Biological histories of an elite: Skeletons from the Royal Chapel of Lugo Cathedral (NW Spain)

RESEARCH ARTICLE Biological histories of an elite: Skeletons from the Royal Chapel of Lugo Cathedral (NW Spain) Olalla L opez-Costas 1,2,3 | Gundula Müldner 4 | Kerstin Lidén 2 1 Group EcoPast (GI-1553), Area of Archaeology, Department of History, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain 2 Archaeological Research Laboratory, Wallenberglaboratoriet, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden 3 Laboratory of Anthropology, Department of Legal Medicine, Toxicology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain 4 Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Reading, UK Correspondence Olalla L opez-Costas, Group EcoPast (GI-1553), Area of Archaeology, Department of History. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela 15782, Spain. Email: [email protected]; olalla.lope[email protected] Funding information Direcci on Xeral de Patrimonio Hist orico de Galicia; Xunta de Galicia, Grant/Award Numbers: ED431B 2018/20, ED 431D2017/08, ED481D 2017/014; Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci on and Beca Leonardo a Investigadores y Creadores Culturales 2020 de la Fundaci on BBVA, Grant/ Award Number: PID2019-111683RJ-I00 Abstract This study aims to reconstruct the biological histories of the people buried at the Royal Chapel of Lugo Cathedral, an important religious center of NW Spain, by using anthropological, geochemical, and historical perspectives. We conducted a macroscopic and radiographic study on 955 skeletal elements, a multi-isotope (δ 13 C col , δ 15 N, δ 34 S col ,δ 13 C ap ,δ 18 O ap ) analysis of human (n=12) and animal (n=4) samples, and the study of 1407 documents from the cathedral archives. There was a minimum of 15 individuals, including six subadults (<7 years), seven mature males, and one possible female. Several traumatic healed injuries, a pelvis osteochondroma, and a case of DISH have been detected. Males were enriched in 15 N (up to 15.7‰,Δ humananimal avg =5.1‰) suggesting consumption of animal protein including freshwater fish. Cathedral documents reflect fora payments in the form of rye, eggs, poultry, sheep, pigs, and eels as well as the hiring of two physicians. All individuals, except one, lived between the 14 th and the early 15 th centuries and show characteristics of high standard of living. Males were likely members of the cathedral—chaplains, administrators, sacristans, but not bishops—or noblemen relatives of the former according to preserved documents. Isotopic and paleopathological study suggest that they had an active and traveling life and at least one of them had connections with Central Spain. Children were local and possibly connected to the nobility. Lugo Cathedral is a prime example about the possibilities of transdisciplinary research in the identification of lifestyle in past populations. KEYWORDS apatite, cathedral documents, clergyman, collagen, DISH 1|INTRODUCTION The study of human remains from an osteological or anthropological perspective greatly advanced our knowledge of past societies. The main focuses of research include studies such as morphological studies, to approach the biological profile or the analysis of paleopathology as a proxy of paleo-health. Even for periods when written sources are available, human remains produce new data that can highlight issues usually not included in the chronicles, for example, the everyday life of children or women. Osteological studies have come a long way to reconstruct past lifestyle (e.g., Larsen, 2002; L opez-Costas, Müldner, & Cortizas, 2015). They have progressively moved from the more anecdotal case studies to seeking a comprehensive understanding of populations and societies. Combined works, including studies of bioarcheology/paleopathology and chemical composition of bone, have begun to appear to unravel diet and mobility Received: 8 March 2021 Revised: 22 May 2021 Accepted: 28 May 2021 DOI: 10.1002/oa.3011 This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes. © 2021 The Authors. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Int J Osteoarchaeol. 2021;1–16. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa 1 on the population level (see, e.g., Curto et al., 2019; L opez-Costas & Alexander, 2019; Richards & Montgomery, 2012). The endeavor of the combined studies, however, often turned out to be more complex than previously believed because integration is not always easy. It is a great challenge to unify all the data generated by the different methods in order to avoid the mere juxtaposition of results. Paleodiet, as a paradigm of bone chemical analyses, is just starting to meet paleopathology (Katzenberg & Lovell, 1999; L opez-Costas, Müldner, & Grandal d'Anglade, 2015; Richards & Montgomery, 2012). Today, there is a new border to cross, namely, the true integration of historical sources. Studies of human remains and archaeological/ anthropological findings usually consider historical or archeological literature in their discussion, but with more or less enthusiasm (see for recommendations in L opez-Costas & Alexander, 2019), just as historical studies only use anthropological or isotopic data to illustrate what is interpreted from the documents (Andrade Cernadas, 2006; Harper, 2017). When concerning a specific site, both types of data can often be found together in books, but normally with low integration among them, i.e. with few exceptions, osteological studies are just appendices (Patrick, 2014). We believe that historical data should be included as part of the results of a necropolis study and not only in the discussion. In this study, we aim to treat historical documents at the same level as other information directly obtained from skeletal remains. Our particular study concerns a period, when documents are especially important, the Late Middle Ages. During Medieval and post-Medieval times, religious institutions ruled the cultural life in both Christian and Islamic European societies. Religious people were also deeply involved in the economic and social history. Human remains from convents and cathedrals, being important osteological and anthropological records, are also predominantly used in studies to address differences between ecclesiastical and lay people (e.g., DeWitte et al., 2013; Mays, 1997; Müldner & Richards, 2007; Quintelier et al., 2014), diseases (e.g., Judd, 2020; Rogers & Waldron, 2001; Väre et al., 2020), or diet and mobility (e.g., Ahlin Sundman, 2018; Müldner et al., 2009; Sarkic et al., 2019). In the case of Christian Iberian societies, the nature of monastic institutions underwent significant change from the monasteries of the early Middle Ages, often founded by prominent families, and the rich Cathedrals built during the Gothic period. The 14 th century was transformative here. Known as the Medieval Crisis, this century saw severe famines and the Black Death. Intermittent poor weather in the first half of the of the century was followed by more general climate deterioration registered from AD 1350 onwards, known as the Little Ice Age (Oliva et al., 2018), causing crop failure and famines. Child mortality was high (Arroñada, 2002a, 2002b). Violence increased with different episodes, such as the civil war in the Castilian kingdom (1351–1369) or various assaults to Jewish quarters. Cities and village councils that had increased their independence during the rich 13 th century (L opez-Costas & Müldner, 2019) were in constant fights with the lay and ecclesiastic nobility, with royalty supporting one or the other (Arquero Caballero, 2016; Lacreu, 1998). Nobility reacted to the loss of wealth and power with excessive taxes and new fora (i.e., contractual agrarian documents) leveled on the peasantry (Lacreu, 1998), which in turn led to a series of social conflicts that characterized the 15 th century and markedly transformed the way of life of the Castilian and Galician people (Caz on, 2006). Another result of the crisis was that records and accounts kept by monasteries and cathedrals became increasingly detailed and abundant in the Iberian Peninsula (e.g., Portela Silva, 2005, 2007a, 2007b; Risco, 1798). A large body of historic studies have analyzed these sources for reconstructing economic trends as well as the everyday life of monks, chaplains and noble people (e.g., Andrade Cernadas, 2005, 2006, 2009; Arquero Caballero, 2016; Arroñada, 2007; Risco, 1798). In the history of the medieval kingdom of Castile, the city of Lugo in modern day Galicia (NW Spain) played an important role (Figure 1). Lugo had been a flourishing commercial center since Roman times. Its early evangelization led to the establishment of a Diocese and a small Cathedral from at least the 8 th century AD. The Bishopric exercised here a strict control over the village along all the Middle Ages. The fact that Lugo bishops had close connections to the Castilian Crown during Late Medieval times allowed them to maintain this empowerment over the inhabitants (Arquero Caballero, 2016). The Cathedral was rebuilt between AD 1129 and 1273 in Romanesque style and a number of new side chapels were added in the Late Medieval period. The bishop, Pedro L opez de Aguiar (1315–1400; bishop from 1349 to 1390), acted as patron for the construction of the Royal Chapel in the North side at the end of the 14 th century, 1379–1381 (Agrelo, 2001; Porto, 1993). A Royal Chapel was advocated to the Castilian Crown, but as far as we know, it was never used to bury members of the royal family. In 1611, the Royal Chapel was connected to the San Froil an Chapel on its west side, creating a larger chapel called Capela do Pilar, that today can be found as part of the Cathedral (Caz on, 2006; Piñeyro Pérez, 1992). In 2007 Archeological works made on Capela do Pilar discovered several tombs with skeletal remains in them (excavated by the main author of this work) ( Alvarez Meraio, 2007) that will, through the analysis of skeletal remains, provide an excellent opportunity to better understand the everyday life of the rich diocese, that controlled the economy of NW Spain during the Late Middle Ages. This study combines (1) osteoarcheological analyses, including paleopathology, to approach the biological profile and health status, (2) stable isotopes analysis, to approach diet and mobility, and (3) analysis of the Cathedral historical documents to approach the characteristics of the individuals and their quality of life; all together will be combined to obtain the biological histories of the people buried in the Capela do Pilar chapel. We will try to better understand who these people were, how they lived, how their diet was, and where they came from by integrating different analytical perspectives. 2|MATERIAL AND METHODS 2.1 |Archeological background A total of 955 bone pieces were discovered inside the Capela do Pilar chapel during the 2007 archeological survey ( Alvarez Meraio, 2007) originating from 15 individuals (see Table 1). The archeological works 2LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL. uncovered seven tombs in which the bones were found with and without anatomical connection (Table 1). Nonarticulated individuals were easily identified and individualized according to sex and age criteria (see Table 1). The oldest inhumation, T10B (980–1150 cal AD (2σ)), was placed on the North side of the chapel; it was a simple earthen burial with a single skeleton in a supine position. The other skeletons were found in slate slab burials (T10B, T11A, T11B, T12, and T13). All anatomically intact skeletons and tombs were placed in a West–East direction, except for burial T11A that was placed North–South. T11A was the most recent inhumation and contained two skeletons. Burial T14 was an anthropomorphic stone burial. According to the archeological excavation, it was suggested that T10B may belong to an earlier burial phase that took place before the construction of the chapels in the 14th century ( Alvarez Meraio, 2007); this means in the cemetery surrounding the cathedral (i.e., outside the temple). According to the stratigraphy and the orientation, the other burials date to, approximately, when the chapel Capela dos Reis was constructed, in the late 14 th century. The change in orientation in T11A was probably connected with an early 15 th century altar on the South area, facing it (Caz on, 2006; Piñeyro Pérez, 1992). 2.2 |Radiocarbon dating Two human bones were radiocarbon dated by accelerator mass spectrometry at the SUERC Radiocarbon Laboratory. The bones that were dated were selected from reliable archeological contexts, skeleton CP-703 (995 ± 30BP; lad-code SUERC-27371/GU-20681) from burial T10B, and CP-701 (665 ± 30; lab-code SUERC-27372/ GU-20682) from burial T11A; probably the oldest and the most recent burials, respectively. The calibrated (Intcal13 though Oxcal) ages from in CP-703, and from 1270 to 1400 cal AD (2σ), in CP-701. This was interpreted that the earlier phase of skeletons outside the cathedral happened around the 11th century, and the burials at Capela do Pilar finished as latter as early 15 th century AD. Thus, radiocarbon dating agrees with historical and archeological records in the dates of the burials. Approximate dating of the skeletal remains can be seen in Table 1. 2.3 |Osteological and paleopathological study No associated grave goods were found in the burials or with the skeletons. A complete osteological and paleopathological study was performed. It included the minimum number of individuals (NMI) of each burial, sex and age estimation, study of pathological and taphonomic markers. Preservation index, markers for sex and age estimation, and pathological lesions were recorded using the international standards suitable for Spanish populations (see M arquez-Grant et al., 2011). Number of bones preserved was evaluated by the conservation index (IC) (Campillo, 2001) IC =no. bones/200, and preservation index for long bones (IP1) (Safont, 2003) IP1 =no. FIGURE 1 Maps indicating the location of Lugo including the cathedral (right-orange), the chapel Capela do Pilar (right-red CP) and the Roman wall (right-yellow). The course of the river Miño is also showed (left, central upper—blue). A 1:20 planimetry of the chapel has been included (left down) where the tombs' numbers are displayed. The map of Lugo was obtained modified from SIXPAC (Visor SigPac V3.3) and the planimetry from the archeological report ( Alvarez Meraio, 2007) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL.3 TABLE 1 Burial typology and skeletal features of the human remains found during the archeological works inside the chapel Capela do Pilar from Lugo Cathedral Burial Burial area Sample code Funerary deposit Dating AD Or Sex Age CI IP1 Stature (cm) OA Main pathological features T10 T10B CP-703 1supine 10-12 th W/E M 45–50 54 67 170 Moderate Ankylosis C2–C3, cyst in T5, emerging DISH, rib fracture T10A CP-712 214 th F? Adult 3 17 CP-714 214 th In 4–718 - T11 T11B CP-704 1supine 14 th W/E M 40–45 69 100 163 Moderate 5 fractures: right maxilla, 2 ribs, T6 vertebra, 1 phalange T11A CP-701 1supine 15 th N/S M 50–55 74 100 166 Moderate Possible DISH, 3 button osteoma CP-702 1supine 15 th N/S M 45–50 62 100 170 Moderate Rugosity and bone change at the conoid tubercle CP-705 214 th M40–45 43 83 173 Low Fracture in right zygomatic bone CP-706 214 th M30–35 42 83 167 Low Subperiosteal hematoma frontal bone, osteochondritis, osteochondroma right ilium CP-707 214 th M45–50 28 75 164 Low Necrosis in a foot phalange, periostitis in femurs, tibiae and fibulas CP-713 2? In 0.5–1 2 17 - T12 CP-710 1supine 14 th W/E In 3–4 5 42 - CP-711 214 th In 2–31667 - T13 CP-708 1supine 14 th In 6–8 47 100 - C2–C3 fusion, periostitis in ribs, greenstick fracture rib CP-709 214 th W/E In 5–62792 - - T14 CP-715 2? In Adult? 16 25 Note: Anthropological and archeological data were extracted from L opez Costas thesis (L opez-Costas, 2012). Key: M =male; F =female. In =indeterminate. 1primary deposit, 2secondary deposit. Or orientation. Age expressed in years-old. CI conservation index, IP preservation index. Sin sinusitis. Vertebrae: C cervical T thoracic. 4LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL. preserved long bones/12, where no. means the number of preserved bones per skeleton. The MNI was estimated using the recommendations by Roberts (2009, p. 12). Sex was estimated through established international markers on the innominate and cranial bones (for a summary, see Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994) and metric analyses of long bones (Aleman et al., 1997). International methods for innominate bone (auricular surface and pubic symphysis morphology), fourth rib, dental wear, and cranial suture closure were used to estimate age in adults and dental development and epiphyseal fusion in subadults (for a summary see Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994). Subadult age was assessed using dental development and eruption (Ubelaker, 1989) and the Iberian standards for growth and maturity of postcranial bones (e.g., L opez-Costas et al., 2012). Stature was estimated by maximum length of humerus and femur, and length in position of the femur (Mendonça, 2000). Pathological features were evaluated macroscopically and by X-ray analysis when needed, recording the presence, appearance and distribution of abnormal bone formation and destruction in each element and compared with international reference books (Aufderheide & Rodríguez-Martín, 1998; Ortner, 2003). 2.4 |Isotopic study The isotopic study was performed on 16 skeletal samples (see Table 2) of which four were from the local fauna. The faunal remains were found inside the burials and probably belonged to midden deposits. Twelve human bone samples were analyzed in agreement with the NMI; individuals CP-13 and CP-14 were not included due to their low IC indices—there were very few skeletal parts available, so for ethics reasons, we decided not to sample them. Collagen was extracted following the method described by Longin (1971) with modifications recommended by Collins and Galley (1998), at the Department of Archaeology at the University of Reading (UK). Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios were measured in duplicate on a Europa 20-20 isotope ratio mass spectrometer coupled to a Sercon elemental analyzer. Ultrapure collagen samples were analyzed for sulfur stable isotope ratios with a Finnigan Delta Plus connected to a CarloErba NC2500 elemental analyzer through a ConfloII at the Stable Isotope Laboratory in the Department for Geological Sciences, Stockholm University. Bioapatite was extracted in a fine-milled fraction in EcoPast research group's clean-lab at Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, following the pretreatment procedure developed by Garvie-Lok et al. (2004). Here, 200 mg of fined milled bone obtained using a hand-held drill were placed in falcon tubes; 10 ml of 2.5%–3% aqueous sodium hypochlorite was added per sample. Samples were maintained at room temperature and shaken for 8 h. After this, they were centrifuged, and the hypochlorite changed four times after every 8 h. The samples were then rinsed five times with distilled water to completely remove the sodium hypochlorite; 10 ml of 0.1 mg of acetic acid was then added, and the samples left for 4 h at room temperature before the acetic acid was removed, and the samples were rinsed five times again. Samples were then frozen and freeze dried to remove any remaining liquid. The quality of bioapatite as well as absence of organic material was tested using FTIR-ATR (Agilent Cary 630 FTIR Spectrometer)—this means that there were no absorption bands that correspond with Amide I, I, II, A, and B in the samples (see Cortizas & L opez-Costas, 2020; Prieto G omez, 2018). Carbon and oxygen isotope ratios in bioapatite were measured at Iso-Analytic Inc by adding phosphoric acid and measuring CO 2 by continuous flow-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (CF-IRMS) coupled to a Europa Scientific 20-20 IRMS. Analytical error was estimated by repeated analyses of internal standards and was ±0.2‰or less for all elements (1 SD). Following the procedure applied by Dury et al. (2019), δ 18 O ap was converted into carbonate, phosphate, and finally bulk precipitation water δ 18 O(δ 18 O cVSMOW ,δ 18 O pVSMOW , δ 18 O dwVSMOW ) (Chenery et al., 2012; Daux et al., 2008). 2.5 |Historical sources The analysis of the 1407 primary historical documents was based on the transcriptions of the Cathedral fora and other documents (in medieval Latin and Galaico-Portuguese languages) under custody in the Cathedral of Lugo, which were published by Portela Silva (2005, 2007a, 2007b). They were mainly fora (i.e., contractual agrarian documents between the bishopric and private individuals/families for house or land renting) but also testaments or donations. Special attention was paid to appropriate use of words in the 14 th – 15 th centuries, for example, físico meaning medical doctor in Galaico-Portuguese language from these centuries. We analyzed the documents searching for aspects in the financial management of the Cathedral that (1) could sketch the everyday life of the Lugo Cathedral people and could be connected to the analyzed skeletons, (2) could reveal who was buried inside Capela dos Reis/Rotal Chapel or the other chapels (e.g., through testaments and last wills), and (3) could help us to understand what was the general access to food items and health care that the members of the Cathedral paid for or obtained. Information about food items was complementary retrieved through the web of Gallaeciae Monumenta Historica (http://gmh.consellodacultura.org). We have counted the number of documents where each food item was mentioned in both 14 th (a total 894 documents) and 15 th (a total 513 documents) century books of transcriptions –and used them as approximations of the availability of this food and its importance in bishopric agrarian renting (i.e., fora). 2.6 |Statistical analysis Statistical analysis of the data was made using the program IBM SPSS Statistics v.24. Basic descriptive statistics were calculated for each group of samples and comparisons within groups were computed by Mann–Whitney Utest. LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL.5 TABLE 2 Stable isotope ratios, collagen and apatite quality indicators, and species identification of the nonhuman animals and humans found during the archeological works inside the chapel Capela do Pilar from Lugo Cathedral Sample code Burial Animal group Sample area Col yield Ap yield % C col % N col % S col % C ap C/N C/S N/S δ 13 C col δ 15 Nδ 34 Sδ 13 C ap δ 18 O ap Sex Age group CP-971 T12 Cattle Skull 1.2 29.0 40.9 14.4 5.5 3.3 22.06 6.97 12.7 4.3 - Adult CP-919 T10A Pig Tooth 12.7 50.5 41.6 15.0 0.3 6.7 3.2 389 120 21.42 7.14 12.7 11.7 2.8 - Adult CP-920a T10A Caprine Humerus 4.8 38.9 14.1 3.2 22.62 11.21 - Adult CP-920b T10A Caprine Humerus 11.4 38.9 14.0 0.2 3.2 416 128 20.80 7.76 12.7 - Adult CP-701 T11A Human Rib 8.5 59.2 33.5 11.8 7.2 3.3 18.38 15.66 13.5 2.2 M Old adult CP-702 T11A Human Rib 11.0 39.5 41.9 15.2 0.3 7.9 3.2 406 126 18.27 14.02 13.5 14.6 2.7 M Mature adult CP-703 T10B Human Rib 12.1 36.6 42.3 15.1 0.3 8.9 3.3 403 124 18.91 13.16 13.8 14.9 4.1 M Mature adult CP-704 T11B Human Rib 9.1 47.8 35.9 12.8 7.3 3.3 19.40 12.87 15.1 5.6 M Mature adult CP-705 T11A Human Femur 6.3 53.9 17.9 6.1 6.9 3.4 17.92 14.42 11.8 2.7 M Mature adult CP-706 T11A Human Femur 9.8 50.2 41.9 15.1 6.4 3.2 18.38 14.00 12.2 2.8 M Young adult CP-707 T11A Human Fibula 8.0 55.5 30.8 10.9 6.8 3.3 18.15 14.67 12.6 2.3 M Mature adult CP-708 T13 Human Rib 19.5 42.0 41.4 15.2 0.3 7.4 3.2 378 119 18.90 12.40 12.9 13.8 4.8 In Child CP-709 T13 Human Rib 9.4 43.3 42.5 15.4 6.6 3.2 18.92 12.63 13.9 4.5 In Child CP-710 T12 Human Femur 16.0 43.7 42.7 15.5 0.3 7.9 3.2 431 134 18.64 13.72 13.1 14.3 3.7 In Child CP-711 T12 Human Rib 15.1 57.0 43.4 15.9 0.3 7.0 3.2 421 132 19.11 12.14 14.3 13.3 3.5 In Infant CP-712 T10A Human Skull 12.0 52.6 38.9 14.3 0.3 6.2 3.2 411 130 18.80 11.30 14.7 14.1 4.3 F? In Note: Age group classification was done following Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) criteria. Anthropological and archeological data were extracted from L opez Costas thesis (L opez-Costas, 2012). Key: M =male; F=female. In =indeterminate. Empty cells indicate that the analyses failed or the remained bone/collagen sample was not enough to be processed. 6LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL. 3|RESULTS 3.1 |Anthropological and paleopathological findings A total of 15 individuals were recovered at the chapel Capela do Pilar. Six of them were found in primary position in the burials T10, T11 (n=3), T12, and T13. Another eight skeletons were found in secondary position and individualized (see Table 1). In addition, T14 was almost empty with the exception of five small bone pieces. Individuals CP-712, CP-713, and CP-704 had low IC and IP1 (see Table 1). The preservation of the skeletal pieces was moderately good in average, IC 34 ± 26 and IP1 66 ± 34. Secondary deposits showed lower preservation indices than primary depositions and subadult individuals (IP1 =34 ± 35) slightly lower than adults (IP1 =70 ± 35). Sex and age estimation indicate that all adult individuals were males older than 40 years, but CP-706 was likely in his 30s. The cranium of CP-712 has both male and female characteristics with a female predominance. The six subadults were younger than 7 years. Stature was estimated in seven male individuals obtaining an average of 168 ± 4 cm. Regarding the main pathological features, osteoarthritis (OA) is present in almost all adult individuals and showing an expected relation with age (Table 1). In the analyzed adults, nearly all joints presented alteration in subchondral bone. Two cervical ankylosis found in individual CP-703 can also be a symptom of intense OA; although no sign of eburnation was found in the entire assemblage. The individual CP-701 displays characteristic bone formation in the spine. Ossifications in the form of bridges affect the right side of the anterior longitudinal ligament of the thoracic bodies (T2–T12; Figure 2), with severe ankylosis between T4 and T10. There is no involvement of the articular surfaces or the intervertebral spaces. Similar ossification can be found in the lumbar area with discontinuous alterations. Cervical vertebrae are not affected. The skeleton also shows ossifications in humerus ligaments, a bony spur on the right ulna where the triceps brachii muscle was inserted, hyperostosis at the iliac crest, pubis symphysis, trochanters and linea aspera of both femurs, osteophytes at the patellae, and strong bone spurs in both calcanea at the insertion of Achilles tendon (Figure 2). The description and symmetry of the lesions are strongly compatible with a case of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) including the pathognomonic features in the spine (see similar description and differential diagnosis in Reale et al., 1999). Individual CP-703 has a lower level of hyperostosis and ossifications in ulna and ilia and incipient bone bridges in T9-T11 that could be interpreted as an early case of DISH, following criteria described by Castells Navarro (2018). However, this individual also shows several features in his spine including moderate OA, the C2–C3 ankylosis (with extensive OA that points to a degenerative cause rather than a congenital one; see Figure 3) and an important defect in T5 in form of cyst at the internal-inferior part of the right pedicle, which challenge the previous diagnosis. Trauma is well represented (Table 1). CP-704 has at least four healed fractures and an unhealed fracture in the upper vertebral body of T6 with signs of bone remodeling (active after death). The right maxilla and zygomatic bone show sign of a blunt force trauma that caused subsiding of the maxilla and a bony spur at the insertion of the muscle levator labii, a depressed fracture. The individual CP-705 shows also a well-healed fracture in the zygomatic bone. CP-706 shows signs of a subperiosteal hematoma in the left side of the frontal bone derived from blunt force contusion that depressed the area but did not cause a fracture (Figure 3). This individual also shows a large lobulated bone projection of 2.5 cm in the right anterior inferior iliac spine (Figure 3). In Figure 3, a continuity of trabecular and cortical bone with that of the surrounding bony part can be seen, which is a key sign for differential diagnosis of osteochondroma (Aufderheide & Rodríguez-Martín, 1998). The skeleton also has two small focal necrosis in the first right metatarsal and right calcaneus that are compatible with osteochondritis dissecans, and a bony spur (0.5 cm) in the right femur where the medial collateral ligament is attached. There were no lesions compatible with specific infectious diseases in adults. However, CP-707 has active lamellar osteitis covering both lower limbs and lytic lesion in two foot-phalanges (distal area). These could be caused by a systemic unspecific infection, but the necrosis is compatible with erosive lesions observed in cases of gout (uric arthritis) (Fornaciari et al., 2009; Rothschild & Heathcote, 1995). Regarding subadults, only CP-708 shows paleopathological features (Figure 4). This child had a greenstick fracture on a rib with signs of healing and two ribs with active periostitis in their internal face; in addition, the axis and C3 vertebra were partially fused. The two first features can be related to a chronic infection of the lungs including bronchitis or tuberculosis; in the case of the FIGURE 2 Pictures of several paleopathological features in the skeleton CP-701. The spine shows hypertrophic bone formation on the right side of the thoracic (2 nd to 11 th ) vertebral bodies (lateral and anterior view). The left innominate and right ulna have bone formation at joint margins (acetabulum) and the entheses [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL.7 cervical fusion (Figure 4), it can be both congenital or caused by vertebral tuberculosis, but the latter is less frequent (Aufderheide & Rodríguez-Martín, 1998). Given the age of the individual, the most suitable explanation is a type II of Klippel–Feil syndrome—a congenital disorder resulting from the segmentation failure of one or two vertebrae during embryogenesis (see a detailed review in Hukeľov a& Krošl akov a, 2021). 3.2 |Isotope analysis All samples fulfilled the established quality criteria for well-preserved collagen for carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur ratios and bioapatite (according to Cortizas & L opez-Costas, 2020; Garvie-Lok et al., 2004; Nehlich 2015; Nehlich & Richards, 2009; Van Klinken, 1999). In addition to the standard quality indicators, pyrolysis GC/MS was used to assess the preservation of the extracted collagen in two samples showing no exogenous material (e.g., humic acids), published elsewhere (Kaal et al., 2016). Individual data and summary statistics are given in Table 2 and Figures 5–7. Domestic faunal (cattle, pig, caprine) samples have averages of 21.7 ± 0.8‰and 8.3 ± 2.0‰for δ 13 C col and δ 15 N, respectively, which is lower than those found in the humans (δ 13 C col and δ 15 N, 18.6 ± 0.4‰, max 17.9‰, min 19.4‰;δ 15 N 13.4 ± 1.2‰, max 15.7‰, min 11.3‰). The Δ human-animal (Δ h-a ) is 5.1‰for δ 15 N, and 3.1‰for δ 13 C col . The oldest individual in age-at-death (with DISH), CP-701, presents the highest δ 15 N, while the possible female, CP-712, has the lowest (Figure 5). No significant differences were observed between adult and subadult humans (δ 13 C col U=7.000, p=0.13; δ 15 NU=6.000, p=0.11); however, subadults tend to have lower δ 13 C col and δ 15 N ratios, together with the possible female CP-712 and the males CP-703 and CP-704. The other males (CP-701, CP702, CP705, CP-706, CP-707) group together in higher δ 13 C col and δ 15 N. The two samples of domestic animals (caprine and pig) analyzed for δ 34 S have slightly lower isotopic ratios (12.7‰) than the average of the four humans (13.7 ± 0.7‰) and the range of human variability (12.9–14.7‰). For bioapatite, the two animal samples have δ 13 C ap (12.7‰,11.7‰) again lower than the human average (13.7 ± 1.0‰) but in the range of its variability (max 11.8‰, min 15.1‰). The span of human δ 13 C ap is moderately wide, 3.3‰, whereas that of δ 34 S is small, 1.8‰. For δ 13 C ap , three groups can be observed: one composed by the mature males CP-702, CP-703, and CP-704, whose values are lower than 14.5‰; another made by all subadults, the possible female CP-712 and the old male CP701, with intermediate values between 13‰and 14.5‰; and another with the highest values over 13‰, the males found in secondary position in T11A: CP-705, CP706, and CP-707 (Figure 7). Regarding δ 18 O ap , animal isotopic values (cattle: 4.3‰, pig: 2.8‰) are like human average (3.6 ± 1.1‰; Max 2.2‰, min 5.6‰). The range for human δ 18 O ap is moderately wide, 3.4‰and correlates with FIGURE 3 Pictures of the pathological features observed in individual CP-706. Left, subperiosteal hematoma in frontal bone. In the middle, photograph and radiograph of the osteochondroma in the right ilium (read arrow) where the continuation of cancellous bone trabeculae is visible. Right, ankylosis of C2/C3 in CP-703 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] FIGURE 4 Pictures of several paleopathological features in the subadult skeleton CP-708: (a) cervical fusion (C2–C3), (b) greenstick fracture in a rib, (c) periostitis in another rib [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] FIGURE 5 Bone collagen δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of animal and human samples from Capela do Pilar [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] 8LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL. δ 13 C col (r=0.86) and δ 15 N(r=0.76) reflecting an underlying factor in common that may affect both (probably proximity to the coast). Humans are again divided into three groups: CP-704 is separated from the rest due to his low δ 18 O ap (lower than 5‰); subadults, the possible female and the male CP-703 have values in between 3‰ and 5‰; males CP-701, CP702, CP-705, CP-706, and CP-707 show the highest isotopic ratios, over 3‰. Because of this group-based distribution, no significant differences were observed between adults and subadults (δ 34 SU=2.000, p=0.4; δ 13 C ap U=16.00, p=1.0; δ 18 O ap U=8.000, p=0.21). Conversions of δ 18 O ap to precipitation water δ 18 O dwVSMOW can be observed in Table 3. The ratios detected in all subadults, the female and the male CP-703 (e.g., CP-703 δ 18 O dwVSMOW =6.2‰; see Table 3)—probably buried in a cemetery prior to the construction of the chapel—are similar to those observed for rainwater in the Lugo area (approximately 5.5‰to 6‰) (Capilla et al., 2011; Hatvani et al., 2020). Values for CP-701, CP702, CP-705, CP-706, and CP-707, and the males found in T11A (3‰to 5.5‰), are closer to rainwater values from the coastal areas of southern Galicia and Portugal. Finally, a value lower than 8‰as that of CP-704 can only be found in inland areas, that is, Central Spain (see Table 3). 3.3 |Cathedral documents study Regarding everyday life, we have found documents indicating violent episodes between the cathedral and the city council. Clear examples are a trial judging the bishop Don Xo an for killing two members of the FIGURE 6 Scatterplots showing; (left) the variation in carbon isotopic composition in bone collagen (δ 13 C col ) and bone bioapatite (δ 13 C ap ); and (right) the Δδ 13 C ap-col and δ 15 N, of animal and human samples from Capela do Pilar [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] FIGURE 7 Carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen isotopic composition of Capela do Pilar samples [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL.9 The little ice age in Iberian mountains. Earth-Science Reviews,177, 175–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.010 Ortner, D. J. (2003). 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International Journal of Osteoarchaeology,1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/ oa.3011 16 LÓPEZ-COSTAS ET AL.