Achieving Sustainability of the Seafood Sector in the European Atlantic Area by Addressing Eco-Social Challenges: The NEPTUNUS Project

  Citation: Laso, J.; Ruiz-Salmón, I.; Margallo, M.; Villanueva-Rey, P.; Poceiro, L.; Quinteiro, P.; Dias, A.C.; Almeida, C.; Marques, A.; Entrena-Barbero, E.; et al. Achieving Sustainability of the Seafood Sector in the European Atlantic Area by Addressing Eco-Social Challenges: The NEPTUNUS Project. Sustainability 2022,14, 3054. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su14053054 Academic Editors: Greg W. Curtzwiler and Maria Corradini Received: 15 February 2022 Accepted: 3 March 2022 Published: 5 March 2022 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sustainability Article Achieving Sustainability of the Seafood Sector in the European Atlantic Area by Addressing Eco-Social Challenges: The NEPTUNUS Project Jara Laso 1,*, Israel Ruiz-Salmón1, María Margallo 1, Pedro Villanueva-Rey 2, Lucía Poceiro 2, Paula Quinteiro 3, Ana Cláudia Dias 3, Cheila Almeida 4, António Marques 4, Eduardo Entrena-Barbero 5, María Teresa Moreira 5, Gumersindo Feijoo 5, Philippe Loubet 6, Guido Sonnemann 6, Ronan Cooney 7,8 , Eoghan Clifford 7,8 , Leticia Regueiro 9, David Alonso Baptista de Sousa 9, Céline Jacob 10, Christelle Noirot 10, Jean-Christophe Martin 10, Morgan Raffray 10, Neil Rowan 11 , Sinead Mellett 11 and Rubén Aldaco 1 1 Departamento de Ingenierías Química y Biomolecular, Universidad de Cantabria, Avda. de Los Castros, s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain; [email protected] (I.R.-S.); maria.mar[email protected] (M.M.); [email protected] (R.A.) 2EnergyLab, Fonte das Abelleiras, s/n, Campus Universidad de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain; [email protected] (P.V.-R.); [email protected] (L.P.) 3Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies (CESAM), Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; [email protected] (P.Q.); [email protected] (A.C.D.) 4IPMA—Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), Divisão de Aquacultura, Valorização e Bioprospeção, Avenida Doutor Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-165 Lisboa, Portugal; [email protected] (C.A.); [email protected] (A.M.) 5CRETUS, Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Technology, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; eduardo.entrena.barber[email protected] (E.E.-B.); [email protected] (M.T.M.); [email protected] (G.F.) 6Institute of Molecular Sciences, University of Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, ISM, UMR 5255, F-33400 Talence, France; [email protected] (P.L.); [email protected] (G.S.) 7School of Engineering, National University of Ireland, Galway, H91 HX31 Galway, Ireland; [email protected] (R.C.); [email protected] (E.C.) 8Ryan Institute, NUI Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland 9ANFACO-CECOPESCA, Campus University 16, 36310 Vigo, Spain; lregueir[email protected] (L.R.); [email protected] (D.A.B.d.S.) 10 VertigoLab, Darwin Ecosystème, 87 Quai de Queyries, F-33100 Bordeaux, France; [email protected] (C.J.); [email protected] (C.N.); [email protected] (J.-C.M.); morganraf[email protected] (M.R.) 11 Bioscience Research Institute, Athlone Institute of Technology, N37 HD68 Athlone, Ireland; [email protected] (N.R.); [email protected] (S.M.) *Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Fisheries and aquaculture are becoming a focus of societal concern driven by globalization and increasing environmental degradation, mainly caused by climate change and marine litter. In response to this problem, the European Atlantic Area NEPTUNUS project aims to support and inform about the sustainability of the seafood sector, boosting the transition towards a circular economy through defining eco-innovation approaches and a steady methodology for eco-labelling products. This timely trans-regional European project proposes key corrective actions for positively influencing resource efficiency by addressing a life cycle thinking and involving all stakeholders in decisionmaking processes, harnessing the water-energy-seafood nexus. This paper presents inter-related objectives, methodologies and cues to action that will potentially meet these challenges that are aligned with many of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and European policy frameworks (e.g., Farm to Fork, European Green Deal). Keywords: climate change; eco-label; life cycle assessment; seafood; sustainability Sustainability 2022,14, 3054. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14053054 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 2 of 25 1. Introduction Nowadays, the seafood sector is facing important challenges that encompass the three pillars of sustainability: namely, environmental issues—stock depletion, adaptation to climate change and marine debris [ 1 ]; economic aspects—obtention of enough benefits that make the sector viable over time [ 2 ]; and social perspectives—protection of social rights and worker’s employment. The Atlantic Area (AA) countries seek to move towards a balance of these three aspects, creating trade alliances and adopting common and responsible seafood production and consumption patterns that provide the product with the necessary quality, safety, and transparency [ 3 ]. Its important production of seafood resources makes it one of the main exporters at the European level, reaching production levels of 2.6 million tonnes in 2018 [ 4 ]. Most of the seafood originated from capture fisheries at 1.9 million tonnes (Table 1). Small pelagic species were the most heavily exploited by fisheries in the five AA countries involved in the project (France, Ireland, Portugal, Spain and the United Kingdom). From an aquaculture perspective, the most productive country was Spain with 311,087 tonnes, followed by the United Kingdom and France. Table 1. An overview of seafood production in the Interreg Atlantic Area programme countries from Atlantic fisheries and aquaculture waters in 2018. Breakdown by country and the species by tonnage are also presented [4]. Country Total (t) Top Species Tonnage of Top Species (t) % of Total Production by Top Species Fisheries Production France 332,666. Great Atlantic scallop 67,053 20% Ireland 212,282 Mackerel 57,371 27% Portugal 128,302 Mackerel 31,946 25% Spain 843,159 Skipjack tuna 191,795 23% United Kingdom 440,366 Mackerel 94,907 22% Total Fisheries 1,956,775 - 443,073 23% Aquaculture France 188,327 Oyster 92,946 49% Ireland 34,605 Blue mussel 13,889 40% Portugal 13,512 Clam 4190 31% Spain 318,597 Mussel Mytilus spp 242,725 76% United Kingdom 185,296 Atlantic salmon 156,025 84% Total aquaculture 740,336 - 509,775 69% Atlantic Area Seafood Production Total seafood 2,697,111 - 952,848 35% From a socio-economic perspective, the seafood sector contributes significantly to the European Union and the global economy, employing 4 million workers in 2017 and generating € 180 billion of gross value added (GVA) [ 5 ]. Given the weight of this sector, the need to outline tangible actions and design policies focused on reducing or slowing down climate change, achieving energy efficiency or ensuring food security arises. In response, some international institutions have been developing strategies to support sustainability, addressing different solutions. The SDG (Sustainable Development Goal) 12, proposed by the United Nations in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, highlights the importance of responsible and sustainable production and consumption patterns, betting on a decrease in the generation of food waste [ 6 ]. Focusing on fisheries and related activities, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is especially concerned about the global seafood sector situation [ 7 ] and its environmental impacts in terms of overfishing and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [ 8 ]. According to the FAO, 34.2% of fisheries are overfished; that is to say, their population is below a target level that maximizes harvest [ 9 ]. Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 3 of 25 The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) [ 10 ] addressed this issue and set a series of rules for sustainably managing European fishing stocks. Likewise, the EU is actively participating in the circular economy (CE) framework [ 11 ], implementing specific fishery regulations [ 12 ] and providing information about the environmental performance of products and organisations [ 13 ]. As a result, the first CE action plan was completed in 2019, constituting a key part of the European Green Deal [ 14 ], which aims to improve people’s well-being and achieve a climate-neutral Europe. This new plan presents initiatives along the entire life cycle of products fostering eco-design, sustainable production and consumption, reduction of single-use plastic products, waste prevention and eco-labelling. Regarding the latter, the PEF (Product Environmental Footprint) and OEF (Organisation Environmental Footprint) stand out as methods implemented by the European Commission to quantify and disclose environmental impacts [ 13 ]. The first step to obtaining the PEF in the seafood sector has already been taken, consisting of the draft marine fish PEFCRs (Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules) and PEF-RP (Representative Product) study. There is an increasing awareness of climate change and its consequences on food production and supply chains, which traverses new policies, strategies, projects, and studies [ 15 , 16 ]. Despite the large number of articles related to this topic, vast knowledge resides in technical data, while the theoretical underpinnings in terms of challenges, weaknesses, and strengths of synergies remain largely unexplored. The essential role of innovation, infrastructure, and skill linkages as a means of fostering regional development and matching needs from the point of view of policymakers, industry and consumers must be emphasised. This is further complicated by the need to digitally transform food production and the supply chain, including a necessity to develop real-time solutions to be accelerated through open access and knowledge transfer for the common good [15–19]. As a consequence, it is mandatory to establish unified methodologies and strategies in order to address these challenges. For this purpose, the INTERREG Atlantic Area [ 20 ] is a funding programme that promotes transnational cooperation among 36 regions of 5 European countries, contributing to the achievement of economic, social, and territorial cohesion, and implementing solutions to regional challenges in the fields of innovation, resource efficiency and the environment, supporting development and sustainable growth. Under this umbrella, the NEPTUNUS project (EAPA_576/2018) [ 21 ] was born, furnishing opportunities for a transition to the CE of the seafood sector in the AA. The project is based on three main pillars: (i) the development of new methodologies and actions for a CE on a larger transnational scale that has not been pursued previously, taking into account the nature of the seafood supply chains; (ii) the introduction of the NEXUS variable in the decision-making process as a scientific and methodological innovation; and (iii) the definition of a robust framework through the application of a cohesive clustering model that unites stakeholders and addresses gaps and barriers in terms of managing important interacting forces regionally and transnationally. In addition, to ensure the dissemination and capitalisation of the results obtained, the NEPTUNUS project seeks to aggregate from a holistic approach the complementarity of the research groups with expertise in fisheries and aquaculture together with sustainable production and consumption strategies, specifically those related to the circular food economy; methodologies supporting life cycle-thinking applications on climate change and its prevention; green economics; life cycle assessment; water and carbon footprint; and industrial ecology and material flow analysis, especially that which is focused on waste material and secondary resources. This work seeks to review the scope and methodology of the NEPTUNUS project to deal with the current situation of the fishing and aquaculture sectors. For this purpose, the three fundamental pillars of sustainability will be addressed: environmental degradation, for instance, marine debris [ 22 ] or climate change [ 23 ]; social perspectives, e.g., people’s concern about the environment [ 24 ] or worker’s rights defence [ 25 ]; and economic aspects, for example, globalisation [ 26 ] or product quality [ 27 ]. Furthermore, the approaches and methodologies applied to the seafood sector will serve as potential guidelines for other food systems interested in alignment with SDGs and European commitments. Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 4 of 25 2. Research Methodology Knowledge transfer and clustering of best evidence/data need specific and coordinated strategies to deliver actionable and useful results in terms of sustainability. For this purpose, a ‘nexus thinking’ approach is implemented to the seafood sector with a focus on supporting and enabling the complicated transition towards a circular economy (take-make-use-reuse-remake-recycle) from a linear model (take-make-use-waste). On the one hand, the methodology involves integrating environmental, nutritional, and economic variables that meet regional needs through transnational strategies and, on the other hand, synergies in knowledge and experiences at the local level to help overcome challenges at a global level. In this sense, the NEPTUNUS project is designed in interconnected work packages (WP) (Figure 1) focused on five research lines: (i) the creation of a robust and flexible database composed of seafood life cycle inventories (LCIs) and its subsequent modelling, (ii) the calculation of four footprints (carbon, water, energy and nutritional) and development of a NEXUS ecolabel, (iii) the assessment of the seafood technical cycle (packaging), (iv) the assessment of the seafood biological cycle (waste stream valorisation) and (v) the analysis of different threats and challenges affecting the seafood ecosystem. The following subsections address the different actions developed in the NEPTUNUS project to face the different challenges in the seafood sector to achieve sustainability in the European AA. Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 26 2. Research Methodology Knowledge transfer and clustering of best evidence/data need specific and coordinated strategies to deliver actionable and useful results in terms of sustainability. For this purpose, a ‘nexus thinking’ approach is implemented to the seafood sector with a focus on supporting and enabling the complicated transition towards a circular economy (takemake-use-reuse-remake-recycle) from a linear model (take-make-use-waste). On the one hand, the methodology involves integrating environmental, nutritional, and economic variables that meet regional needs through transnational strategies and, on the other hand, synergies in knowledge and experiences at the local level to help overcome challenges at a global level. In this sense, the NEPTUNUS project is designed in interconnected work packages (WP) (Figure 1) focused on five research lines: (i) the creation of a robust and flexible database composed of seafood life cycle inventories (LCIs) and its subsequent modelling, (ii) the calculation of four footprints (carbon, water, energy and nutritional) and development of a NEXUS ecolabel, (iii) the assessment of the seafood technical cycle (packaging), (iv) the assessment of the seafood biological cycle (waste stream valorisation) and (v) the analysis of different threats and challenges affecting the seafood ecosystem. The following subsections address the different actions developed in the NEPTUNUS project to face the different challenges in the seafood sector to achieve sustainability in the European AA. Figure 1. Research lines addressed in NEPTUNUS project. 2.1. Building a Robust Life Cycle Database and Model Building a robust and high-quality life cycle database is a time-consuming, expensive, and complex task that involves not only expertise in LCA, but also expertise in programming languages and ICT technologies. Hence, the life cycle database developed in the framework of NEPTUNUS provides reference LCI data, as well as environmental impacts of seafood products, focusing on the AA. The database was built mainly on existing LCI databases such as Ecoinvent [28], Agribalyse [29] or World Food LCA Database (WFLDB) [30], thereby giving priority to transparency and traceability. In this sense and Figure 1. Research lines addressed in NEPTUNUS project. 2.1. Building a Robust Life Cycle Database and Model Building a robust and high-quality life cycle database is a time-consuming, expensive, and complex task that involves not only expertise in LCA, but also expertise in programming languages and ICT technologies. Hence, the life cycle database developed in the framework of NEPTUNUS provides reference LCI data, as well as environmental impacts of seafood products, focusing on the AA. The database was built mainly on existing LCI databases such as Ecoinvent [ 28 ], Agribalyse [ 29 ] or World Food LCA Database (WFLDB) [ 30 ], thereby giving priority to transparency and traceability. In this sense and in order to assure the comparability and reliability of results, the methodology is aligned to Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 5 of 25 the main LCA guidelines ISO 14,040 [ 31 ] and PEF [ 32 ]. Figure 2depicts the NEPTUNUS database architecture, which is connected to a commercial database for background systems. Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 26 in order to assure the comparability and reliability of results, the methodology is aligned to the main LCA guidelines ISO 14,040 [31] and PEF [32]. Figure 2 depicts the NEPTUNUS database architecture, which is connected to a commercial database for background systems. The database was built with unit processes (i.e., LCI disaggregated data) in a modular way. Due to its modular feature, since it contains the related unit processes throughout the value chain, the datasets can be selected and combined to model seafood processed products: e.g., multi-ingredient processing products, commercial recipes, etc. The latter is especially suitable for experienced LCA practitioners. Therefore, it covers a cradle-to-gate approach, including: (i) fishing operations; (ii) aquaculture activities; (iii) processing; and (iv) production of main packaging materials and ingredients. Figure 2. Schematic representation of the NEPTUNUS database architecture. The seafood products addressed have been modelled per mass of product. In this sense, the functional unit (FU) was established to be 1 kg of fish landed at port or delivered at the aquaculture gate or 1 kg of prepared seafood for raw fish or processed/semi-pro- cessed products. The FU selection and the unit process format simplify the tracking throughout the supply chain, from raw material production, fishing, aquaculture, processing, and transportation of material inputs (i.e., inbound transportation), enabling dataset modelling by users. Similarly, waste treatment and food losses were also accounted for and tracked in the datasets. When dealing with multi-functionality, the allocation method used in the database is mostly based on mass allocation. In this sense, in accordance with the PEF method [32] and ISO 14,044 [33], the following pattern was followed in the decision hierarchy: (i) subdivision or system expansion; (ii) allocation based on physical properties; and (iii) allocation based on non-physical properties. Table 2 depicts the modelling instructions and the allocation rules followed per activity in the database. In addition to this, the allocation approach followed per activity was also defined in each dataset. In case of doubt, the user can check allocation procedure descriptions in each dataset’s corresponding documentation. Each LCI dataset includes a critical review report which assures transparency and reliability. The report provides valuable information related to the geographic, time, and technological representativeness of the inventory data. The datasets were built on the requirements of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Data Network [34]. Specifically, datasets were formatted following the “ILCD Data Network—Entrylevel”. In addition, the goal and scope of the database are aligned with PEF methodology Figure 2. Schematic representation of the NEPTUNUS database architecture. The database was built with unit processes (i.e., LCI disaggregated data) in a modular way. Due to its modular feature, since it contains the related unit processes throughout the value chain, the datasets can be selected and combined to model seafood processed products: e.g., multi-ingredient processing products, commercial recipes, etc. The latter is especially suitable for experienced LCA practitioners. Therefore, it covers a cradle-to-gate approach, including: (i) fishing operations; (ii) aquaculture activities; (iii) processing; and (iv) production of main packaging materials and ingredients. The seafood products addressed have been modelled per mass of product. In this sense, the functional unit (FU) was established to be 1 kg of fish landed at port or delivered at the aquaculture gate or 1 kg of prepared seafood for raw fish or processed/semi-processed products. The FU selection and the unit process format simplify the tracking throughout the supply chain, from raw material production, fishing, aquaculture, processing, and transportation of material inputs (i.e., inbound transportation), enabling dataset modelling by users. Similarly, waste treatment and food losses were also accounted for and tracked in the datasets. When dealing with multi-functionality, the allocation method used in the database is mostly based on mass allocation. In this sense, in accordance with the PEF method [ 32 ] and ISO 14,044 [ 33 ], the following pattern was followed in the decision hierarchy: (i) subdivision or system expansion; (ii) allocation based on physical properties; and (iii) allocation based on non-physical properties. Table 2depicts the modelling instructions and the allocation rules followed per activity in the database. In addition to this, the allocation approach followed per activity was also defined in each dataset. In case of doubt, the user can check allocation procedure descriptions in each dataset’s corresponding documentation. Each LCI dataset includes a critical review report which assures transparency and reliability. The report provides valuable information related to the geographic, time, and technological representativeness of the inventory data. The datasets were built on the requirements of the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) Data Network [ 34 ]. Specifically, datasets were formatted following the “ILCD Data Network—Entry-level”. In addition, the goal and scope of the database are aligned with PEF methodology [ 32 ], and, therefore, the critical review reports follow a similar structure, providing information in terms of: (i) goal and scope, which includes detailed information regarding the FU selected, Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 6 of 25 system boundaries, assumptions made and limitations; (ii) life cycle inventory analysis with a detailed description of the modelling choices and other issues such as the allocation approach conducted, air/water emissions estimation (e.g., stationary fuel combustion derived emissions or mobile fuel combustion derived emissions), electricity mix, primary and secondary (background datasets) data used, list or detailed bill of materials or ingredients, end of life, and cut-offs; (iii) Circular Footprint Formula (CFF) parameters used, detailing where the CFF has been applied; and iv) life cycle method implemented, reporting life cycle impact results. Table 2. Allocation rules per activity data. Activity/Datasets Allocation Rule Modelling Instructions Fishing Mass Despite fishing gears selectivity, several species are caught apart from target species. In this sense, allocation shall be done on the basis of the total amount of catches of each species. Aquaculture Mass Aquaculture operations are usually focused on the production of a single species, although in some cases, it is possible that several species are produced together. In those cases, the same procedure as in fishing allocation shall be applied. Seafood processing Mass This is an example of a multi-product industry, so that different products can be obtained from a single species of fish. For example, from hake, fillets, tails, fish sticks and croquettes could be obtained. In this case, the total annual production of each production line shall be used to establish the allocation factors. It is important to note that the edible weight should be used to establish the annual production. The critical reports were reviewed and validated by qualified external reviewers with LCA expertise in the field of seafood products, guaranteeing data quality and reliability [ 35 ]. Finally, it should be noted that datasets are intended to be accessible and usable to all users. Thus, the data formats meet the requirements for interoperability in terms of flow nomenclature and metadata descriptors defined by “The Global LCA Data Access” network (GLAD) [36]. 2.2. Creating a Nexus Ecolabel As mentioned in the introduction section, actions have already been initiated in the fisheries and aquaculture management framework that aim to address changes and recognize threats to climate change [ 37 ]. Among these, one that encompasses all stakeholders is ecolabels, as they open the way to implement legislative measures (policymakers), are applicable to products (companies) and provide useful information to customers. Moreover, ecolabels can be a useful tool to promote sustainability and raise awareness on marine conservation and more collaborative business models among producers [38]. The most globally-recognized ecolabel for fishing activities is the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC). It was proposed in 1997 and focuses on the impact of the fishing activities on the marine ecosystem and overexploitation of its resources through the commitment of compliance of the following principles: (i) the state of the exploited stock, (ii) the impact on the ecosystem structure and function and (iii) an effective management system [ 39 ]. Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 7 of 25 At the European level, a label for organic food (KRAV) is implemented in Sweden, which considers several environmental aspects covering multiple stages of the life cycle for seafood products (minimizing bycatch, avoiding damage to the seabed by limiting fishing gear such as trawling, animal welfare and recyclable packaging). Another example of an ecolabel is Pescaenverde, which is the first type III ecolabel (i.e., sustainable declaration of a product or service on a voluntary basis) considering a life cycle perspective in the fisheries sector in Spain. It has been based on the evaluation of the environmental impacts related to seafood products from the Carbon Footprint and the Edible Protein Energy Return On Investment (ep-EROI) ratio. In this way, this certificate provides valuable information on fuel efficiency and energy intensity linked to vessel operations [40]. On the business-to-consumer (B2C) level, companies are more concerned about showing their customers the environmental profile of the products they commercialize, as the demand for green or environmentally friendly products has been growing steadily in recent decades. Ecolabels are a simple and direct way to meet this target. Thus, ecolabelling presents a potentially useful starting point towards sustainability; thus, enlarging the niche market of consumers increasingly demanding low-impact seafood products while establishing a group of producers increasingly interested in minimizing impacts from their products [ 41 ]. This also potentially unlocks a pathway towards informing behavioural change by influencing and positively disrupting attitudes and perceptions in order to overcome consumer barriers [ 19 , 42 ]. On the other hand, those on the business-to-business (B2B) level are facing increasing pressure to work with products containing ecolabels in order to meet procurement requirements [ 43 ]. In addition, suppliers are increasing partnerships with eco-friendly manufacturers who work in accordance with the ISO standards [44]. Additional aspects to be met by the application of eco-labelling to AA include the environmental profile associated with fishing or aquaculture encompassing the processing activity (where applicable), as well as the positive contribution of seafood intake. Therefore, a simplified transition of the seafood sector towards a CE approach should prioritize the harmonization of different methodologies for calculating environmental footprints together with the contribution of the food subsystem into a single score. This would provide clear, accurate and simplified information on environmental and nutritional aspects for consumers. Currently, most seafood labels provide limited information for consumer decisions and are not based on environmental information. Although the economic factor is often the most influential factor in the choice of the consumers, some previous surveys reported that consumers are willing to pay 15–30% more if the ecolabel guarantees that the seafood is healthy and sustainably produced [ 45 ]. However, label overload and gaps in understanding could lead to confusion [46]. To undertake this objective, LCIs collected from different seafood systems along the AA were assessed under a water-energy-food nexus perspective, encompassing the inseparable synergies between resource extraction (food) with water and energy consumption. This approach can help to analyse a complex system consisting of several subsystems with multiple interconnections [ 47 ]. To proceed with this joint analysis in the face of the challenges of sustainable seafood production, it is the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology that is considered a reference as it addresses a global, quantitative and objective approach to the impacts associated with a process, product or service [48]. Among the most commonly used indicators in environmental impact assessments, there are three of notable importance, carbon footprint (CF), water footprint (WF) and energy footprint (EF), that are especially relevant for this analysis, as they report the main environmental issues associated with the fishery and aquaculture sectors: • Carbon footprint: quantifies greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the main driver of climate change, and helps understand how to mitigate it. LCA studies have shownn that the consumption of marine fuel and its subsequent burning by fleets are the main environmental burden from fishing production [ 49 ], together with feed production from farming seafood products [50]; Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 8 of 25 • Water footprint: fishing is a high-water-demander and wastewater producer. This is particularly noteworthy in the processing stage during the cleaning and de-scale steps [51]; • Energy footprint: the consequences of rising fuel prices, taxes levied on emissions and tightening environmental regulations lead to the implementation of energy efficiency plans [52]. On the other hand, the nutritional footprint (NF) of the evaluated seafood species could be measured through the nutrition-rich food (NRF) index, as it allows the healthiest foods to be identified based on their nutritional value [ 53 ]. Moreover, this should include specific nutrients that are fundamental pillars in the human diet and are often present in this type of product, such as iodine, selenium or omega-3 fatty acids [54–56]. Despite all the benefits that ecolabels can bring to promote sustainable seafood, one of their main drawbacks is that they focus exclusively on the most knowledgeable or environmentally involved consumers, reporting low market shares [ 57 ]. To cope with this common shortcoming, more conventional market strategies need to be applied. This might include, for instance, establishing a dynamic target audience to broaden the potential consumer profile to reach people who are less aware of a product’s sustainability or who are less motivated to purchase this type of good if it involves an additional cost [58]. Therefore, to create a successful path for the creation of an eco-label and its adoption by the market, it is vital to consider a two-step procedure: to catch the attention of the consumers more inclined to purchase environmentally certified products, and once this has been achieved, to engage the public who prefers to choose those alternatives that are already commercially available. 2.3. Packaging Eco-Design and Waste Management Packaging is an unquestionably essential aspect of FSC due to the insurmountable distance between production plants and consumption. The high dependence of markets on imported products [ 59 ] and globalization has made the role of packaging crucial in protecting products and preserving their quality in transport and distribution operations. However, numerous factors must be taken into account when choosing the appropriate packaging, both from an economic and technical point of view, but also from an environmental perspective. Later stages of the food supply chain, including retail, packaging and transport, usually do not have a significant contribution to GHG emissions from food [ 60 ]. Particularly, packaging has up to 15% of the total carbon footprint in chilled, frozen, and cooked seafood products [ 61 – 63 ]. In contrast, cans of tinned seafood suppose an important contribution to the climate change potential of the product [ 49 , 64 – 66 ]. On average, packaging of canned seafood made of tinplate, aluminium or glass contributes 42% of the product’s climate change impact and 27% of the product’s weight, indicating that for such products, packaging production is commonly a major bottleneck [ 67 ]. This demonstrates that the type of packaging material could have a significant influence on the product’s environmental performance. Unlike certain materials, plastic has a low contribution to seafood products’ climate change impact, mainly due to its lower energy requirements in the production phase compared to other materials (e.g., aluminium) [ 67 ]. As an example, plastic packaging can be the most environmentally friendly option for the distribution of fruit and vegetables compared to reusable plastic crates with single-use cardboard boxes [ 68 ]. However, plastic can only be recycled a limited number of times, and its use to substitute virgin plastic could be restricted to non-food packaging applications if food and non-food plastic waste are mixed [ 69 ]. In addition, around 52% of plastic pollution is carried by rivers, and plastic leakage into the ocean from land-based sources has emerged as an important cause of different marine ecosystems damages [ 70 ]. These impacts are still not considered in LCA studies, and therefore, the subsequent fate of polymers and their products in the marine environment might be underestimated [ 71 ]. Viable alternatives to plastic from bio-based materials have emerged [ 72 ], but they still face challenges in their disposal effectiveness Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 9 of 25 and impose changes in plastic separation systems. Bio-based materials should be sent to biowaste disposals instead of recycling streams, as happens to other types of plastics [73]. At present, less than 30% of the plastic collected goes to recycling, and a significant share of this amount leaves the EU to be treated in third-world countries, where different environmental standards may apply. The material recyclability rate or the available infrastructure are key factors of recycling processes. For example, in the case of plastic, polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) account for around 50% of Europe’s plastic production, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) accounts for 8%, but unlike PE and PP, PET’s chemical properties allow it to be recycled in a way that maintains its quality [ 63 ]. Increasing our ability, capacity and motivation to recycle is fundamental to building a CE that transforms and adds value to waste [ 74 ]. Significant environmental improvements can be achieved with simple changes in the EU waste management systems. For instance, there is space in the EU to increase light packaging collection rates and to collect more from bulk containers using mechanical-biological treatment plants where some plastic could be recycled instead of being sent to landfills or incineration [ 75 ]. Furthermore, the percentage of plastic waste that is effectively recycled can be improved by the imposition of constant demand and avoiding export of waste, creating a design for recycling (e.g., a monopolymer design), and promoting the collection and advanced end-of-life technology. Besides, these environmental burdens will continue to increase whether the production and disposal of packaging, regardless of the portion that is recycled, is not curbed. In this sense, to support a transition towards a CE, a single-use plastics directive [ 11 ] from the European Commission was officially adopted in 2019 and included a ban on the disposable of single-use plastics and measures to make all plastic packaging in the EU recyclable by 2030. On the other hand, it is imperative to consider secondary aspects, such as food waste, transport, or product preparation, among others, in order to comprehend the packaging role as a whole [ 76 ]. Other indirect environmental burdens related to packaging, for instance, those associated with resources or energy waste during production, are also usually understimated, even though they may present an opportunity to improve the overall environmental performance of the good [ 67 ]. Seafood loses its quality significantly faster than other foods, so it is important to ensure that the least amount is wasted along the FSC. Estimates on seafood loss showed that 40–47% of the edible U.S. seafood supply was lost or wasted during the 2009–2013 period, and the greatest portions of this occurred at the consumer level [ 77 ]. As shown in Wikström et al. (2019) [ 78 ], for meat, fish and eggs altogether, the climate impact from food wasted could be larger than the climate impact from packaging, and trade-offs need to be verified through different types of packaging design approaches. At this point, packaging innovation could be crucial in stopping food waste, particularly seafood products [79]. By infusing eco-friendly strategies into the design, retailers are able to promote innovative products that may lead to significant economic and environmental savings. The packaging of a product is often the best way to visually engage and attract potential consumers. Therefore, eco-design applied to packaging could add extra value to Atlantic seafood products. Eco-design actions applied to primary packaging are usually related to the adaptation of current packaging by: (i) using as few raw materials as possible; (ii) selecting materials that are sourced sustainably (e.g., can be regenerated in a reasonable time-frame); and (iii) facilitating disassembly and recycling, thus saving resources that are replaced by recycled materials [ 74 ]. However, a holistic approach to packaging along the seafood supply chain clearly needs to emerge with package eco-design. Accurate recovery rates of recycling materials, different waste management strategies like reutilisation, and more packaging disposal options (for instance, anaerobic digestion), together with tradeoffs between seafood loss and waste and environmental footprint of packaging, should be considered in seafood eco-design strategies [67]. Another important strategy is to involve consumers to foster recycling behaviours and ensure effective acceptance of the use of more appropriate packaging solutions. Under Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 16 of 25 the use of resources in seafood processes by recycling and valorising the waste outputs into production and consumption systems, minimising the environmental impacts of seafood products, and incorporating competitive products into green markets. In this context, cooperation in a transnational approach is key to achieve efficient and innovative solutions, adopting a cluster model in which all stakeholders are involved and collaborate in addressing gaps, barriers, and future challenges. This clustering is also relevant for balancing these concerns with economic aspects during policy- and decisionmaking. Moreover, sharing knowledge and experiences at the regional level can help to address these challenges at the global level. In this sense, the NEPTUNUS project brings together several partners from five countries (Ireland, France, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom) (Figure 5), focusing their joint efforts on a strong and cohesive multilateral research cooperation for the development of more sustainable and coordinated strategies for the production and consumption of seafood products that meet regional needs of the seafood sector and also meet needs across jurisdictions in the AA. Moreover, there is a growing awareness that an effective interconnection between knowledge and complementary experience on the development and implementation of environmentally efficient processes and products supports the generation of non-fragmented environmental policies for the seafood and aquaculture sectors. Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 26 packaging, and transportation. These issues often affect transnational geographical areas (e.g., marine debris) or represent issues of global interest (e.g., climate change). Therefore, the attempt at individual resolution of each company, region or nation is not sufficient to solve the problems presented. Besides, the need for measurement and communication of the environmental performance of the seafood and aquaculture sectors through tools such as footprints or eco-labels crosses borders, creating the need for the harmonization of approaches and calculation methods. Furthermore, sustainable and multilateral research cooperation through transnational strategies and policies based on a CE is needed to reduce the use of resources in seafood processes by recycling and valorising the waste outputs into production and consumption systems, minimising the environmental impacts of seafood products, and incorporating competitive products into green markets. In this context, cooperation in a transnational approach is key to achieve efficient and innovative solutions, adopting a cluster model in which all stakeholders are involved and collaborate in addressing gaps, barriers, and future challenges. This clustering is also relevant for balancing these concerns with economic aspects during policy- and decisionmaking. Moreover, sharing knowledge and experiences at the regional level can help to address these challenges at the global level. In this sense, the NEPTUNUS project brings together several partners from five countries (Ireland, France, Portugal, Spain, and United Kingdom) (Figure 5), focusing their joint efforts on a strong and cohesive multilateral research cooperation for the development of more sustainable and coordinated strategies for the production and consumption of seafood products that meet regional needs of the seafood sector and also meet needs across jurisdictions in the AA. Moreover, there is a growing awareness that an effective interconnection between knowledge and complementary experience on the development and implementation of environmentally efficient processes and products supports the generation of non-fragmented environmental policies for the seafood and aquaculture sectors. Figure 5. The countries covered by the Interreg AA and the NEPTUNUS project. 5. From Researching to Stakeholders NEPTUNUS developed a dissemination and communication plan considering the target audiences and selecting the appropriate tools and channels to meet their information needs. An important part of the NEPTUNUS project was to involve the stakeholder (producers and consumers in this case) in the early stages of the process to allow Figure 5. The countries covered by the Interreg AA and the NEPTUNUS project. 5. From Researching to Stakeholders NEPTUNUS developed a dissemination and communication plan considering the target audiences and selecting the appropriate tools and channels to meet their information needs. An important part of the NEPTUNUS project was to involve the stakeholder (producers and consumers in this case) in the early stages of the process to allow the alignment of the research to industry requirements and expectations. In this way, the project could guarantee its commercial impact. Therefore, the project, across the different WPs, had the active involvement of producers and citizens, as well as other target audiences beyond academia, in order to increase the societal impact of NEPTUNUS achievements. In this sense, all e questionnaires considered to collect the data were done for the partners in face-to-face meetings with the companies, fishermen, etc., to guarantee the quality and replicability of the data throughout the AA. However, in the same line, the project contributes to meeting societal challenges by promoting more transparency from sea to Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 17 of 25 fork, focusing on the project’s impact on environmental aspects. In this way, the seafood packaging survey, the results of which are currently being analysed, will make it possible to connect with the consumers’ knowledge about good packaging recycling practices, among other things. Regarding the dissemination plan, the consortium has tried to open the NEPTUNUS knowledge across open-access scientific and industrial publications in international peerreviewed journals, showing scientific excellence and paving the way towards more sustainable seafood production and trade. In this sense, the members of the consortium have published several scientific publications in journals with previously identified impact factors (Journal of Industrial Ecology, Science of the Total Environment, Current Opinion in Environmental Science and Health). At this moment, 11 papers have already been published, and there are 3 more under revision (Table 3). Additionally, several conferences (8 in total) have featured NEPTUNUS presentations, such as aquaculture conferences (European Aquaculture Society, Northern European Aquaculture Event), general marine events (II Conference of Young Marine Researchers) as well as specific events such as the one related with environmental product declarations (7th EDP International Stakeholder Conference). In the same line, the consortium participated in events of other AA projects (i.e., Circular Seas) and other European projects (Oceanets, funded by the European Union EASME’s European Maritime and Fisheries, EXTRA-SMEs (Interreg new project)) to cluster with related European partners in order to maximize impact in common areas and try to achieve better results through cooperation between organisations of different projects. Besides, dissemination is increasingly taking place early in the research life cycle, and this broader and more interactive engagement is becoming an integral part of the entire research workflow. Consequently, the project is highly involved in dissemination from the first stages of school, based on the principle that students should try to “co-produce” their education in a similar way to the industry. The seminars in schools, as well as other initiatives such as The IX European Researchers’ Night (held on the last 24th of September in more than 370 cities across Europe) were platforms to reach the incipient researcher, trying to develop students’ competencies through critical analysis or brainstorming methods. The main objective of the projects ´ communication measures is to inform and promote the project and its results in a non-technical way to reach a broader audience. Special attention will be paid to the treatment of public policy messages by the transmission of key messages and through the different deliverables of the project, such as the white papers already published or in preparation, that seek to promote the concepts of a CE in the seafood area. NEPTUNUS has created a visual identity across its logo, emphasizing the circular point, and across the project slogan: “Providing opportunities for a transition to the CE of the seafood sector in the Atlantic Area”, where the field and location of the process are clarified to facilitate project engagement. A project website was also created, which is very intuitive both in its design and in the way the content is formulated. Moreover, the project created social media accounts (e.g., Twitter, Instagram) for the project and linked them from the project website with the aim of a sustained presence with new and engaging content to reinforce the project’s message and to try to establish a core group of followers to disseminate key findings or give important updates on the project. In addition, hard-copy brochures were produced to communicate/connect the more human side of research in face-to-face networking events. It should be borne in mind that the COVID restrictions have forced the project to make a greater effort in contacting stakeholders, such as producers or consumers, in a more virtual way and have reduced the capacity for dissemination and communication plans, so it is expected to be able to significantly increase the abovementioned numbers in the coming months. Special attention must be paid to dissemination in schools, since in everything related to environmental activities, it is important to open the way to the next generations from an early age, since it is crucial to inculcate environmental awareness, in LCA words, “from the cradle”. Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 18 of 25 Table 3. The academic articles published from the NEPTUNUS project at the time of writing. Article No. Reference Title Keywords 1 [100]Addressing challenges and opportunities of the European seafood sector under a circular economy framework Seafood, aquaculture, LCA, circular economy, climate change 2 [156]Life cycle assessment of fish and seafood processed products—A review of methodologies and new challenges Life cycle assessment, seafood, fisheries, nexus, environmental impacts, sustainability 3 [142]The benefits of integrating socioeconomic dimensions of circular economy practices in the seafood sector Circular economy, seafood sector, socio-economic dimension, bibliometric analysis 4 [157] Evaluation of the environmental sustainability of the inshore great scallop (Pecten maximus) fishery in Galicia Environmental impacts, fisheries, gastronomic product, industrial ecology, life cycle assessment, seafood 5 [158] Towards a water-energy-food (WEF) nexus index: A review of nutrient profile models as a fundamental pillar of food and nutrition security Diet quality, nutrition value, food analysis, dietary assessment, public health, sustainability 6 [159]Multi-product strategy to enhance the environmental profile of the canning industry towards circular economy Life cycle assessment, canned tuna, value chain, valorisation, by-products 7 [160]Designing environmentally efficient aquafeeds through the use of multicriteria decision support tools Sustainable aquaculture, aquafeed, life cycle assessment, nutrition, machine learning, seafood 8 [161]The fishing and seafood sector in the time of COVID-19: Considerations for local and global opportunities and responses Seafood, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, fisheries, pandemic 9 [67] Packaging environmental impact on seafood supply chains: A review of life cycle assessment studies Canning, fish, food packaging, industrial ecology, life cycle assessment, plastic 10 [138] Empower Eco multiactor HUB: A triple helix ‘academia-industry-authority’ approach to creating and sharing potentially disruptive tools for addressing novel and emerging new Green Deal opportunities under a United Nations Sustainable Development Goals framework Just transition, New Green Deal, sustainability, open research, multiactor hub, circularity, UN Sustainable Development Goals 11 [71]Life cycle inventory of plastics losses from seafood supply chains: Methodology and application to French fish products Life cycle assessment, marine debris, plastic pollution, lost fishing gears, microplastics, macroplastics 6. Expected Outputs and Conclusions The NEPTUNUS project provides an opportunity to contribute to a European CE strategy, addressing the three key aspects of sustainability: economy, society, and environment. The expected results of NEPTUNUS will help to promote responsible production and consumption of seafood products by identifying the main barriers, challenges and solutions for the fishing and aquaculture activities in the AA and defining strategies based on a life cycle-thinking, water-energy-food nexus and a CE, in line with the upcoming ‘circularity revolution’, which will promote economic growth in the AA. Taking an approach that addresses both production and consumption gives the project the advantage of understanding the key points for minimizing and recovering food waste, thereby promoting the responsible and sustainable use of natural resources. Furthermore, by addressing a CE perspective, where waste is minimised as much as possible and unavoidable waste is converted into new value-added resources, it opens the door to an innovative approach to the age-old problem of seafood waste. Due to the great importance of fishing and aquaculture activities in much of Europe, this project offers the opportunity to improve fish production, providing social benefits, such as job creation, and economic benefits, such as value creation. From an economic point of view, the transition from a linear to a circular economy, or in other words, closing the loop, contributes to strengthening the sector by obtaining products with higher added Sustainability 2022,14, 3054 19 of 25 value and savings in the final or end-of-life management of waste. On the other hand, the social relevance is also significant, highlighting the promotion of sustainable development, in which FLW occupies a key position, the need to mitigate and adapt to climate change, the importance of stimulating regional maritime zones and of addressing food security as a priority problem. Indeed, capitalisation is one of the main drivers of NEPTUNUS, which couples long-term methodologies by the definition of strategies and short-term regional case studies. Dissemination activities and networking with all the stakeholders involved in the seafood supply chain are key for the achievement of the project objectives. It is envisaged that the framework, tools, and policies that were collaboratively developed and validated during this project will continue to be used long after it is completed. Author Contributions: J.L.: Writing—original draft, conceptualization, investigation; I.R.-S.: writing— review & editing, investigation; M.M.: writing—review & editing, investigation; P.V.-R.: writing— original draft, investigation; L.P.: funding acquisition, formal analysis; P.Q.: writing—original draft, investigation; A.C.D.: writing—original draft, formal analysis; C.A.: writing—original draft, investigation; A.M.: writing—review & editing, formal analysis; E.E.-B.: writing—original draft, investigation; M.T.M.: writing—review & editing; G.F.: writing—review & editing; P.L.: writing— original draft, investigation; G.S.: writing—review & editing, formal analysis; R.C.: writing—original draft, investigation; E.C.: investigation, formal analysis; L.R.: writing—original draft, investigation; D.A.B.d.S.: writing—original draft, investigation; C.J.: writing—original draft; C.N.: investigation; J.-C.M.: writing—review & editing; M.R.: writing—review & editing; N.R.: writing—review & editing, formal analysis; S.M.: writing—original draft; R.A.: funding acquisition, supervision, conceptualization. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This work was supported by the EAPA_576/2018 NEPTUNUS project. The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Interreg Atlantic Area. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for the funding of the Interreg Atlantic Area program through the EAPA_576/2018 NEPTUNUS project. A.C. Dias and P. Quinteiro acknowledge FCT/MCTES for the contracts CEECIND/02174/2017 and CEECIND/00143/2017, respectively, and for the financial support to CESAM (UIDB/50017/2020+UIDP/50017/2020) through national funds. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Gephart, J.A.; Deutsch, L.; Pace, M.L.; Troell, M.; Seekell, D.A. 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