º N up/W 450º 580º N9-29 (Q =1.3) nNRM =9.01x10 Am /kg 0 -6 2 e) N up/W N up/W 580º 250º 300º NRM 200º 100º 350º 500º 400º 350º p-TRM NRM 125º 200º 300º 250º p-TRM NRM 150º 200º 260º Dec/Inc(pTRM)=330.9º/53.6º Dec/Inc(pTRM)=25.4º/34.4º Dec/Inc(pTRM)=339.4º/58.7º Dec/Inc(pTRM)=18.6º/71.9º Dec/Inc(pTRM)=24.6º/57.6º Dec/Inc(pTRM)=29.0º/62.1º Figu e 6 0 100 200 300 0.0 Temp[°C] Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 0 100 200 300 400 350ºC Temp[°C] 0.0 0.0 0100 200 300 400 Temp[°C] Hea ingJ =1.28x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 400ºC 450ºC d) Sample:P2-22_350 Hea ingJ =1.26x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 Sample:P2-22_400 1.21.2 1.2 Hea ingJ =1.28x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 Sample:P2-22_450 e) ) 500ºC Hea ingJ =1.16x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 550ºC Hea ingJ =1.26x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 0100 200 300 400 Temp[°C] 500 0.0 1.2 h) 0.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 g) 1.2 0100 200 300 400 Temp[°C] 500 Sample:P2-22_500 Sample:P2-22_550 200 250 300 400 Temp[°C] 500 350 450 550 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Hea ingal e a ionindex acco ding oH oudae al.(2003) A (%) 30 i) a) 0.0 1.2 Sample:P2-22_250 0100 200 Temp[°C] 250ºC Hea ingJ =1.28x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 b) 0 100 200 300 Temp[°C] Sample:P2-22_300 0.0 1.2 c) 300ºC Hea ingJ =1.30x10 Am kg 30 -2 2 -1 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Temp[°C] Sample:P2-22 (up o700ºC) 0.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Figu e 7 Figu e 8 Click he e o download high esolu ion image Sample:P3-3 whi eash 2.0 0.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 1.0 700 0100 200 300 400 500 600 Temp[°C] a) 1.0 0.0 7000 100 200 300 400 500 600 Sample:P3-6 whi eash Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 Temp[°C] b) 0.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 Mag[x10 Am²/kg] -2 5.0 Sample:P3-19 ca bonaceous 7000 100 200 300 400 500 600 Temp[°C] c) T =575ºC C T =310ºC C1 T =585ºC C2 T =593ºC C Figu e 9 101 NRM(A/m) 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 Suscep ibili y(S.I.) 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-1 Qn= 0.1 Qn=1 Qn= 10 Koenigsbe ge  a io,Qn 100 Qn= Ashes Ca bonaceous Figu e 10 6 This has been answe ed be o e (1s ques ion, sec ion 3.2.1). Bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s a e no el ma e ials o a chaeomagne ism and he ew s udies a ailable epo Qn a io alues mos ly comp ised be ween 1 and 10, wi h he highes alues in ashes and he lowes in ca bonaceous samples (see Ca ancho e al. 2009, 2012, 2013; Kappe e al. 2014a,b). See also Fig. 4 and 10 o his manusc ip . We claim ha ca bonaceous samples eco ded a pTRM in he he mal demagne iza ion diag ams and Qn a ios > 1 migh be an indica ion o i , so he sen ence has been modi ied acco dingly. Resul s om pa ial he momagne ic cu es and e e sibili y expe imen s (Fig. 7) a e also a p oo o i , as we jus i y in he nex pa ag aph o he main ex .  Page 12, las pa ag aph (sec ion 4.2): “…pa ial he momagne ic uns we e ca ied ou on a sis e powe ed sample…” Re .1: Wha does sis e powe ed mean? You mean ano he , powde ed sample? Yes, ano he powde ed sis e sample. I is now indica ed.  Page 12, end o las pa ag aph (sec ion 4.2): “This al e a ion can be quan i a i ely es ima ed (see H ouda e al 2003) and s a s a 450 – 500 ºC… Re .1: do you wan o make a quan i a i e es ima e? I ´s done and shown in ig. 6i. In addi ion, mo e de ails a e added ollowing indica ions o e . 2.  Page 13, middle o 1s pa ag aph (sec ion 4.2): “Can i and Lin o d (2000) also epo ed empe a u es o a ound 400 ºC benea h i es exceeding 800 ºC and…”. Re .1: 400° benea h 800°? Wha do you mean? The sen ence has been modi ied o make i clea e . 400 ºC e e s o he subs a e and 800 ºC o he ashes.  Page 13, end o las pa ag aph (sec ion 4.2): “The use ulness o he palaeomagne ic me hod o de e mining hea ing empe a u es in bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s is ce ainly o high alue o he a chaeologis s”. Re .1: Why is i ? You ha en' cla i ied wha hese empe a u es ep esen . This is now be e explained in he main ex (1s pa ag aph sec ion 4.1). 5. Case s udy 3: Assessmen o pos -deposi ional p ocesses 5.1 Backg ound  Page 14, middle o las pa ag aph: “…es ablishing a diach onic sequence o diagene ic al e a ion o calci e, he majo componen o wood ashes”. Re .1: is calci e he majo componen o wood ash?? Yes, i is. This is well known and he e a e many pape s published (e.g., Schiegl e al. 1996, Weine e al. 1993, 2000). These a e ci ed. 5.2 Resul s and discussion  Page 15, end 2nd pa ag aph (sec ion 5.2): “…gi en he in lec ion a in e media e empe a u es o Fig. 8b…”Re .1: Mo e speci ic empe a u e ange Ok, i is included. This sen ence was modi ied also ollowing equi emen s o Re . 2.  Page 15, end 3 d pa ag aph (sec ion 5.2): “…(iii) an e icien eco d o he magne iza ion…”. Re .1: wha does "e icien " mean? I means ha he magne iza ion was eco ded e icien ly, in a quick and us wo hy way. I does no equi e u he explana ion.  Page 16, 2nd pa ag aph: “…and wo ou o he h ee samples wi h alues < 1 co espond o ashes om he ewo ked side (e.g.: Fig. 7b). The o he is a ca bonaceous sample. On he basis o hese esul s, he ela ionship be ween he in si u na u e o he s uc u e and he p ese a ion 7 o he TRM is ob ious.”. Re .1: I would no say ha 2 ou o 3 makes o an ob ious ela ionship 2 ou om 3 samples may no be a pa icula s a is ically obus esul . Howe e , wha is pa icula ly in e es ing is he ela ionship be ween hei loca ion ( igh side o he bu ow, in he bio u ba ed zone) and hei low Qn a io alues, always < han 1. Tha ´s no a coincidence and we obse ed he same beha iou in he bio u ba ed e en s udied by Ca ancho e al. (2012). We eally hink ha he e is ela ionship be ween low Qn a io alues (< han 1) and ewo ked samples. Fu he mo e, ha ela ionship is complemen ed by he o he ea u es desc ibed (e.g., high in ensi y, uni ec o ial NRM diag ams, ep oducible di ec ions among specimens). I is explained wi h enough de ail in ha pa ag aph.  Page 16, 1s lines las pa ag aph (sec ion 5.2): “This is c i ical o di ec ional analyses bu no so much o absolu e a chaeoin ensi y de e mina ions since magne ic o ien a ion is no indispensable”. Re . 1: bu i a ma e ial is disagg ega ed, i will no gi e a alid paleoin ensi y Tha ´s igh . Fo di ec ional analyses o ien a ion is c i ical, no so o a chaeoin ensi y analyses. A chaeoin ensi y can only be pe o med on compac (no disagg ega ed) samples, mainly because o he nume ous hea ings s eps equi ed. The sen ence has been modi ied.  Las pa ag aph page 16 / 1s pa ag aph page 17: “Fo a chaeologis s, he concep o “in si u” does no necessa y mean he same as o a chaeomagne is s”. Re . 1: so wha does i mean o a chaeologis s? A sen ence explaining i has been included. 6. Conclusions  Page 17: “As a concluding ema k, a chaeomagne ic analyses on bu n an h opogenic ca e sedimen s ha e a g ea po en ial ... bu also o a chaeological pu poses” Re . 1: Whe e in his pape a e hose a chaeological pu poses made explici ? We ha e epo ed h ee di e en applica ions o a chaeological in e es (a chaeomagne ic da ing, es ima ing palaeo empe a u es and assessing pos -deposi ional al e a ions). Fo example, hey a e explici ly men ioned in he abs ac and in he las pa ag aph o he in oduc ion: “The main goal o his pape is o highligh he po en ial o magne ic me hods o answe a chaeological ques ions h ough h ee di e en applica ions…, e c.”. Ce ainly, hey p o ide aluable in o ma ion o “a chaeological pu poses”. Speci ic commen s o he PDF ile (Re iewe #2): Mino changes sugges ed by e iewe 2 complemen a y o hose om e iewe 1 ha e been in oduced. Please, ind below de ailed answe o he mos impo an ques ions. Abs ac (Re . 2): “This is he i s a chaeomagne ic da ing ob ained in hese con ex s so a ”. Re iewe 2 sugges s o emo e his sen ence. We p e e o main ain i because is ue and highligh s he ele ance o he da ing a emp ca ied ou in he case s udy 1. 1. In oduc ion  Page 2, las line 1s pa ag aph: “…i s applica ion in p ehis o ic a chaeology is s ill spo adic and i s po en ial o e ie e a chaeological in o ma ion emains unde u ilized.” Re e ee 2 sugges s changing “ emains unde u ilized” by “is mainly ocused on a chaeomagne ic da ing”. A chaeomagne ic da ing in p ehis o ic ma e ials has been ba ely used because a ailable secula a ia ion cu es only each he las 2-3 millennia. Fu he mo e, he e isn´ any a chaeomagne ic da ing speci ically ca ied ou on hese ma e ials ye . Fo hese easons we lea e he commen . 2. Ma e ials and me hods 8 2.1 Sampling  Pages 3-4: “…As h ee di e en case s udies wi h di e en applica ions a e epo ed, speci ic de ails o sampling and labo a o y analysis will be gi en in each one o hem”. Re . 2: I would add his in o ma ion he e in his sub chap e a he han in 3 sepa a e subchap e s, in o de no o dis ac om he case s udies Following sugges ions o bo h e iewe s, sec ion 2.2 now includes sampling de ails o each case s udy. Sampling subsec ions in he p e ious e sion (3.1.2 and 3.3.2) a e now emo ed. 2.2.1 Case s udy 1 (p e ious sec ion 3.1.2)  Page 4, sec ion 2.2.1: “…The ashes a e whi e on op and eddish b own on he bo om wi h a o al hickness o abou 15 cm”. Is i also ash i i is eddish b own? O could i also be a he mally al e ed pa ? I is ce ainly a he mally al e ed acies bu we conside ed i as ashes (dis inguishing he colou ) because hey a e di ec ly abo e he unde lying ca bonaceous acies, which ep esen s he subs a e upon which he hea ing ook place. The simila i y in he magne ic p ope ies be ween whi e and b own ashes om Ci1 e en in e ms o magne ic ca ie , mine al magne ic concen a ion as well as domain s a e is a clea indica ion ha hey unde wen high empe a u e hea ing as expec ed in ashes. I can be obse ed in Fig. 2 (IRM cu es), Fig. 3a-b ( he momagne ic cu es) and Fig. 4 (NRM demagne iza ion diag ams). 2.3Labo a o y me hods This in o ma ion p e iously gi en in o he sec ions in he i s e sion is now epo ed he e. 3.1 Backg ound  Page 6, end 2nd pa ag aph (sec ion 3.1): “…bu no sui ed o a chaeomagne ic da ing because hey include sedimen a y da a ha smoo h he geomagne ic ield a ia ions h ough ime” Re . 2: This depends on he ime pe iod. Besides, a eco d o lake sedimen s migh no be w ong, bu only smoo hed. Yes, he e iewe is igh bu i he eco d is smoo hed (and is well known ha sedimen a y da a om lakes o ma ine sequences p oduces ha e ec ), i is no sui ed o a chaeomagne ic da ing. I can be used o co ela ing sequences, bu no o da ing. The consensus wi hin he a chaeomagne ic communi y is ha he design o secula a ia ion cu es mus be done wi h ma e ials ca ying a he mo emanence (TRM). Fo his eason we lea e he s a emen .  Page 7, i s line: “… ha is no he case o Wes e n Eu ope as men ioned be o e”. Re . 2 sugges : whe eas o Wes e n Eu ope he longes eco d eaches back only XXXX yea s. I is said a he end o he 1s pa ag aph o his sec ion 3.1: “…mos Eu opean SV cu es co e he las 2-3 millennia…”. We lea e i o a oid epe i ions. 3.2.1 Magne ic p ope ies Rep esen a i e examples o IRM acquisi ion cu es a e now in he new Fig.2.  End page 7 / beginning page 8: “The Cu ie empe a u es (TC) de e mined om he momagne ic cu es pe o med on selec ed samples a e a ound 580 ºC indica ing…”. Re . 2: please add e o ange. Cu ie empe a u es we e calcula ed wi h he wo- angen me hod o G ommé e al. (1969). I ´s now included in he main ex (2nd pa ag aph, sec ion 2.3). The Cu ie poin is de e mined p ojec ing on o he abscissa axis (X-axis) he c oss poin o he wo angen s. So i is a isual es ima e. Howe e we es ima e ha he e o ange is o ± 10 ºC in he wo s case, bu ha depends on e e y cu e, i s quali y signal o he slope. This analysis is used o in e he e omagne ic mine alogy and in p ac ical e ms, hese acies a e all domina ed by low-Ti i anomagne i e so adding his in o ma ion is no pa icula ly use ul. 9 3.2.2. NRM di ec ional s abili y and a chaeomagne ic da ing  Page 8, 1s pa ag aph (sec ion 3.2.2): “All samples show…” Re .2: a e hey om samples o specimens? I is specimens. We ha e checked i along he manusc ip .  Page 8, 2nd pa ag aph (sec ion 3.2.2): “The ChRM di ec ion in he ca bonaceous sample was de ined be ween 250 ºC and 450 ºC, e lec ing a pa ial he mo- emanen magne iza ion (p-TRM) likely caused by mode a e hea ing ha his acies unde wen ” Re .2: This sample is demagne ized by abou 450 deg ees e lec ing mode a e hea ing ha his acies unde wen Please, see answe o his ques ion in answe s o Re . 1 (page 4, his documen ). I is speci ically explained in e e ence o Re iewe 2.  Page 8, las pa ag aph: “Following he quali y selec ion c i e ia es ablished by Ca ancho e al. (2013), …” Re .2: please summa ize he selec ion c i e ia he e sho ly They a e now included in he main ex (3 d pa ag aph, sec ion 3.2.2)  Page 9, end 1s pa ag aph (sec ion 3.2.2): “As is discussed u he in he case s udy 3 (sec ion 3.3), all hese ea u es a e indica i e o some ype o pos -deposi ional ewo king”. Re .2:.o hea ing o low empe a u es? Tha is no likely because in si u ashes om his bu ning e en show e y high in ensi ies, uni ec o ial NRM demagne iza ion diag ams o high alues o Qn a io. All o hem ea u es ela ed wi h hei in si u and well-hea ed na u e. I he samples wi h “anomalous” magne ic beha iou (e.g., anomalous di ec ions o mul icomponen demagne iza ion diag ams, e c) come om he bio u ba ed a ea, pos -deposi ional ewo king is mos likely he cause o such esul s.  Page 9, end o 2nd pa ag aph: (abou he a chaeomagne ic da ing o case s udy 1) “The las one is wi hin he bounds o possibili y bu is ou o he adioca bon da e ange (1510 - 1410 y BC) by mo e han h ee cen u ies. Re .2:.bu his age has he la ges p obabili y acco ding o ig. 4. Can you explain his disc epancy? I is ue ha his age ange has he la ges p obabili y om he s a is ical poin o iew. Howe e , i does no seem o be a chaeologically consis en and is ou o he adioca bon da e ange (1510 - 1410 y BC) by mo e han h ee cen u ies. This was poin ed ou bu a b ie commen is now included. A chaeomagne ism is a ela i e da ing me hod and i espec i e o he possible ages ob ained, hey mus be cohe en wi h he a chaeological con ex o be eliable.  Page 9, las pa ag aph o sec ion 3.2.2: “Beyond ha , he impo an ac is ha i is al eady possible o da e wi h a chaeomagne ism bu n a chaeological ea u es om Wes e n Eu ope…” Re .2: Please e o m, no so clea o me. Ok, his pa ag aph has been modi ied o imp o e i s unde s anding. 4. Case s udy 2: es ima ing hea ing empe a u es 4.1 Backg ound  Page 10, end o 2nd pa ag aph sec ion 4.1: Re .2:.He e you could also ci e Rada To es e el. (2011) Ok, a b ie commen abou his e e ence is now included. 4.2 Resul s and discussion  Page 11, 1s pa ag aph sec ion 4.2: “… om El Mi ado , Po alón and El Mi ón Ca e (Spain).” Re .2:.please add e e ence o Fig. 1 a e adding loca ion Map o Fig. 1 now includes loca ion o si es. The e e ence o Fig. 1 is added in he ex he e. 10  Page 11, 2nd pa ag aph sec ion 4.2: “Finally, a high empe a u e componen …”. The ac onym “HT” (high empe a u e) is added a e i s i s ime ci ed. Thus we a oid epe i i e ex he eina e .  Page 11, 2nd pa ag aph sec ion 4.2: “A e emo ing a low empe a u e componen p obably o iscous o igin (< 150 – 200 ºC),…” Re .2: I see maximum empe a u e o he iscous componen o 125 deg ees Looking ca e ully, max TUB o he seconda y low- empe a u e ( iscous) componen o some diag ams eaches 200 ºC (e.g., Fig. 6c o d). I is obse able looking he demagne iza ion ec o s o each diag am combining bo h he ho izon al and he e ical p ojec ion. Fo example, in Fig. 6d he max TUB o his iscous componen is no 125 ºC, bu clea ly 200 ºC (see solid do s o NRM demagne iza ion diag am; he ho izon al plane). Unde es ima ing he max TUB o he iscous componen implies e o s de e mining he ChRM di ec ion.  Page 11, end o 2nd pa ag aph sec ion 4.2: Re .2: ( eplace he p e ious sen ence o his one): This is a abou 400-450 deg ees whe e he in e media e magne iza ion componen swi ches he di ec ion ... Ok, i has been changed (end o 2nd pa ag aph, sec ion 4.2).  Page 11, 3 d pa ag aph sec ion 4.2: “The ac ha he in e media e magne iza ion componen lies along he Ea h´s magne ic ield di ec ion is he basic p inciple o he echnique in hese ma e ials” Re .2:.Wha a e D and I o he p esen geomagne ic ield a his loca ion? Declina ion and inclina ion o he h ee si es s udied a e shown below. They we e calcula ed o he 2015 Sep embe 28 h, wi h he WMM2015 model. Howe e , we would like o gi e an explana ion o his e iewe ´s commen . These ma e ials a e Holocene so is ob ious ha , i hey a e in si u, hey all should show no mal pola i y as is he case. I has no sense o pe o m any compa ison o he pTRM di ec ions ob ained wi h he p esen geomagne ic ield a he s udied si es because o he secula a ia ion (SV), since hey do no necessa y ha e o coincide. P ecisely because o he SV, some di ec ional a ia ion wi h espec o he p esen ield is expec ed o mid la i udes as he Ibe ian Peninsula (e.g., Gómez-Pacca d e al. 2006): ± 20 º in declina ion and be ween abou 45º o 70º in inclina ion. So, indica ing he p esen ield di ec ion o each si e will no gi e any use ul in o ma ion o he eade and will in oduce con usion. Please, see nex answe . The p esen geomagne ic ield a e e y loca ion is (Fig. 6 includes examples om 3 si es, no only one): -El Mi ón Ca e: -1° 4' 7" (W) / 58º 27´ 19´´ -Mi ado Ca e (Sie a de A apue ca): -1° 1' 53" (W) / 57° 26' 50" -Po alón Ca e (Sie a de A apue ca): -1° 2' 4" (W) / 57° 26' 49" Following his easoning, why no o calcula e he ield di ec ion o yea 2000 o 1950 o 1900? I is a way o saying ha his in o ma ion is no use ul o he eade . Please add D and I o he pTRM in Fig 5. I is now included in he new igu e 6. The impo an poin is ha he pTRM di ec ions a e no hwa d as we a gue in he ex and is now shown in Fig. 6. This in o ma ion is eally help ul o he eade .  Page 12, end 2nd pa ag aph (sec ion 4.2): “None heless, some esul s sugges a TRM o igin o he magne iza ion…”. Re .2: which esul s? please speci y! We e e ed o he Qn a io explained in he nex sen ence and also o he J-T cu es explained in he nex pa ag aph. Following also sugges ions o Re . 1, he sen ence has been modi ied. 11  Page 12, end 2nd pa ag aph (sec ion 4.2): Re . 2: Figu e e e ence is w ong, should be 6 o keep he o de . Please change he subsequen igu e numbe s. So y, bu he e e ence o ha igu e was co ec . We e e ed o sample N11-21. As a new igu e 2 has been included, his is now igu e 6 .  Page 12, end o las pa ag aph: “This al e a ion can be quan i a i ely es ima ed…” Re .2: Please pu one sen ence he e, which explains how i is done. Ok, a b ie explana ion is now included.  Page 12, end o las pa ag aph: “This al e a ion can be quan i a i ely es ima ed and s a s a 450 – 500 ºC, eaching a maximum a 550 ºC (Fig. 6i)” Re .2: How do you know ha is is no a mo e han 550 deg ees? You do no ha e pa ial he momagne ic cu es up o 700 each 50 deg ee s eps. Why is A30(%) o 700 deg ees missing in he igu e? PLease add i in Fig. 6i. We don´ know empi ically because he maximum hea ing empe a u e applied in his expe imen was 550 ºC, as i is said a ew lines be o e in he main ex . Howe e , om 600 ºC o 700 ºC he al e a ion index p og essi ely will educe because magne i e neo o ma ion is no possible. These empe a u es a e o e he Cu ie empe a u e o magne i e (Tc ~ 580 ºC), so he sample loose i s e omagne ism. Un o una ely, his sample canno be analyzed again because ou Balance is cu en ly no wo king due o a b eakdown. Howe e , o demons a e ou a gumen , we show below esul s om o he ca bonaceous sample om El Mi ado Ca e (sample FU1-28; see igu e below) on which his expe imen was pe o med om 250 ºC o 700 ºC. Please, no e how he maximum al e a ion occu s be ween 400 and 550 ºC (exac ly he same as he example shown in Fig. 7) and om 550 ºC o 700 ºC he al e a ion index is educed o he eason gi en abo e. This example canno be inco po a ed in o he main ex because we don´ ha e speci ically a TH demagne iza ion diag am o he NRM o his sample and he idea is o compa e he “pTRM me hod” wi h his pa ial he momagne ic cu e expe imen s on ca bonaceous samples om he same bu ning e en . Anyway, his esul con i ms ha he ange o empe a u es a which ca bonaceous acies we e hea ed is comp ised be ween 400 – 550 ºC. See g aph below. 12  Page 13, 1s lines 1s pa ag aph: “As a as he ashes a e conce ned, hese mos likely eached empe a u es o e 600 – 700 ºC…”. Re .2: Please e e ence he e, Figu e no shown, o explain om which expe imen you go his esul s. The sen ence has been ew i en ollowing indica ions o Re . 2. The e e ences o he s udies whe e his in o ma ion come om we e al eady in he ex as well as a desc ip ion o hei beha iou .  Page 13, middle o 1s pa ag aph: “… om a se ies o ac ualis ic i e expe imen s.” Re .2: I do no unde s and... ac ual? Ac ualis ic is co ec . “Ac ualis ic s udy”: a de ailed obse a ion o he ac ual use o a chaeological a i ac s, eco ac s, and ea u es, used o p oduce gene al analogies o a chaeological in e p e a ion 13 5. Case s udy 3: Assessmen o pos -deposi ional p ocesses 5.1 Backg ound  Page 14, 1s pa ag aph (sec ion 5.1): “…samples o TL, OSL and ESR da ing…”. Re .2: please explain abb e ia ions. Ok, hey a e now expanded.  Re . 2: Please mo e also his pa o chap e 2 (abou he p e ious 3.3.2 sec ion: Sampling and labo a o y analyses). I has been mo ed and desc ibed in 2.2.3 subsec ion (sampling case s udy 3). 5.2. Resul s and discussion.  Page 15, 1s pa ag aph sec ion 5.2: Re .2: Fig. 7: please add loca ion o P3-16 in igu e. Ok, i has been added. I is new igu e 8.  Page 15, 1s pa ag aph sec ion 5.2: “…NRM demagne iza ion plo s om he cen al-le pa o he bu ning e en …”. Re .2: bu ow?. The sen ence has been ew i en o be be e unde s ood.  Page 15, 1s pa ag aph sec ion 5.2: “…displaying high alues o he Qn a io…”. Re .2: in he ange o xxx. I is speci ically said on page 16 (2nd line, 5 h pa ag aph o sec ion 5.2), when aking abou he Qn a io. I is also isible in Fig. 10.  Page 15, 2nd pa ag aph sec ion 5.2: Acco ding o he momagne ic cu es i is low-Ti Ti anomagne i e wi h Cu ie empe a u es o a ound 580 ºC (Fig. 8a-c) and possibly also maghaemi e gi en he in lec ion a in e media e empe a u es o Fig. 8b”. Re . 2: Fig. 8a seems o ha e a Tc a abou 600 deg ees. PLease cla i y.. Yes, o Fig. 9a he Tc is mo e 600 ºC han 580 ºC. I is be e explained in he ex now and Cu ie empe a u es indica ed in Fig. 9(a-c)  Page 15, end o 2nd pa ag aph sec ion 5.2: “…possibly also maghaemi e gi en he in lec ion a in e media e empe a u es o Fig. 8b”. Re . 2: he in lec ion migh also be due o change o g id s uc u e. Ok, i has been included.  Page 15, 3 d pa ag aph sec ion 5.2:: “…(ii) wi h he in ensi y o he bu ning (ash hickness)…” Re . 2: a lo o ash migh be p oduced by a lo o uel, bu does no mean ha bu ning ook long. Yes, ha ´s ue. I is now be e indica ed in he main ex .  Page 16, end o 2nd pa ag aph: “I has been claimed he impo ance o combining hese analyses wi h mac oscopic ield obse a ions (Ca ancho e al. 2012).” Re . 2: This sen ence is no clea o be, please e o m. The sen ence has been modi ied o make i clea e .  Page 16, 3 d pa ag aph: Re . 2: Wha abou he o he ock magne ic expe imen s: IRM, back ield, hys e eses.... do hey show di e ences be ween dis u bed and undis u bed pa s? Please men ion he e oo. A pa ag aph has been included wi h an app op ia e explana ion. No signi ican di e ences we e obse ed be ween he in si u and he ewo ked ashes. A new igu e 11 was included. 14 Re e ences: The ollowing e e ences ha e been added: Cal o-Ra he e al. (2012) Ca ancho (2010) Dunlop (2002) G ommé e al. (1969) Ki sch ink (1980) Ve gès e al. ( his issue). Figu es:  Figu e 1: Si e loca ions o all si es we e added in he map  Figu e 2: A new Figu e 2 was c ea ed showing ep esen a i e IRM cu es om Ci1 e en .  Figu e 3: The co esponding TCS o each cu e we e added in he igu e (Re . 2).  Figu e 5: The las line o he legend was elimina ed (Re . 1).  Figu e 6: Declina ion and Inclina ion o he pTRM componen was indica ed o each panel (Re . 2)  Figu e 8: Loca ion o specimen P3-16 (ca bonaceous) was inse ed in he pho o (Re . 2).  Figu e 9: The co esponding Tcs o each cu e was added in he igu es (Re . 2).  Figu e 10: “(S.I.)” was no elimina ed as Re . 2 sugges ed. I e e s o “Sys ème In e na ionale” and is necessa y o indica e i o di e en ia e om he “cgs” sys em (cen ime e, g am, second).  Figu e 11: A new igu e 11 was included wi h a Day plo and wo ep esen a i e hys e esis loops o an in si u and a ewo ked ash, espec i ely. (Re . 2). Cap ion igu es: They we e e ised ollowing e iewe s´ sugges ions.