Old and new plants from the Americas to Europe: potatoes, corn and the genetics of double hybrid corn (1800-1940)

Accepted'version.'Originally'published'at:' ' Bruno Esperante*, Lourenzo Fernández-Prieto and Miguel Cabo (1/3), (2020): “Old and New Plants from the Americas to Europe: Potatoes, Corn and the Genetics of Double Hybrid Corn (1800-1940)”, en Rural History. Vol. 31. (pp. 53-62) (Q1 JCR, JIF 85.64 en 2020– SJR-Q2 0,155) 10.1017/s0956793319000396 (*correspondence+author)' + Title:' Old$and$New$Plants$from$the$Americas$to$Europe:$Potatoes,$Corn$and$ the$Genetics$of$Double$Hybrid$Corn$(1800-1940)$ ' Abstract:' Here+ we+ discuss+ the+ extension+ of+ corn+ and+ potatoes+ in+ Galician+ Atlantic+ agriculture+ during+ the+ nineteenth+ and+ twentieth+ centuries+ as+ an+ innovation+ process+that+facilitated+rapid+circulation+of+a+new+cattle+feed+from+the+Americas+to+ Europe.+Specifically,+we+focus+on+Galicia+from+1890+to+1940,+a+time+of+significant+ scientific+interest+with+regard+to+genetic+improvements.+This+new+science+made+it+ possible+to+develop+double+hybrid+corn+plants+that+became+widespread+after+the+ 1920s.+ In+ this+ article+ we+ will+ describe+ the+ conditions+ accompanying+ the+ introduction+ and+ spread+ of+ these+ American+ crops,+ as+ recorded+ by+ modernist+ historiography,+then+analyse+the+institutional+and+social+framework+–+knowledge+ networks,+ innovation+ systems+ and+ institutional+ and+ social+ tools+ –+ that+ enabled+ genetic+advances+in+the+twentieth+century.+To+accomplish+this,+we+must+trace+the+ journey+ of+ seeds+ and+ knowledge+ across+ the+ Atlantic+ from+ places+ such+ as+ the+ Connecticut+ Agricultural+ Experiment+ Station+ (1918)+ to+ the+ Galician+ Biological+ Mission+(1921),+among+others.+ + + + + + + 1. Introduction'of'plants'from'the'Americas'into'Europe:'Potatoes'and'Corn' from'the'Seventeenth'to'the'Twentieth'Century# + The+discovery+of+corn+and+its+introduction+into+the+agricultural+system+of+the+ Ancien+ Régime+ in+ Europe+ undoubtedly+ represents+ one+ of+ the+ main+ cultural+ transfers+that+resulted+from+the+European+conquest+of+the+Americas.+Corn+entered+ from+ the+ south+ of+ the+ Iberian+ Peninsula+ and+ soon+ spread+ throughout+ that+ land+ mass+and+into+Europe.+However,+since+little+is+known+about+this+process,+it+remains+ susceptible+ to+ confusion+ and+ error.+ Some+ authors+ consider+ that+ the+ severe+ subsistence+crises+of+Italy+(1590-91)+and+Asturias+in+north-western+Spain+(1598- 1600)+ provided+the+ necessary+ and+ vital+ stimulus+ that+ transformed+ corn+ from+ a+ known+curiosity+to+a+widespread+staple+crop.1+Other+cultural+and+social+innovation+ processes+beyond+that+have+not+been+well-researched+or+understood.+The+available+ literature+ often+contains+ errors+ or+ reflects+ stereotypical+ thinking,+ such+ as+ portraying+ aristocrats+ and+ ecclesiastics+ as+ innovators+ with+ a+ pioneering+ role+ among+ignorant+peasants.+ Historiographical+ examination+ uncovers+ more+ complex+ realities.+ The+ introduction,+ acclimation+ and+ expansion+ of+ corn+ cultivation+ in+ Galicia+ has+ been+ examined+ in+ Galician+ historiography+ since+ around+ 19002,+ coinciding+ with+ the+ period+ M.+ Cabo+ and+ L.+ Fernández+ Prieto+ (1998)+ have+ described+ as+ agricultural+ technical+ modernism.+ However,+ both+authors+ erroneously+ tried+ to+ ascertain+ the+ volume+of+corn+cultivation+by+examining+rent+payments.+It+is+well-known+that+the+ foral+regime+was+ruled+by+fixed-term+land+tenure+contracts+with+a+periodicity+that+ reflected+the+stipulated+rent+payments+but+contrasted+with+the+actual+dynamics+of+ the+crop+cultivation+system.+As+corn+cultivation+spread,+the+stipulated+foral+rent+ payments+reflected+very+little+–+if+any+–+real+crop+production.+Though+justifiable+at+ that+time,+this+limited+line+of+research+located+the+introduction+of+corn+in+the+early+ + 1PÉREZ& GARCÍA,& X.M.& (1982):& “O& millo& en& Galicia.& Un& estado& da& cuestión”& (pp.& 87-104):& Revista( galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&7-8,&p.&87.& 2&An&early&published&reference&to&corn&can&be&found&in&the&article&by&Manuel&Murguía&in&the&Boletín( da( Real( Academia( Galega,& 1907-1909.& In& the& journal& Prácticas( Modernas,& he& had& addressed& the& question&some&years&prior,&and&surprisingly&assumed&that&corn&was&already&being&cultivated&from& the&Middle&Ages&on&in&some&European®ions&(without&excluding&the&possibility&that&Galicia&was& among&them).&See&MURGUÍA,&M.&“¿Cuándo&se&generalizó&el&cultivo&del&maíz&en&Galicia?”&,&Prácticas( Modernas&(No.&63,& 1&August&1905& and&No.&64,& 15&August&1905).!Years& later& Fermín& Bouza& Brey& returned&to&the&topic&in&1953,&but&made&no&innovative&contribution.&& seventeenth+century,+leading+to+the+assumption+that+it+became+widespread+in+the+ following+century.++Subsequent+bibliography+reinforced+this+conclusion.3+ Chronologically,+ the+ second+ historiographic+ focus+ that+ addressed+ the+ introduction+ of+ corn+ emerged+ from+ the+ school+ of+ Galician+ modernists,+ led+ by+ professor+Eiras+Roel.+This+line+of+research+began+in+1973+and+can+be+followed+to+its+ conclusion.+It+did+not+question+when+corn+was+introduced+but+how+it+was+received,+ analysing+in+detail+the+agricultural+transformations+that+corn+may+have+generated.+ Rather+ than+ examining+ land+ tenure+ payments,+ they+ examined+ post-mortem+ inventories+ found+ in+ notary+ protocols.+ These+ provided+ a+ much+ more+ detailed+ picture+of+peasant+grain+storage,+making+reference+to+types+of+grains+that+had+been+ carefully+stored+in+trunks,+sacks,+raised+granaries+and+other+less+common+places.4+ These+peasant+storage+sites+began+to+compete+with+those+of+the+landowners,+but+ only+ appeared+ when+ there+ was+ something+ to+ store,+ thanks+ to+ the+ cultivation+ of+ American+ crops.+ This+ article+ provides+ an+ overview+ of+ the+ central+ corn+ issue,+ without+forgetting+other+American+crops+such+as+the+potato.+ # 1.1. The' introduction' of' American' plants' into' Galicia:' corn,' potatoes,' chocolate,'coffee,'tobacco,'peppers,'tomatoes...' + ‘...for&Spain&the&first&ear&of&corn&brought&for&planting&from&the&Americas&was&more&useful& than&all&the&silver&in&the&mines&of&Potosí.’! &Fr.&Martín&Sarmiento,&Eighteenth¢ury& ' 'It+ is+ generally+ understood+ that+ corn+ from+ the+ Americas+ first+ entered+ the+ Peninsula+ through+ Andalusia+ around+ 1500+ and+ rapidly+ spread+ throughout+ southern+ Portugal,+ while+ potatoes+ seem+ to+ have+ become+ known+ later+ on.+ This+ might+ be+ linked+ to+ the+ more+ remote+ origins+of+ this+ tuber+ in+ places+ such+ as+ the+ + 3&This&includes&Otero&Pedrayo,&Vicens&Vives,&Garcia&Lombardero,&García&Fernández&and&A.&Bouhier.& See:&PÉREZ&GARCÍA,&X.M.&(1982):&“O&millo&en&Galicia.&Un&estado&da&cuestión”&(pp.&87-104):&Revista( galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&7-8,&pp.&88-89.+ 4PÉREZ&GARCÍA,&X.M.&(1982):&“O&millo&en&Galicia.&Un&estado&da&cuestión”&(pp.&87-104):&Revista( galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.7-8,&p.&90.+ Andean+ ranges.+ European+ explorers+ did+ not+ arrive+ there+ until+ 1532,+ when+ they+ ascended+those+mountains+to+conquer+what+we+now+know+as+Cajamarca.5+ + The+first+clear+mention+of+corn+in+Galicia+dates+from+1610+in+the+Barbanza+ area,+followed+by+another+reference+from+1618+in+Cangas+do+Morrazo.+By+the+time+ corn+ reached+ the+lower+ estuaries,+ or+Rias+ Baixas+ area,+ it+ had+ already+ been+ cultivated+for+a+dozen+years+in+some+areas+of+the+northern+Cantabrian+coastline+and+ in+the+south+of+the+Iberian+Peninsula.+What+we+know+of+the+origins+of+this+plant+and+ the+delay+in+its+introduction+into+Galician+areas+bordering+Portugal+(Tui+and+the+ Minho)+ and+ Asturias+ (Cantabrian+ Mondoñedo)+ suggests+ that+ it+ was+ probably+ introduced+by+sea+and+not+via+Portugal+or+Asturias.6+ + After+its+appearance,+the+decisive+step+toward+large-scale+cultivation+of+corn+ did+not+take+place+until+the+wave+of+poor+crops+that+occurred+from+1626-33.+This+ initiative+ was+ not+ catalysed+ by+ farmers+ who+ found+ themselves+ with+ excess+ production,+but+by+those+concerned+with+survival.+At+that+time,+farmers+throughout+ most+of+the+Rias+Baixas+planted+and+ate+corn,+known+at+that+time+as+mijo%grueso+ (thick+ millet),+ maínzo,+ or+ mijo% maínzo.% Successful+ results+ encouraged+ rapid+ expansion;+in+only+about+30+years+this+new+grain+became+the+most+important+crop+ in+ the+ area.+ + Around+ 1637+ a+ representative+ of+ the+ Junta+ do+ Reino+ da+ Galiza+ expressed+that+‘the+most+abundant+cereal+was+corn+(…)+the+houses+are+full+of+corn’.7+ With+such+good+results,+corn+quickly+replaced+the+autochthonous+millet:+a+grain+ with+similar+characteristics+and+cultivation+times.+As+it+was+marginalised,+it+even+ ceded+its+name+to+become+known+as+millo%miudo+(small+millet)+or+millán.++ Corn+in+the+interior+of+Galicia+was+a+very+different+matter,+because+of+the+ climate.+ Throughout+ the+ seventeenth+ century,+ it+ remained+ virtually+ unknown+ except+ in+ sheltered+ valleys+ such+ as+ the+ Ribeiro.+ Corn+ did+ not+ secure+ significant+ presence+inland+until+the+crisis+of+1768+or+even+the+nineteenth+century.+Until+the+ twentieth+ century+ bread+ was+ made+ from+ barley+ in+ the+ interior+ of+ the+ Lugo+ and+ + 5&MASSON& MEISS,& L.& (1991):& “La& papa& entre& las& grandes& culturas& andinas”& (pp.& 11-72):& LÓPEZ& LINAGE,& J.:& De( papa( a( patata.( La( difusión( del( tubérculo( andino.( Ministerio( de( agricultura,( pesca(y( alimentación.&Madrid,&p.37.& 6&Inventory&of&Juan&Lampón,&09/10/1610&in:&PÉREZ&GARCÍA,&X.M.&(1982):&“O&millo&en&Galicia.&Un& estado&da&cuestión”&(pp.&87-104):&Revista(galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&7-8,&pp.&91,&97.& 7PÉREZ&GARCÍA,&X.M.&(1982):&“O&millo&en&Galicia.&Un&estado&da&cuestión”&(pp.&87-104),&in:&Revista( galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&7-8,&pp.&97-98.+ Ourense+ provinces.+ Extension+ of+ corn+ was+ also+ delayed+ in+ the+ Mariña+ de+ Mondoñedo+area,+the+land+around+Santiago+de+Compostela+and+Betanzos.8++ In+the+eighteenth+century,+corn+became+the+dominant+cereal+throughout+the+ western+ Galician+ coastal+ area,+ covering+ eighty+ to+ ninety+ per+ cent+ of+ the+ land+ dedicated+to+grain,+while+traditional+cereals+such+as+barley+or+wheat+only+occupied+ around+ a+ tenth+ of+ that+ surface.+ Millet+ virtually+ disappeared+ in+ the+ process.+ However,+in+the+late+eighteenth+and+early+nineteenth+centuries,+a+complex+rotation+ system+ of+ European+ and+ American+ grains,+ including+ fodder+ and+ meadow+ crops,+ began+ to+ change+ the+ landscape+ (D.+ Soto,+ 2006).+ This+ new+ and+ revolutionary+ polycrop+system+–+the+fruit+of+innovation+with+American+plants+in+the+two+prior+ centuries+ –+ reduced+ fallow+ lands,+ guaranteed+ food+ for+ the+ population+ and+ generated+significant+increases+in+income.+The+careful+cultivation,+intensive+labour+ and+ labour+ force+ required+ for+ corn+ extended+ itself+ to+ all+ farming+ (L.+ Fernández+ Prieto,+1992)+and+the+system+depended+on+obtaining+sufficient+fertiliser,+which+was+ assured+through+the+use+of+waste+lands9.+ In+light+of+this+explanation+of+the+evolution+and+extension+of+corn,+we+must+ ask+ourselves+how+this+process+affected+Galician+agriculture+and+society.+First,+it+ disrupted+ the+ parallel+ development+ of+ Galicia+ with+ many+ other+ regions+ of+ the+ Iberian+Peninsula+and+Europe.+Also,+high+profits+from+corn,+especially+in+the+Rias+ Baixas,+led+to+an+increase+in+population+that+subsequently+accentuated+hereditary+ land+division+and+exacerbated+minifundismo:+the+micro-parcellation+of+lands+that+ would+later+be+so+criticised.++ Demographically,+ in+ the+ sixteenth+ century+ Galicia+ had+ just+ over+ 600,000+ inhabitants;+by+1752+the+population+had+increased+to+almost+1.3+million+people.+ Galicia+accounted+for+10.8%+of+the+Spanish+population+in+1800,+and+11.5%+in+1860.+ During+those+two+centuries,+the+population+also+shifted+from+the+interior+toward+ the+coast+and+has+remained+so+to+the+present+day.10+ + 8SAAVEDRA,&P.&(1992):&“La&Introducción&del&maíz&y&la&patata&en&Galicia”&(pp.&202-207):&Galicia(e( América:(cinco(siglos(de( historia.& Consellería& de& Relacións& Institucionais& e& Portavoz& do& Goberno.& Consello&da&Cultura&Galega.&Santiago&de&Compostela,&pp.&202-204.& 9&Forthcoming&doctoral&thesis&of&Beatriz&Corbacho&González,&holder&of&an&FPI&fellowship&and& member&of&the&Histagra&research&group.&Departamento&de&Historia&Contemporánea&e&de&América.& Universidade&de&Santiago&de&Compostela.&Galicia-Spain.& 10&Today& Galicia& represents&6%& of& the& Spanish& population:& (X.& Carmona:&2001),& (X.& Fernández& Leiceaga:&2000),&(E.&López&Iglesias:&2000),&also:&PÉREZ&GARCÍA,&X.M.&(1982):&“O&millo&en&Galicia.&Un& estado&da&cuestión”&(pp.&87-104):&Revista(galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&7-8,&pp.&99.& The+ enormous+ production+ per+ hectare+ of+ this+ new+ crop+ with+ respect+to+ other+ grains+ restructured+ the+ entire+ Galician+ agrosystem.+ New+ lands+ were+ ploughed+and+grazing+lands+diminished+as+they+became+reallocated+for+grain.+This+ affected+Galician+cattle+herds:+extensive+farming+decreased+along+with+the+number+ of+beasts+and+variety+of+breeds,+as+they+were+replaced+with+cattle+better+suited+to+ intensive+stable+methods.11+ Until+now+we+have+only+addressed+corn,+which+brought+about+agricultural+ renewal+ along+ the+ Galician+ coast+ and+ in+ sheltered+ inland+ valleys;+ but+ it+ was+ the+ potato+ that+ transformed+ agriculture+ in+ the+ Galician+ interior.+ Though+ known+ in+ Galicia+as+early+as+1570,+when+it+was+planted+by+the+friars+of+the+Herbon+parish,+the+ potato+did+not+acquire+real+significance+until+the+eighteenth+century.12+ For+a+time,+the+potato+spread+throughout+the+Galician+interior,+especially+in+ the+former+the+province+of+Mondoñedo,+in+a+manner+more+or+less+complementary+ to+corn.+Unlike+corn,+however,+this+American+tuber+encountered+serious+economic,+ social+ and+ cultural+ obstacles.+ The+ locals+ received+ it+ poorly+ because+ it+ grew+ underground+and+seemed+more+suited+to+pigs.+In+the+famines+of+the+late+eighteenth+ century,+however,+potatoes+fed+the+poorest+farmers+as+well+as+their+animals.++ Over+time,+the+potato+also+confounded+collectors+of+proportional+rents+and+ tithes.13This+ is+ reflected+ in+ the+ legal+ proceedings+ of+ court+ cases+ involving+ tithe+ collectors,+ which+ constitute+ the+ bulk+ of+ eighteenth-century+ documentation+ from+ Galicia.+Court+cases+from+that+century+make+it+possible+to+trace+the+extent+of+potato+ cultivation.+The+oldest+reference+to+a+relevant+lawsuit+dates+from+1736,+when+the+ priest+ of+ Santiago+ de+ Bravos+ (in+ the+ former+ province+ of+ Mondoñedo)+ took+ legal+ recourse+against+his+own+parishioners,+who+opposed+paying+the+potato+tithe.+Most+ suits+ involved+ peasants+ refusing+ to+ pay+ by+ claiming+ they+ grew+ potatoes+ in+ uncultivated,+poor+or+waste+land,+rather+than+in+agricultural+plots.++ Later+ on,+ the+ Miñano+ and+ Madoz+ geographical+ statistical+ dictionaries+ provided+ estimates+ of+ crop+ cultivation+ in+ the+ nineteenth+ century,+ especially+ the+ + 11PÉREZ&GARCÍA,&X.M.& (1982):&“O& millo& en&Galicia.& Un& estado&da& cuestión”&(pp.& 87-104):&Revista& galega&de&estudios&agrarios.&No:7-8,&pp.&98-101.+ 12SAAVEDRA,&P.&(1992):&“La&Introducción&del&maíz&y&la&patata&en&Galicia”&(pp.&202-207):&Galicia(e( América:(cinco(siglos(de( historia.& Consellería& de& Relacións& Institucionais& e& Portavoz& do& Goberno.& Consello&da&Cultura&Galega.&Santiago&de&Compostela,&p.&204.& 13SAAVEDRA,&P.&(1992):&“La&Introducción&del&maíz&y&la&patata&en&Galicia”&(pp.&202-207):&Galicia(e( América:(cinco(siglos(de(historia.&Consellería&de&Relacións&Institucionais&e&Portavoz&do&Goberno.& Consello&da&Cultura&Galega.&Santiago&de&Compostela,&p.&206.& first+half.+Blights+also+affected+the+expansion+of+the+potato,+especially+in+the+1850+–+ 60s.+ To+ overcome+ the+ crisis,+ new+ varieties+ had+ to+ be+ used+ that+ proved+ more+ resistant+ to+ the+ phytophthora% infestans% fungus.14+Beyond+ the+ well-known+ great+ potato+ famine+ in+ Ireland,+ these+ plagues+ revealed+ the+ widespread+ nutritional+ dependence+on+the+potato+throughout+all+of+Europe.15+ Along+with+corn+and+potatoes,+other+American+crops+were+introduced+either+ through+ consumption+ (chocolate,+ coffee,+ tobacco)+ or+ as+ garden+ vegetable+ crops+ (tomatoes,+peppers).+The+dietary+changes+brought+about+by+these+crops+should+not+ be+ underestimated.+ Chocolate+ and+ coffee+ were+ considered+ medical+ remedies+ for+ various+ ailments,+ while+ the+ popular+ demand+ for+ tobacco+ precipitated+the+ construction+of+the+Real+Fábrica+de+Tabacos+da+Coruña+in+1804.16+Peppers+today+ are+ integral+ to+ Galician+ cuisine+ and+ essential+ in+ any+ vegetable+ patch,+ along+ with+ tomatoes.+ The+ potato+ thus+ became+ a+ virtual+insurance+ policy+ against+ hunger+ and+ a+ guarantee+of+nourishment+if+rains+–which+only+made+the+potato+bigger-destroyed+ the+corn.+In+many+cases,+due+to+a+legal+loophole+regarding+the+payment+of+rents+in+ species,+ harvesting+ potatoes+ in+ winter+ reduced+ the+ consumption+ of+ corn,+ which+ could+then+be+used+to+feed+more+cattle+or+even+exported.17+ These+crops+indicate+agricultural+growth+in+Galicia,+which+was+reflected+in+ an+ increasing+ population+ and+ greater+ demographic+ weight+ vis-à-vis+ the+ rest+ of+ Spain+in+the+early+nineteenth+century.+Unsurprisingly,+for+some+time+now+relevant+ research+has+associated+potatoes+with+population+increase.+Examples+include+the+ classic+studies+of+economic+history+in+Ireland+(R.+N.+Salaman,+1943;+K.+H.+Connel,+ 1962;+M.+Drake,+1963)+or+more+recent+research+by+C.+Ó+Gráda,+R.+Paping+and+E.+ Vanhaute,+(2007).+However,+corn+drove+the+great+population+increase+in+the+mid- + 14&DOPICO,&F.,&RODRÍGUEZ&GALDO,&M.X.&(1980):&“Novos&cultivos&e&agricultura&tradicional:&a&pataca& en&Galicia&nos&séculos&XVIII&e&XIX”&(pp.&11-35):&Revista(galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&3,&pp.&15,&21& and&DOPICO,&F.,&RODRÍGUEZ&GALDO,&X.M.&(1981):&Crisis(agrarias(y(crecimiento(económico(en(Galicia( en(el(S.XIX.&Do&castro,&Sada,&p.&61.& 15&Ó& GRÁDA,& C.,& PAPING,& R.,& VANHAUTE,& E.:& When(the(potato(failed:(causes(and(effects(of(the('last'( European(subsistence(crisis,(1845-1850.&Brepols,&Turnhout,&2007.& 16SAAVEDRA,&P.&(1992):&“La&Introducción&del&maíz&y&la&patata&en&Galicia”&(pp.&202-207):&Galicia(e( América:(cinco(siglos(de( historia.& Consellería& de& Relacións& Institucionais& e& Portavoz& do& Goberno.& Consello&da&Cultura&Galega.&Santiago&de&Compostela,&p.&207.& 17&DOPICO,&F.,&RODRÍGUEZ&GALDO,&M.X.&(1980):&“Novos&cultivos&e&agricultura&tradicional:&a&pataca& en&Galicia&nos&séculos&XVIII&e&XIX”,&(pp.&11-35):&Revista(galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&3,&p.&20,&31.+ eighteenth+century,+especially+along+the+Atlantic+coast:+an+area+where+its+presence+ was+earlier+and+more+prevalent.18+ + 1.2. Genetic' improvements' and' agricultural' intensification' in' the' first' third'of'the'twentieth'century' ' We+have+examined+the+introduction,+expansion+and+consolidation+of+American+ plants+ in+ the+ Galician+ agricultural+ system.+ At+ this+ point,+ the+ focus+ shifts+ to+ the+ changes+that+took+place+in+the+late+nineteenth+and+early+twentieth+centuries.+ In+Galicia,+corn+and+potatoes+reached+their+maximum+territorial+extension+in+ the+nineteenth+century,+most+notably+in+the+second+half,+while+the+region+gradually+ stopped+importing+and+began+to+export+agricultural+products+in+the+1820s.+By+the+ end+of+that+century,+the+intensive+Galician+polycrop+system+was+firmly+established+ and+also+provided+wine,+legumes+and+other+products.19+However,+in+the+1870s+and+ 1880s,+the+fin-de-siècle+crisis+set+in+as+European+producers+began+to+feel+the+effects+ of+ cheap+ agricultural+ imports+ of+ grains+ and+ frozen+ meat+ from+ the+ Americas.+ European+ agriculture+ in+ general,+ including+ Galicia,+ was+ faced+ with+ the+ need+ to+ intensify,+specialise+or+reorient+production+towards+new+markets.+Liberal+nationstates+ abandoned+ laissez-faire+ policies+ and+ began+ to+ intervene,+ attempting+ to+ protect+their+ producers+ from+ low+ American+ prices.+ State+ intervention+ measures+ included+tariffs+and+the+development+ of+ an+agricultural+research+and+ innovation+ system+ that+ would+ facilitate+ the+ necessary+ productive+ renewal.20+In+ 1877,+ the+ Spanish+ state+ set+ out+ to+ implement+ the+ French+ model+ of+ experimental+ Farm+ Schools.+Several+were+established,+including+the+A+Coruña+Farm+School+in+1888.++ The+new+State+determination+involved+a+logic+that+explains+the+establishment+of+ research+ institutions+ for+ agronomic+ engineering,+ forestry,+ and+ genetics.+ One+ of+ these+was+the+Galician+Biological+Mission,+established+in+1921+and+directed+by+Cruz+ Gallástegui.+ The+ State+ approach+ basically+ involved+ imitating+ technological+ innovation+models+wherever+they+existed.+Countries+such+as+the+United+States+had+ + 18&DOPICO,&F.,&RODRÍGUEZ&GALDO,&X.M.&(1981):&Crisis(agrarias(y(crecimiento(económico(en(Galicia(en( el(S.XIX.&Do&Castro,&Sada,&p.&38.& 19DOPICO,&F.,&RODRÍGUEZ&GALDO,&M.X.&(1980):&“Novos&cultivos&e&agricultura&tradicional:&a&pataca& en&Galicia&nos&séculos&XVIII&e&XIX”,&(pp.&11-35):&Revista(galega(de(estudios(agrarios.&No.&3,&pp.&11-12.& 20&FERNÁNDEZ&PRIETO,&L.&(1992):&Labregos(con(ciencia.(Estado,(sociedade(e(innovación(tecnolóxica( na(agricultura(galega,(1850-1939.&Xerais,&Vigo,&p.&422.& well-established+research+institutes,+thanks+to+specialised+agricultural+colonization+ efforts+there.+Gallástegui+visited+the+Connecticut+Agricultural+Experiment+Station+in+ 1918+to+receive+training+under+its+director,+D.F.+Jones,+who+became+his+mentor.+ The+Galician+Biological+Mission+and+the+A+Coruña+Farm+School+formed+part+of+ the+ Spanish+ State+ institutional+ framework+ from+ the+ Restoration+ era+ through+ the+ Primo+de+Rivera+dictatorship+and+into+the+Second+Spanish+Republic.+They+served+to+ channel+ efforts+ at+ introducing+ new+ crops+ and+ improving+ traditional+ ones.21+Both+ institutions+were+highly+active+from+1921+to+1935.+The+1933+establishment+of+the+ IIA+(Instituto%de%Investigaciones%Agrarias)+best+symbolizes+the+growth+of+innovation+ structures+and+their+financing,+along+with+historical+experience+accumulated+in+the+ application+of+science+to+agriculture.22+ + 1.2.1. The'work'of'Cruz'Gallástegui'and'double'hybrid'corn'' ' To+speak+of+Cruz+Gallástegui+Unamuno,+one+must+necessarily+speak+of+the+ birth+of+the+Galician+Biological+Mission+in+1921,+when+the+Junta%de%Ampliación%de% Estudios+decided+to+create+a+biological+research+centre+and+designated+the+young+ Gallástegui+as+its+director.23+Attempts+to+improve+the+performance+of+corn+through+ hybridization+ began+ in+ this+ institution.+ With+ the+ fin-de-siècle+ crisis,+ new+ global+ agricultural+ product+ markets+ needed+ competitive+ edges+ that+ could+ only+ be+ achieved+by+applying+scientific+innovation+to+agriculture.+Both+Gallástegui+at+the+ Biological+Mission+and+Ricardo+de+Escauriaza+at+the+A+Coruña+Farm+School+worked+ on+ the+ priority+ issue+ of+ increasing+ corn+ production,+ which+ Gallástegui+ finally+ achieved+with+the+double+hybrid+seed.+ This+ geneticist+ of+ Basque+ origin+ explained+ the+ need+ to+ increase+ corn+ production:+ + There! are! regions! that! overcome! the! backwardness! of! their! agriculture! with! industrial!advances,!such!as!the!Basque!Country!and!Catalonia.!Others!overcome!it! + 21&FERNÁNDEZ&PRIETO,&L.&(1992):&Labregos(con(ciencia.(Estado,(sociedade(e(innovación(tecnolóxica( na(agricultura(galega,(1850-1939.&Xerais,&Vigo,&p.&423.& 22FERNÁNDEZ&PRIETO,&L.&(2007):&El(apagón(tecnológico(del(franquismo.(Estado(e(innovación(en(la( agricultura(española(del(siglo(XX.(Tirant&lo&Blanch,&Valencia,&p.&137& 23POUSA&ANTELO,& A.& (2005):& “Don& Cruz& Gallástegui.&O& home& dos&millos& híbridos”& (pp.& 9-12),&in:& Murguía.&No.&5,&p.&9.& + + 2. Conclusions' + This+ article+ has+ provided+ a+ historical+ overview+ of+ the+ introduction+ and+ expansion+of+American+plants+in+Galician+agriculture+from+the+sixteenth+through+ the+early+twentieth+century.+These+crops+brought+about+changes+of+an+enormous+ magnitude+in+Galician+agriculture.+The+rapid+and+high+corn+yields+obtained+mainly+ in+ Galician+ coastal+ areas+ explain+ population+ growth+ and+ re-distribution+ towards+ those+areas.+The+demographic+increase+in+Galicia+vis-à-vis+Spain+led+to+the+massive+ Galician+migrations+of+the+nineteenth+and+twentieth+centuries+and+also+explains+the+ origins+of+micro-parcellation+problems+in+areas+where+corn+was+introduced+more+ rapidly+and+completely.++ In+ the+ Galician+ interior,+ the+ potato+ became+ extensive+ in+ the+ eighteenth+ century+ and+ spread+ throughout+ Galicia+ along+ with+ corn,+ reaching+ maximum+ territorial+extension+in+the+mid-nineteenth+century.+By+the+end+of+that+century,+the+ features+of+the+Galician+polycrop+system+had+been+fully+defined+and+also+produced+ wine,+legumes,+meat+and+milk.+ The+fin-de-siècle+crisis+made+agricultural+change+and+innovation+necessary+ in+Galicia+ and+throughout+most+of+Europe.+State+economic+intervention+involved+ both+ tariffs+ to+ protect+ farmers+ from+ cheaper+ American+ agricultural+ imports+ and+ attempts+to+innovate+in+order+to+discover+competitive+advantages+in+a+globalised+ agricultural+market.+This+logic+explains+the+rise+of+research+institutions+that+sought+ productive+ renewal+ in+ agriculture+ and+ other+ areas+ by+ involving+ agronomic+ or+ forestry+ engineers+ and+ geneticists,+ such+ as+ Cruz+ Gallástegui+ Unamuno+ at+ the+ Galician+ Biological+ Mission.+ Founded+ in+ 1921,+ this+ institution+ and+ the+ A+ Coruña+ Farm+ School+ (established+ in+ 1888)+ were+ responsible+ for+ the+ main+ technological+ advances+in+agriculture.++ Double+ hybrid+ corn+ was+ developed+ through+ selection+ of+ American+ and+ Galician+varieties.+Gallástegui+held+that+Galician+economic+development+required+ intensive+agriculture+and+the+first+step+was+to+increase+corn+production+as+a+key+ crop+ for+ the+ entire+ peasant+ economy.+ His+ objective:+ to+ provide+adequate+ nourishment+ for+ the+ population+ as+ well+ as+ sufficient+ feed+ for+ cattle+ destined+ for+ export+to+Spanish+cities.+Within+this+strategy,+the+potato+was+also+considered+a+food+ that+could+be+commercialized.+The+Biological+Mission+experimented+and+selected+ potato+varieties,+but+the+results+were+neither+as+intense+nor+as+consistent+as+with+ corn.+ This+ was+ most+ likely+ attributable+ to+ the+ political+ activity+ of+ Osorio-Taffal,+ head+of+potato+research+at+the+Mission.+ Data+from+the+Seed+Producers+Trade+Union,+an+institution+established+by+the+ Mission+to+distribute+double-hybrid+seed+ and+ the+ most+ suitable+ potato+ varieties,+ indicates+ a+ degree+ of+ success+ in+ transmitting+ these+ innovations+ to+ the+ farmers.+ However,+the+work+of+Gallástegui+and+the+innovation+institutions+came+to+a+swift+ demise+ with+ the+ Spanish+ Civil+ War.+ This+ conflict+ began+ an+ era+ of+ censorship,+ suppression+ and+ repression+ of+ many+ things+ in+ society:+ institutions,+ knowledge,+ associations,+financing+and+even+people.+ + Bibliography# + - 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