Nominal modifiers in noun phrase structure : evidence from contemporary English

UNIVERSIDADE DE SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA FACULTADE DE FILOLOXÍA DEPARTAMENTO DE FILOLOXÍA INGLESA NOMINAL MODIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE: EVIDENCE FROM CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH Iria Pastor Gómez 2009 UNIVERSIDADE DE SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA FACULTADE DE FILOLOXÍA DEPARTAMENTO DE FILOLOXÍA INGLESA NOMINAL MODIFIERS IN NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE: EVIDENCE FROM CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH Tese de doutoramento realizada por Iria Pastor Gómez baixo a dirección dos Profesores Dra. María Teresa Fanego Lema e Dr. Juan Carlos Acuña Fariña V. e Pr. dos directores: Asdo. Iria Pastor Gómez Asdo. Dra. María Teresa Fanego Lema Asdo. Dr. Juan Carlos Acuña Fariña ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Teresa Fanego and Prof. Carlos Acuña for their constant support during all this time. They have undoubtedly facilitate my research in a number of ways contributing with explicit and highly valuable input and helping with lots of administrative questions, but they also did it in a more personal sense in those moments I did not even know where this was all going to, if that was going somewhere at all. This dissertation could not have been possible without their help, which I gratefully acknowledge here. This dissertation could have not been done without the support of the research project Variation, Linguistic Change and Grammaticalization, funded by the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation (grant no. HUM2007-60706 (CONSOLIDER)), the Autonomous Government of Galicia (grants no. INCITE 08PXIB204016PR; 2008-047) and the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Support from the Spanish Ministry for Education through the research fellowship AP2004-4917 is also gratefully acknowledged. I wish also to show my thanks to those friends I met in my way and who have supported me no matter what. I thank you for the numerous moments we have been together inside and outside this building, for our meals, coffee breaks, conferences and meetings… to you, who know who you are, I express my deepest gratitude. My friends, those who are with me since unmemorable times and those who I met later on and I love and appreciate in the same way, I thank you for being by my side even though they had no idea whatsoever why nominal modifiers were so important to me. Thanks also go to my family, my two lovely grannies and especially my parents, Ana and Vicente, those without whom nothing in my world would be as it is, if I am where I am that is because of them. Finally, to Laurent, because without his support, strength and contagious constancy this would not have been possible at all. I thank you for believing in me more than I personally do. It goes without saying that, in spite of the contribution of those I have just mentioned to the execution, development and conclusion of this dissertation, any errors or inaccuracies that remain in my work are my own and exclusive responsibility. Edinburgh, July 2009. i TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... vii 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Aims ........................................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Overview of the research ............................................................................................ 2 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE ........................................................................... 5 2.1 Definition, function and structural patterns of noun phrases ..................................... 6 2.1.1 Definition of noun phrases ............................................................................. 6 2.1.2 Noun phrases and nominals .......................................................................... 12 2.1.3 Structural patterns ......................................................................................... 13 2.1.4 Noun phrases as means for style ................................................................... 20 2.2 Premodification ........................................................................................................ 22 2.2.1 Component parts of premodification ............................................................ 22 2.2.2 Order of premodifiers ................................................................................... 23 2.2.3 Possible combinations .................................................................................. 26 2.3 The role of premodification as opposed to postmodification ................................... 29 2.3.1 Previous studies ............................................................................................ 29 2.3.2 Lack of explicitness and context information ............................................... 31 2.3.3 The pragmatic function of premodification .................................................. 34 2.4 Summary and concluding remarks ........................................................................... 35 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS ........ 37 3.1 Nominal modifiers .................................................................................................... 37 ii 3.1.1 Nouns as modifiers ....................................................................................... 38 3.1.2 The variability of stress patterns ................................................................... 42 3.1.3 Morphological properties of nouns as modifiers .......................................... 47 3.1.4 Suggested reasons for the use of N+N sequences ........................................ 50 3.1.4.1 Compactness ......................................................................... 51 3.1.4.2 Availability ............................................................................ 51 3.1.4.3 Predictability ......................................................................... 53 3.2 Earlier analyses of N+N structures........................................................................... 54 3.3 Ambiguity in N+N sequences .................................................................................. 64 3.3.1 Syntactic ambiguity ...................................................................................... 65 3.3.2 Semantic ambiguity ...................................................................................... 67 3.3.3 Categorial ambiguity: gradience and conversion in N+N structures ............ 73 3.4 The boundary between syntax and morphology ...................................................... 77 3.4.1 Criteria for the definition of the status of N+N structures ............................ 80 3.4.2 The institutionalisation process: idiomatisation and lexicalisation .............. 90 3.4.2.1 Compounding and compounds .............................................. 90 3.4.2.2 The process of acquisition of new lexicon: institutionalisation, idiomatisation and lexicalisation .................................. 100 3.4.3 Concluding remarks. Can N+N structures be considered as a method of word formation? ................................................................................................... 105 3.5 Nominal modifiers versus other kinds of modification within the noun phrase (genitive phrases, adjectives, prepositional phrases, and relative clauses) ........................ 106 3.5.1 The premodifying position ......................................................................... 107 3.5.2 The postmodifying position ........................................................................ 112 iii 3.6 Summary and concluding remarks ......................................................................... 113 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH ............................................................................. 117 4.1 A hypothesis around four variables ........................................................................ 118 4.1.1 Text category .............................................................................................. 119 4.1.2 Speech community ..................................................................................... 126 4.1.3 Time period ................................................................................................. 127 4.1.4 Mode……………………………………………………………………. .. 127 4.2 The corpus .............................................................................................................. 127 4.2.1 The corpora of written English ................................................................... 128 4.2.2 The corpora of spoken English ................................................................... 131 4.2.3 Text sampling ............................................................................................. 135 4.2.4 Methodology ............................................................................................... 145 4.3 Overview of the data .............................................................................................. 149 4.3.1 Text category .............................................................................................. 153 4.3.2 Speech community ..................................................................................... 154 4.3.3 Time period ................................................................................................. 158 4.3.4 Mode……………………………………………………………………. .. 159 4.4 N+N structures and lexicalisation .......................................................................... 161 4.4.1 Criteria for the classification of lexicalised and non-lexicalised N+N structures ……………………………………………………………………………….161 4.4.2 General results ............................................................................................ 166 4.4.3 Text category .............................................................................................. 166 4.4.4 Speech community ..................................................................................... 168 4.4.5 Time period ................................................................................................. 169 1 1 INTRODUCTION The English language is, it seems, a boundless source of investigation. As with many other fields of scientific study, new discoveries simply lead to new questions, and hence open up further avenues of research. The phenomenon under investigation in this dissertation has been present in the English language for centuries and has been a major source of word formation, along with borrowing and derivation. However, during the 20th century a sudden and very significant increase in the use of these devices was noted (cf. Biber & Clark 2002). Trends and fashions emerge constantly in contemporary society, and language, as an essential component of social interaction, is also governed by fashion. By implication, the use of nouns in modifying position in Present Day English seems to be the result of a trend, with the use of such forms increasing and spreading through the language. However, this only constitutes a superficial explanation of a linguistic phenomenon which merits a far more detailed and analytical assessment. As we will see in this dissertation, there is only a small available literature here, and most extant research deals only in a relatively superficial way with the topic. Indeed, some studies have looked at N+N structures as part of a wider investigation (cf. Jucker 1992; Biber & Clark 2002), while others have addressed very specific issues (cf. Warren 1978 and Benczes 2006, an assessment from a semantic point of view; Giegerich 2004, from a phonetic perspective; Rosenbach 2007, a comparison of N+N sequences to genitive phrases); other studies take earlier approaches (cf. Levi 1978, from a Generativist perspective), while others have contributed to the literature with small, although valuable, articles (cf. Varantola 1993; Rosenbach 2005). For this reason, a large-scale monographic study on the topic is now in order. 1 INTRODUCTION 2 1.1 Aims This dissertation aims to study those nouns which function as premodifiers in noun phrase structure and which, in combination with the head noun they modify, are referred from hereafter as N+N structures or N+N sequences (e.g. university library). Their function as premodifiers is far from being prototypical, since nouns usually function as heads of noun phrases, whereas premodifying position is prototypically filled with adjectives. However, the present research will show that their frequency of use in contemporary English is high. In order to do so, N+N sequences are studied from three different perspectives: their status, their evolution, and their use. In terms of their status, the structures are considered here as syntactic constructs (cf. Huddleston & Pullum 2002), in contrast to others, who have considered them to be morphological compounds (cf. Levi 1978; Warren 1978; Benczes 2006). As for their evolution, some may become part of the lexicon through a gradual process of lexicalisation, acquiring properties of a morphological, semantic or orthographic nature. Finally, from the point of view of their use, it will be shown that several different variables are in operation. 1.2 Overview of the research Chapter 2 serves as an introductory review of the theoretical framework adopted, and offers some considerations on the structure of the noun phrase. It focuses on the definition, function and structural patterns of noun phrases as well as their dependents, among which premodifiers are emphasised. A summary of different interpretations of the noun phrase in the literature is offered. These have proposed, variously, that noun phrases may be defined in terms of their component parts (head and dependents), their dependency relations (modifiers depend on the head), and their order relations (modifiers may precede or succeed the head noun). 1 INTRODUCTION 3 Chapter 3 discusses nouns as modifiers and provides a thorough analysis of their principal features. It also includes a definition of N+N sequences, as well as a series of explanations which justify their use. A review of previous literature on the matter is also given. This chapter also deals with the ambiguity arising from the use of N+N sequences from three points of view: syntactic, semantic and categorial. The problems in establishing clearcut boundaries between syntax and morphology when trying to define the status of N+N structures are discussed, and in connection with this, the questions of institutionalisation and lexicalisation will also be considered. Finally, nouns as premodifiers are compared to other dependents such as genitive phrases, adjectives, prepositional phrases and relative clauses. Chapter 4 is in fact the empirical complement of the previous chapter, since it presents and discusses the findings from a corpus study of English texts on the evolution and use of N+N sequences. Firstly, it offers an explanation of the main hypothesis in terms of four different variables: text category, speech community, time period, and mode. Secondly, a thorough description and explanation of the corpora that have been chosen for the research, as well as of the methodology employed here, is given. Next, there is an overview of the data derived from the corpora. Also included is an explanation of findings from the perspective of the above-mentioned variables, as well as findings obtained after the application of various criteria to test the degree of lexicalisation N+N sequences have. Finally, Chapter 5 provides a summary of the investigation as well as the main conclusions reached. It also offers a number of suggestions for further research. 1 INTRODUCTION 5 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE In this chapter a brief account of the structure of the noun phrase (NP) is offered. The main goal of the current dissertation is the analysis of nouns which are embedded as modifiers in those larger units called noun phrases. In order to understand how a noun may act as a modifier in a noun phrase, attention must be paid to the processes which make this possible. Nouns prototypically function as heads of noun phrases, but the object of study here is their role as modifiers. In order to appreciate the differences between these two functions that nouns can perform, an initial analysis of noun phrases is therefore useful. Each section below is devoted to one specific aspect of the noun phrase. Due to limitations of space and time, I will focus on the definition, function and patterns of noun phrases as well as the modifiers inside them, and will pay special attention to premodification. Accordingly, Section 2.1 deals with the definition and structural patterns of noun phrases, as well as to the role that noun phrases play as means for style. The phenomenon of premodification, where nouns also play an important role, is then discussed in Section 2.2; issues such as the order of premodifiers, their component parts and their possible combinations are also examined. Section 2.3 is then devoted to the role of premodification as opposed to postmodification; there is a reference to previous works (such as Raumolin- Brunberg 1991 or Biber & Clark 2002) that have made a quantitative analysis of the use of premodifiers. Those earlier works will place nominal modifiers vis-à-vis the rest of modifying devices. I will also analyse aspects such as the lack of explicitness and context information as well as the pragmatic function of premodification. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 6 2.1 Definition, function and structural patterns of noun phrases The following subsections offer an account of the different approaches that grammars have made to noun phrases. It should be borne in mind, whilst discussing these different approaches, that the present study of the noun phrase is based on the idea that constituents in an NP are built up of a continuous and recursive sequence of items, and that they may be studied from the point of view of their form and function. 2.1.1 Definition of noun phrases The concept of phrase has been defined in a variety of ways over time. Jespersen (1976 [1914]: 15) defined it as a combination of words put together in order to form a sense unit. Similarly, Kruisinga (1932 [1909]: 177) distinguishes “syntactic groups” as a combination of words which are part of a sentence. On the other hand, Hockett (1958: 152-154) refers to composite forms which are hierarchically organised. As an illustration, the old dog in the old dog lay in the corner is a composite form as well as lay in the corner. Both of them are part of a construction type, that is, a group of constructions which are similar in some specified way, since both constructions involve the modification of one immediate constituent by the other. Thus, in the old dog, old is a descriptive adjective which functions as the second immediate constituent, whereas the noun dog is the first immediate constituent. Hockett also adds that the composite form yields a constitute, which also belongs to the class of singular nouns. What is thus implied is that the form-class of the composite form is identified with one of its immediate constituents; this is why the old dog is a singular noun phrase just as dog is. These constructions are called endocentric. However, it seems that, at the time when Hockett was writing, the boundary between syntax and morphology was somewhat unstable, Hockett himself including constructions such as the old dog and blackbird within the label “endocentric constructions” (1958: 185). Despite this, what constitutes a major advancement 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 7 in the study of the noun phrase is that he refers to the concepts of head and attribute when observing that “the constituent whose privileges of occurrence are matched with those of the constitute is the head or centre; the other constituent is the attribute.” (1958: 184). One way or another, this notion of endocentrism has survived to the present day. More recently, Aarts & Aarts (1988: 10-14) refer again to the idea of the noun phrase as a headed phrase in which the head is the only obligatory constituent. They also use categories and functions to describe sentence units. The general idea is that the component parts of syntactic groups can be divided into lower units until the moment at which indivisible units are reached. Within the context of Generative Grammar, X-bar theory (Jackendoff 1977) views all phrases as the product of syntactic rules which are context-free, and makes use of lexical categories such as N, V, A, P (noun, verb, adjective, and preposition) as the starting point of projection paths. These categories are assigned bars and often prime symbols also (X’, X’’, etc.), leading to a three-level structure. Thus for nouns, the noun phrase would be equivalent to N’’ (N-double-bar), N’’’ or possibly N’’’’. It allows any constituent in the X-bar hierarchy to contain another constituent of a lower or even higher level. Example (1) may serve as an illustration of this. (1) a broadcast of the new show This is an N’’ which contains an N’ which contains a P’’ (of the new show) and an N’’ (the new show) within it. Other approaches to the noun phrase have been made within the framework of Functional Grammar, which focuses on the communicative function of language. With Functional Grammar a new pragmatic perspective is added to the study of language. It seeks 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 8 to find an explanation for phenomena according to their function in language use. Functional Grammar describes the English clause as a combination of three different structures deriving from distinct functional components, namely: (i) Ideational. Clause as representation Æ transitivity. (ii) Interpersonal. Clause as exchange Æ mood. (iii) Textual. Clause as message Æ theme. The group structure is also a combination of these three components. Group is a term which Halliday (1985: 158-159) uses instead of phrase, arguing that “a group is in some respects equivalent to a word complex – that is, a combination of words built up on the basis of a particular logical relation.” The differences between group and phrase are mainly that “whereas a group is an expansion of a word, a phrase is a contraction of a clause.”(1985: 159). Halliday recognizes the existence and relevance of noun phrases, which he calls nominal groups. He emphasizes the value of groups (or phrases in the terminology employed here) since they provide very important aspects of meaning. Were it not for phrases, the lack of an intermediate level between clause or sentence and word would entail an enormous loss of insight. That is, describing a sentence as a construction of words is rather like describing a house as a construction of bricks, without recognizing the walls and the rooms as intermediate structural units (ibid.). Cognitive Grammar offers a different approach to the study of noun phrases. In principle, it starts from the same premise as do the generativists when it conceives of language as knowledge in the mind. However, it differs in its conception of grammatical organisation and of the specific proposals concerning semantic structure (Langacker, 1990: 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 9 1). In fact, Langacker regards grammar as non-generative and non-constructive, not an algorithmic device giving a well-defined class of expressions as output, and contends that there is no such a thing as a form without meaning. Since meaning drives grammatical encoding, judgements about the grammaticality of some structures are not categorical but simply a matter of gradience. Grammatical structures do not constitute an autonomous formal system but, rather, are symbolic. Thus, lexicon, morphology and syntax belong to a continuum of symbolic units. This notion of grammar gives a new perspective to the definition and use of noun phrases, both in terms of the categories of which they are comprised as well as the functions of each of their component parts. Thus, Langacker points out that categories such as nouns may be defined in notional, rather than grammatical, terms (ibid.: 59). As far as functions are concerned, the consideration of the determiner as the head of the noun phrase will be explained later in this chapter. Traditionally, there is a distinction between the lexical category noun and the syntactic category noun phrase. As Taylor (2002: 343) points out, noun phrases, or nominals, may exhibit considerable internal complexity. In terms of their conceptual organisation noun phrases have four components: (i) Specification. A given noun is a type that may be specified by using an adjective modifying it (e.g. red apple still designates an apple but it is more specific). (ii) Instantiation. The relation between the type and its instances (i.e., those which are candidates to be selected by the noun phrase). While the noun designates a type, a noun phrase designates an instance of the type. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 16 (v) Complements express semantic arguments of the head noun. This is especially so when the noun is a semantic predicate denoting some property, relation, process or action and the complement represents an involved entity like the bearer of a property or a term in the relation (e.g. the softness of your skin). (vi) Semantic roles of complements depend on the head noun. This is especially the case of complements headed by the preposition of, for example in the decease of his father, where his father is agent, or in the election of his father, where his father is patient. (vii) Semantic selection restrictions in noun phrases involve complements (e.g. the reading of the poem vs. *the reading of the desk). Payne & Huddleston’s (2002) overview on NP structure is, despite some gaps, relatively comprehensive. Quirk et al. (1985), on the other hand, restrict those dependents to modifiers, and make a distinction regarding their position within the noun phrase (whether they precede or follow the head noun). Nevertheless, they differentiate among the following various kinds of modification: restrictive (e.g. my younger sister), non-restrictive (e.g. my lovely dog). Restrictive modifiers are those dependents that can create a subclass of the class denoted by the head of the NP, whereas non-restrictive or descriptive modifiers are those which describe the referent of the NP in terms of a particular quality it possesses (cf. also De Mönnink 2000). Also, a further distinction between temporary and permanent modifiers can be made. Premodifiers tend to be permanent (the lovely girl) whereas postmodifers may be temporary. Thus, temporary modifiers cannot usually be placed in premodifying position (e.g. *the ready man). The categories which are employed as modifiers are mainly adjectives, which are placed in premodifying position, but nominals are also common categories filling 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 17 this position. Participles ending in –ing and –ed may also function as premodifiers. On the other hand, the postmodifier position may be held by relative clauses, -ing and –ed clauses, to infinitive clauses, prepositional phrases and noun phrases in apposition. As pointed out above, the head noun in an NP is traditionally the element around which all the dependents are placed, and one can usually recognise a prototypical NP structure in which the order of each of its elements can be observed. De Mönnink (2000: 19) divides a prototypical NP into the following constituent elements: limiter, determiner, premodifier, head and postmodifier. The limiter is not the same as Payne & Huddleston’s (2002) external dependent, neither is it the predeterminer in Quirk et al.’s (1985) account. The differences with this analysis have to do with the fact that De Mönnink includes a new analysis of the determiner position which is fulfilled by a determiner phrase. Thus, the predeterminer, central determiner and postdeterminer that Quirk et al. (1985) resorted to are here part of the determiner phrase and thus the limiter is another kind of dependent. It is similar to the determiner phrase premodifier because it precedes other determiners and it is realized by an adverb phrase (e.g. only my books). However, a limiter cannot co-occur with a determiner phrase premodifier. The differences lie in the fact that the determiner phrase premodifier can obviously occur only if the determiner phrase slot is also realized. Furthermore, the stress will fall on the following item (e.g. around twó days). On the other hand, the limiter is not dependent on the realization of the determiner phrase slot and receives the stress, since it restricts the reference of the NP (e.g. júst your friend). The second element (DET) is the determinative, whose occurrence depends largely on the head noun of the NP. The premodifier (PREM) is the following dependent. As previously noted, this function is mainly filled by adjectives, adjective phrases, and nouns, but also by – ed and –ing participles, genitives, adverbs and other phrases. Premodifiers can co-occur, and 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 18 the order in which they appear as a sequence is not entirely free. As De Mönnink (2000: 21) observes, “(…) the ordering is dependent on the syntactic and semantic class membership of the items concerned (…) the general rule is to place the more objective and undisputable qualifications closer to the noun, and the more subjective, opinion like ones farther away.” This implies that descriptive adjectives precede classifying ones, whereas nouns will appear after the other premodifiers. Quirk et al. (1985) further subclassify premodifiers from the furthest to the closest to the head noun as follows: (1) General (small, big) (2) Age (old, young) (3) Colour (black, red) (4) Participle (disturbing, closed) (5) Provenance (Spanish, English) (6) Noun (air, Paris) (7) Denominal (personal, human) In spite of this possible ordering of premodifiers in noun phrase structure, it should be pointed out that premodifiers may exhibit a certain weakness in their constraints (cf. Section 2.2.2 on the order of premodifiers). The head (HEAD) is the following element, and indeed the most important one, since all the other items in the NP depend on it. Postmodifiers (POM) follow the head and can prototypically be filled by prepositional phrases and clauses, but also by adjective phrases and noun phrases. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 19 This is the prototypical structural pattern that noun phrases may exhibit. Yet there are other possible combinations that NPs can display which deviate from this prototypical ordering. Thus, De Mönnink (2000) puts forward a comprehensive classification of noun phrases depending on the kind of mobility that they present. It can be summarized as follows: Type A. NP with a deferred modifier Æ the modifier (AP, ADVP, NP) follows the head (e.g. the breakfast this morning). Type B. Noun phrase with a floating3 deferred modifier Æ a clause or a phrase is outside the NP boundaries (e.g. the news were suddenly spread that he was coming back soon). Type C. Noun phrase with a fronted modifier Æ a clause precedes the head (e.g. the insert coin icon). Type D. Noun phrase with a discontinuous4 modifier Æ the constituents of an adjective phrase do not occur adjacent to each other (e.g. She seems to be quite a different person from the one I used to know). Type E. Noun phrase with a deferred determiner Æ part of the determiner follows the NP head (e.g. The problem does not affect us all). Type F. Noun phrase with floating deferred determiner Æ the determiner occurs outside the NP boundaries (e.g. They are both playing tennis). Type G. Noun phrase with a discontinuous determiner (e.g. My friends both went to the party). Type H. Noun phrase with a deferred limiter5Æ the limiter occurs after the NP head (e.g. He asked for nothing at all). 3 A floating constituent, as defined by De Mönnink (2000: 25), is seen in those instances in which a constituent occurs in a position outside the boundaries of its mother constituent. 4 If an NP has one or more floating constituents, it is called discontinuous, as stated by De Mönnink (2000: 25). 5 For a definition of limiter, see page 17. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 20 Type I. Noun phrase with a floating deferred emphasizer Æ the emphasizer occurs outside NP boundaries (e.g. She already knew that he was himself outside the city). 2.1.4 Noun phrases as means for style One of the features which may define noun phrases is that of their static nature, as opposed to the dynamism of verbs. The addition of nominal premodifiers to the head of a noun phrase helps to increase this static character, which itself has some consequences in terms of the goals with which language users may employ them. As an illustration, we may refer to the case of scientific language, which will be also the concern of Chapter 4. According to Varantola (1993), owing to their static character, noun phrases with nominal premodification provide the statements they represent with a universalistic or normative vision, which generates a standardisation of the terminology that scientists employ. Du Bois (1981) points out that the reasons why nominal premodification in scientific English noun phrases is a recursive phenomenon are not only of a stylistic nature but are also related to the assumptions of the writer as to what concerns shared information. Thus, prenominal position is usually occupied by shared information between the sender and receiver of a message, whereas new information is placed in postnominal position (the endfocus principle). In order to explain this, she resorts to the concept of “communicative dynamism” whereby shared information includes less communicative dynamism than new information (cf. also Halliday 1985)6. Therefore, the later elements of a sentence are most communicative, that is, they bear the greatest message load. In spite of the fact that this phenomenon takes place at sentence level, she adds: “(…) the dynamic build up which is conceded to occur in units such as sentences can be seen to occur in their components, 6 Halliday refers to the concepts of theme and rheme into which a sentence is organized, and also to notions of given and new information, which often coincide with the theme and rheme, respectively. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 21 specifically NPs.”(1981: 55). This awareness of the fact that there is shared knowledge causes a reduction in explicitness, itself characteristic of nominal premodification, since there is no need to repeat what is already known by the interlocutors. Similarly, Quirk et al. (1985: 1243) explain that this reduction in explicitness is related to the linguistic and situational context in which a given NP occurs. Thus, there is information of which interlocutors have been aware in previous linguistic interchanges; and there is also the context of the situation in which the sentence is uttered, which helps to fill informative slots in the most efficient way with the least number of linguistic elements. The function of noun phrases as means for style is also perceived in journalistic language. Complex noun phrases are mainly used in newspaper headlines. Examples (4a) and (4b) may serve as illustrations. (4a) Brown’s chief fundraiser embroiled in sleaze row (4b) Call centre worker wins race case over accent Both examples are taken from The Times Online newspaper. As can be seen, there is just one verb acting as a link between two different complex noun phrases on which all the information load falls. Such headlines are clear examples of the compressed style of complex noun phrases that can be exploited in journalese7. Thus, complex NPs replace potential, more explicit and longer utterances like those with postmodifying relative clauses. Furthermore, the nominal style allows for an impersonal tone that can be used to establish distance between the writer and the news itself, creating the impression that the information presented is objective. This question will be dealt with in detail in Chapter 4. 7 For a definition of journalese see Chapter 4, Section 4.1.1. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 22 2.2 Premodification Premodifiers are optional elements in the noun phrase, given that their presence or absence does not affect the grammaticality of its structure. However, premodifiers provide the noun phrase with important features, since they identify, classify and define the head noun. Indeed, premodifiers have the potential to be present in all kinds of linguistic interchanges and situations. Furthermore, they contribute to the saving of space. In addition, and going back to Varantola’s (1993: 75) statement introduced at the beginning of Section 2.1.4, premodifiers are seen as permanent, as opposed to postmodifiers, which are more dynamic and variable. Nouns and adjectives, which tend to be stative, are the prototypical categories that fill the premodifier position. Thus, premodifiers tend to describe permanent features of the noun they modify. In the following subsections attention will be paid to the role of the different component parts of premodification, as well as to their order of appearance and the possible combinations that may be found in premodifying position. 2.2.1 Component parts of premodification As noted, premodifying position is usually and prototypically filled by adjectives (a sad scene), but also by participles (the stolen book/ the rising sun) and nouns (a car crash). In addition, there are other less frequent types of premodifying items, such as genitives (this airplane’s crew), phrases (a round-the-corner shop), and sentences (the I don’t know how many people). As has been previously noted, nouns and adjectives as premodifiers provide the noun phrase with a static character since they themselves are static. Nevertheless, this tendency towards some sort of permanence is also observed in the case of participles. Thus, (5) a working man 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 23 is not a man who is working at a given time but a man who works habitually. The premodifier position in noun phrases may be filled by one or more of the above mentioned items, since premodification is a recursive phenomenon. There is much variation across genres in the forms and quantity of premodifiers used; thus, for example, complex premodifying forms tend to be more present in scientific language than in a spontaneous conversation. There is theoretically no limit to the number of items which may appear in premodifying position; however, it is unusual to find more than four, since too much complexity in NP modification will imply a processing overload, leading to a loss of meaning and content. 2.2.2 Order of premodifiers As we know, the sequence into which these modifying items may appear is not entirely free, since there is an order that depends on a number of factors, such as the intended meaning and the type of premodifier. In the noun phrase structure, two different ordering constraints can be found. Rigid ordering constraints imply that their violation must give rise to an ungrammatical structure. For example, changing the order of the indefinite article and noun in (6a), below, for example, gives rise to an ungrammatical NP in (6b). (6a) an apple (6b) *apple an Labile ordering constraints, on the other hand, imply that a change of order will not give rise to an ungrammatical structure; such constraints simply give the preferred order in the default case. Thus, departures from this order will often be of questionable acceptability but 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 24 may be justified by considerations of scope and information packaging (Payne & Huddleston, 2002: 452) Thus, in examples (7a) and (7b), (7a) I want to wear a long red dress (7b) I want to wear a red long dress (7b) is an illustration of labile order. The prototypical order of modifiers in (7a) has been changed, but no ungrammatical expression has been created as a result. This second example serves to emphasise the kind of long dress the speaker wants to wear (which is red and not of any other colour). Thus, the sentence could be expanded as in (7c). (7c) I want to wear a red long dress and none of the other long dresses I have got in my wardrobe As already noted, there is a general rule whereby the more objective and unquestionable modifiers are placed closer to the head of the NP, whereas the more subjective ones are placed further away. This implies that nouns are closer to the head noun, while adjectives (especially descriptive ones) will precede those modifying nouns. (8) A touching private poetry reading In this NP, the descriptive adjective touching precedes the classifying adjective private, which itself precedes the modifying noun poetry; both are premodifiers of the head noun reading. Thus, positions closer to the head noun are filled by descriptive modifiers, which are “more 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 25 NP My first significant conference Linguistics international DETERMINER PRECENTRAL MODIFIER CENTRAL MODIFIER POSTCENTRAL MODIFIER PREHEAD MODIFIER HEAD NOUN integral to the identification, classification, or description of the head noun referent.” (Biber et al., 1999: 599). Along the same lines, Quirk et al. (1985: 1339) distinguish four different premodification zones: precentral, central, postcentral, and prehead position. Non-gradable adjectives are situated in precentral position, gradable adjectives are placed in central position, whereas participles and colour adjectives are left in postcentral position. In prehead position are the least adjectival and most nominal modifiers (adjectives denoting nationality, style, provenance; denominal adjectives and nouns). Figure II illustrates this classification. Figure II Premodification zones When items of the same group co-occur there is a tendency for those modifiers which denote place and time to take precedence (e.g. National biological laboratory). Likewise, when there are two premodifying nouns (e.g. A plastic milk bottle), Quirk et al. (1985: 1342) point out that the second premodifier corresponds to the object of the verb in a potential underlying sentence (e.g. The bottle contains milk), whilst the first premodifying noun is related to material, means, instrument, space or any comparable adverbial relation (material in the example above). However, this is not always the case, as many examples in the present corpora have shown. Thus, in the case of example (9), 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 32 (16a) the autumn election (16b) the election which is held in autumn The premodifier in (16a) includes all the relations which are explicit in the second example, which contains a postmodifying element (which is held in autumn). This lack of explicitness would obviously bring about a danger of misunderstanding, since these constructions may be ambiguous, were it not for the fact that contextual information available as a means of avoiding ambiguity. The choices that speakers or writers make when using these kinds of constructions are thus always context-sensitive. The speaker or writer is aware of the information that their interlocutors already know, an awareness which allows them to use such non-explicit constructions with no fear of being misunderstood. From this, it may be concluded that reduction in explicitness is clearly related to a specific linguistic and situational context. When a context is first established, such as in the case of the initiation of a conversation, there is a need to be as explicit as possible and thus introduce as many modifiers - and textual relations among them - as needed for the creation of a clear context. Once this information has been established, the number of modifiers and their relations is reduced, since there is no need to report details which interlocutors can glean from the context. As a result, the noun phrase is no longer as explicit grammatically. (17a) the red dress girl (17b) the girl who is wearing a red dress Example (17a) is a noun phrase which has a premodifier red dress; example (17b), however, is a noun phrase which has a relative clause who is wearing a red dress as a postmodifier. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 33 Both (17a) and (17b) express the same idea of a girl wearing a red dress. Speakers can employ either phrase since both are grammatical expressions and have semantic content. Interlocutors will have assimilated the fact that the premodifier of (17a) means exactly what is entailed in (17b). However, the presuppositional status that the premodifier has acquired in (17a) is not showed in the postmodifier in (17b). There is information which is shared by both the sender and receiver of a message in (17a), that is, presupposed information, which is completely new in the case of (17b). Thus, we may imagine a conversation in a crowded cafeteria between two friends who want to take a seat: A. Do you see that girl sitting in the corner? B. Which one do you mean? A. The girl who is wearing a red dress. B. Oh! yes. Now I see her. A. I think she has asked for the bill. A few minutes later, they again refer to the same person: A. Look, the red dress girl is leaving. B. Yes, so we can take a seat now. This conversation has two stages. In stage 1, there is a first reference to the girl, with postmodification, since all information about her is new. The speaker needs to deliver as much information as possible about the referent to ensure that his interlocutor understands. Once this information is delivered, both interlocutors implicitly agree on the main defining 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 34 characteristic of this person, and hence they share the same qualifiers in referring to her and in discriminating her from all other potential referents in the context. The qualifier red dress seems to be a good option, and finally speaker A decides to conventionalise it by using a premodifier red dress in stage 2. From this it may be concluded that premodification performs a different commutative function from postmodification. 2.3.3 The pragmatic function of premodification The lack of explicitness characteristic of premodification is simply due to the fact that the premodified items themselves are used within a context. If the resulting semantic implications are given with the help of context, premodifiers can be freely used in that given context. However, speakers use them in order to achieve certain goals. One of these, probably the most obvious, is that premodifiers tend to shorten the length of the noun phrases into which they are inserted. This reduction implies that the interlocutor can send the message using minimal coding, saving space and time by creating compact packages of information. The items placed in premodification position may also be given the status of permanent. In this case, they can create a subclass of the class denoted by the head of the noun phrase; that is, they become classifying modifiers. Consider examples (18a) and (18b). (18a) a tea cup (18b) a cup of tea Here, the contrast expressed by the two kinds of modifiers is clearly seen. In (18a) there is a cup which is defined as a cup used to drink tea. It probably has a shape and other features which help to identify it as a tea cup rather than any other kind of cup. However, in (18b) there is a cup which has no defining characteristics. It is merely a cup that contains tea at this 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 35 moment in time, whereas the tea cup is always a tea cup, whatever it contains. In view of this, Jucker (1992: 67) claims that modifiers in prehead position do not describe the head of the noun phrase but actually restrict its possible referents to a small subgroup. Thus, premodifiers provide the noun with a new status which is not given by postmodification. This is the abovementioned permanence that they provide to the noun phrase in which they are inserted. 2.4 Summary and concluding remarks The present chapter has dealt with the definition and function of noun phrases as well as their structural patterns, emphasizing the role of premodifiers as opposed to other kinds of modification in noun phrase structure. The definition of NPs has evolved through time, following the different theories that have appeared over the course of the 20th century, yet these different approaches all have in common the belief that noun phrases are part of a syntactic group and are themselves made up of component parts. However, componentiality is losing ground in favour of the ideas put forward by Cognitive Grammar through the proposal of a symbolic approach. The role of noun phrases as means for style is characterised by their static nature as compared to verbs, and by their compacted appearance, which is also related to contextual information and to the position of the information load; those concepts will be discussed in detail in the following chapters. Reference has also been made above to their structural patterns, which allows for a consideration of the function of premodification and the role nouns play when filling premodifying position, which will also be the main topic of the following chapter. It has also been shown above that nouns as premodifiers not only fill the place which traditionally corresponds to adjectives but can also enter into coordination with them, implying that nouns in such position acquire adjectival characteristics in a process of gradience between categories. This topic will also be the concern of Chapter 3. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE To sum up, this chapter has served as an introduction in which the noun as a modifier has been placed in context, and has also served to explore the question of why nouns may actually function as modifiers in noun phrase structure. Various topics related to the function of nouns as modifiers have been introduced and will be expanded upon in the following chapter. 2 NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE 36 37 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS As previously noted, noun phrases are built up of a noun acting as head, around which some dependents cluster, amongst these modifiers. The prototypical category fulfilling the position of premodifier is that of adjective. However, nouns as modifiers are also frequently found. In what follows, a comprehensive overview of the features which define nouns as modifiers is presented. Section 3.1 deals with the definition of nominal modifiers, surveys the features that characterise them, and discusses a number of suggested explanations as to why they are used in English. Section 3.2 reviews the existing literature on nominal modification. Section 3.3 poses the following question: why are nominal premodifiers still understandable if they are simply juxtaposed items? Ambiguity in N+N structures will be studied from three different perspectives: syntactic, semantic and categorial. In Section 3.4, I will focus on the problem of establishing clear-cut boundaries between syntax and morphology while dealing with nouns as modifiers in the noun phrase; processes concerning nominal modifiers, such as institutionalisation and lexicalisation, will be examined in depth here. Section 3.5 compares nouns as premodifiers with other sorts of modification, such as prepositional phrases, relative clauses, genitive phrases and adjectives. 3.1 Nominal modifiers As we know, the construction of a noun phrase is recursive, that is, we may add new items to its head which help to specify and characterise the extralinguistic referent that the NP is alluding to. The head noun allows the insertion of items to both its left and right sides with pre and post dependents, whether they are internal or external (cf. Quirk et al. 1985; Payne & Huddleston, 2002: 439-447). The premodifier position can be filled by different categories, 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 38 such as adjectives (e.g. a red car), participles (e.g. the missing documents) or nouns (e.g. a gold watch). Adjectives are the prototypical category fulfilling this position (cf. Jucker 1992; Biber & Clark 2002). As noted in the previous chapter, adjectives are classified depending on the properties they lend the noun which they modify. Their place and order within the noun phrase has been a frequent subject of study (cf. Bache 1978; de Mönnink 2000; Rijkhoff 2002). In spite of the status of adjectives as the prototypical premodifying category, there is evidence of the increasing use of nouns as premodifiers. Biber et al. (1999) observed that, within premodification, nouns are nearly as frequent as attributive adjectives in the Longman Spoken and Written English (LSWE) Corpus, a compilation of about 40 million words distributed into four different genres, namely conversation, fiction, news and academic prose; this tendency was especially notable in news and academic prose. Within postmodification, prepositional phrases are the most frequently used dependents, which means that non-clausal modification shows a clear supremacy in Present Day English. Furthermore, the work by Biber & Clark (2002) on the spread of nouns as premodifiers in the Present Day English noun phrase is just another example of this tendency and the interest it has raised among scholars (cf. Chapter 2, Section 2.3.1). Hence, it will be of interest to consider why nominal premodifiers are now on the rise, and which specific functional reasons there might be for this. 3.1.1 Nouns as modifiers A noun may be defined as the category which characteristically occupies the head position in an NP. It usually inflects for number and it may be accompanied by various dependents, such as determinatives, adjective phrases and relative clauses. Such a definition clearly allows for the possibility that nouns may adopt new functions, since the function of the head is seen as 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 39 characteristic but not the only possible one. Nouns as dependents accompany the head of the noun phrase, providing it with those specific qualities that are singular to the given entity. They specify and characterise the head noun, and by providing additional information become essential ingredients in the process of exchanging information within a given communicative process. Modifiers can also be nominals (understood as a category intermediate between the noun phrase and the noun; see also Chapter 2, Section 2.1.2), owing to the fact that they themselves can contain their own pre-head dependents (19a). However, they cannot usually take dependents to their right side (19b). (19a) a [white rubber] hanger (19b) *a [white rubber of high quality] hanger Nonetheless, there are exceptions, and such is the case of institutional proper names (cf. Payne & Huddleston, 2002: 444). (20) [Institute of Development] Studies (FLOB B10 L90) where the premodifying noun Institute is itself modified by a postmodifying prepositional phrase of Development. Nouns as dependents can be of two kinds: complements or adjuncts. As complements, they and the head noun are part of an unbreakable combination (e.g. a linguistics student). As adjuncts, they freely combine with the head noun (e.g. an Oxford student). We might recall from the previous chapter that Payne & Huddleston (2002: 439-443) make a rather sharp 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 40 distinction between these two types of noun dependents. However, when dealing with nouns as complements, it is sometimes difficult to discern whether they are part of a syntactic phrase or, rather, whether they combine with another noun to form a morphological compound (cf. Section 3.4; also Bauer 1998; Bisetto & Scalise 1999; Giegerich 2004; Rosenbach 2007). The former distinction is intimately related to the order of premodifying nouns within noun phrase structure. Thus, the Principle of Head Proximity (cf. Rijkhoff, 2002: 264) captures the idea that in a subordinate domain the preferred position of the head constituent is as close as possible to the head of the superordinate domain. This implies that, given an NP as a superordinate domain, the head constituent of a subordinate domain (that is, a modifier) is as close as possible to the head of the NP. In relation to this, there are differences among categories, thus nouns are closer to the head noun than attributive adjectives. The abovementioned distinction between complements and adjuncts may serve to explain why there is such a fixed order of occurrence. Complements are mainly realised by nouns or nominals, as in a linguistics student; adjuncts, on the other hand, are mainly realised by attributive adjectives, such as white in a white skirt. As has already been noted, the relationship between a complement and the head noun is tighter than in the case of adjuncts, a further reason why those complements are closer to the head noun than adjuncts such as adjectives (e.g. a smart linguistics student). However, there are exceptions to this, and adjectives which are complements can be found (cf. Payne & Huddleston, 2002: 439), as with criminal in criminal lawyer, or nouns which are adjuncts, as with London in London Psychiatric Hospital, in which there is a modifying noun followed by a modifying adjective. Another classification which resembles Payne & Huddleston’s is the distinction between restrictive and non-restrictive modifiers (cf. Warren, 1993: 59-60). Nouns as modifiers are usually restrictive, since they combine with their heads to form units with a 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 41 specific reference (e.g. flower seller), whereas adjectives as modifiers tend to be nonrestrictive, since they simply provide the head of the noun phrase with additional information about the referent (e.g. an amusing joke). As restrictive modifiers, nouns can be defining or classifying, in this latter case narrowing the denotational class of the head noun to a subset denoted by that head (e.g. telephone box, since this is not a kind of box but it refers to another kind of entity) (cf. De Mönnink 2000; Rosenbach 2007). As restrictive modifiers, nouns can also be identifying, when they restrict the reference of the head noun (e.g. winter clothes, restricting clothes to the ones that are usually worn in winter). However, there are occasions when nouns as modifiers are non-restrictive, such as an Oxford old residence, in which context makes it evident that Oxford neither identifies which particular residence is referred to, nor indicates a particular type of residence (cf. Warren, 1993: 64). As noted in Warren (1993: 60), this distinction would explain the phonological, morphological and syntactic features of nouns as modifiers: Warren refers here to the stress pattern characteristic of nouns when combining with other nouns. She also notes that modifying nouns are not inflected for plural even if they refer to plural referents, and goes on to identify the problem of ambiguity when nouns as modifiers co-occur with other nominal modifiers. These issues will be taken up in what follows. Nominal modifiers, because of their restrictive function, tend to be part of a stress pattern involving stress reduction, lose their ability to be inflected and, when combined with another modifier, have no predictable scope of modification, so that this has to be indicated by position or coordinating conjunctions. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 48 than in the case of a genitive like Bush’s Administration. This implied that the modifying noun Bush was less salient, i.e., more backgrounded, than the genitive. However, as Quirk et al. (1985: 1334) point out, the plural attributive construction (e.g. grants committee) is on the increase, particularly in British English, where it is more common than in American English (see also Chapter 4, Section 4.5). The use of these plural modifying nouns may also be due to a process of institutionalisation. They are referred to by Quirk et al. (1985: 1334) as exclusive plurals: whereas the singular form is more generic and ambiguous, the plural form is not ambiguous and its interpretation is more accessible. They tend to occur with collective nouns and names of institutions as heads, and the stress tends to be on the premodifying plural, as in examples (23a) and (23b). (23a) poetry books seller (23b) book seller In (23a) the modifying noun books is in plural form because it refers to a particular kind of books (more specific), whereas in (23b) the modifying noun is in the singular because it refers to books in general (more generic). Taylor (2000: 361) considers that plural forms, such as sports in the N+N structure sports administrator, are acceptable maybe because those plural nouns have been subject to semantic drift and have acquired a semantic connotation that is lacking in the singular form. (24a) telecommunication Æ communication at distance (24b) telecommunications Æ technology 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 49 The construction of an N+N structure with one or the other modifying noun will result in two different meanings, and thus the kind of specification will also be different. This can be seen as a consequence of something akin to Goldberg’s (1995) Principle of the No Synonymy of Form (see also Bolinger 1977; Givón 1985; Wierzbicka 1988. Also mentioned in Chapter 2), which implies that the smallest change in the form of an item necessarily implies a change in its meaning. The use of singular or plural forms for modifying nouns can also be a reason to avoid ambiguities (e.g. goods shop vs. good shop). In spite of this, Taylor (2000) reminds us that this is an area in which many confusing and idiosyncratic exceptions exist. Another morphological issue regarding nouns as modifiers has to do with irregular plurals. N+N structures can be made from irregular plural forms (e.g. mice eater) but rarely from regular plural forms (e.g. books shop), since, as Pinker (1994: 146) points out, irregular plurals are unusual and thus have to be stored in the mental dictionary as roots or stems (it is supposed that they are not to be generated by rule) and are attached to another noun in an N+N structure as independent stems. On the contrary, regular plurals are not stems stored in the mental dictionary but, rather, are formed by a rule; they are words which are assembled with an inflectional plural whenever this is needed, independently of their union to another noun, to form a new structure (whether lexical or syntactic). Interestingly, in an experiment with children discussed by Pinker, children constructed N+N structures mice-eater and rateater from mice and rats. They used the irregular plural form of mice but never rats in its regular plural form, even though they had no evidence from adult speech that this is how languages function. Thus: “(…) children automatically distinguish between roots stored in the mental dictionary and inflected words created by a rule.” (ibid.: 147). 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 50 3.1.4 Suggested reasons for the use of N+N sequences Given what has been said above, we may wonder why these constructions are needed in English, that is, why there is a need to express concepts by means of sequences of two or more nouns. As will be noted later on, the use of noun combinations is a very productive pattern for expressing new concepts. However, there are clauses and other syntactic resources which may convey the same meaning as N+N structures. (25a) consumer complaints (25b) the complaints which are expressed by consumers Varantola (1993: 75) suggests why these compact sequences of nouns are used in PDE: In contrast, longer sentences or postmodifiers give rise to more dynamic expressions, which describe, rather than classify, extralinguistic referents. N+N sequences are created with the supposition that they will persist in the language. Phrases such as drug addiction, it is supposed, will remain useful over time, whereas a relative clause like the girl who is playing football with your friends is transient, to be used at a specific moment for a specific purpose, without the expectation that it will constitute part of an inventory for a later use. Premodification is a functional means of creating compact packages of information. It is space-saving and non-redundant; it captures a static, crystallised image of an extralinguistic object, event or process shared by a set of readers. It makes no difference whether this set consists of the general public in a particular society or a group of specialists. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 51 These, then, are some of the reasons used to explain the use of N+N sequences. In what follows, a more detailed account of the possible motivations for the use of complex nominal combinations will be presented. 3.1.4.1 Compactness Levi (1978: 58) refers to compactness to explain the increasing use of these sequences of nouns from a Transformational Grammar point of view. Thus, what could have been said by means of a longer underlying sentence is now said through the juxtaposition of (usually) two words, which obviously results in a shorter combination. This can be linked to the idea of economic motivation (cf. Haiman, 1985: 133), whereby shorter structures tend to be favoured when the ideas expressed by them occur frequently in speech. 3.1.4.2 Availability The formation of complex noun sequences is a recursive phenomenon, in that new items can be added in order to create compact packages of information (e.g. A kitchen table > A restaurant kitchen table > A London restaurant kitchen table). However, in this process, some of the components (such as verbs or prepositions) of the longer sentences that imply the same meaning as those compact packages are omitted, since they are considered superfluous. Varantola (1993: 72) explains that this lack of verbs and prepositions leads to a loss of explicit textual information and obviously requires more shared knowledge between interlocutors. As a result, the more familiar a concept is to interlocutors, the more available it is for both of them (cf. Baayen & Renouf, 1996: 141). 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 52 (26) In (26), a news reportage extract from the FROWN corpus10 in which the activities of Clinton and Gore during their electoral campaign are described, the phrase a daylong bus caravan across central Florida is introduced for the first time. Having made the reader aware of that trip to Florida, the journalist again refers to it a few lines later as their Florida trip, juxtaposing two nouns instead of employing the former long noun phrase. This is possible because the necessary information has already been delivered to the reader; information is now available to interlocutors through context, and hence there is no need to repeat all the words previously used to refer to this same extralinguistic reality (cf. Portero, 2007: 16-17). In (26) this also happens with information which is already available through cultural background or shared knowledge in the same extract: when talking about a morning rally, readers already know that this is a rally which is held in the morning. Consider also example (27). 10 For reference see Chapter 4, Section 4.2.1. Clinton and Gore made their foray into TV-talk politics after a daylong bus caravan across central Florida as they tried to pad a narrow lead in a state that last supported a Democrat for president in 1976. The Democrats were wrapping up their Florida trip with a morning rally at the University of Florida before heading on to Nashville and another unorthodox campaign appearance this time on the ‘Donahue Show’. (FROWN A01 L111-118) 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 53 (27) This extract is from a newspaper report also included in the corpus used in the current research. In the report, there is a first mention of some owners (L88-89), which is postmodified by two prepositional phrases of nine properties on Victory Lane, which give an explicit and precise account of what those owners possess and where. Further on (L122) there is a new mention of those owners, but this time, since the writer is aware of having already introduced the owners to the reader, this further mention is effected by means of an NP with a simple premodifier (property owners). This is obviously less explicit, but as Biber et al. (1999: 588) have pointed out, some implicit meaning relationships are now available through shared knowledge. 3.1.4.3 Predictability Another reason for the use of N+N sequences has to do with the ability of speakers to predict the presence and role of a particular concept (cf. Baayen & Renouf, 1996: 142). Accessibility to that concept by the hearer or reader might be affected by several factors (cf. Givón 1989): (i) Distance from last mention. (ii) Recent mention of other potential referents. Jeffrey Heird, who resigned last year as the village’s public works director, said he would seek a restraining order against the project because it did not include a special assessment for owners of nine properties on Victory Lane (FROWN A30 L86-89) (…) But to set up a special assessment district, five of the nine property owners would have to petition the village and agree to pay a share for the project. (FROWN A30 L121-123) 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 54 (iii) Semantic information from within the clause. (iv) Thematic information from the preceding discourse. According to Givón, the first two factors are easy to measure in discourse, using text-based measurements of Referential Distance (RD) and Potential Interference (PI). Referential Distance refers to the number of clauses that have elapsed since the previous occurrence in the discourse, and Potential Interference quantifies the number of semantically compatible referents within the preceding three clauses. Factors (iii) and (iv), however, are much harder to measure. As a final remark on this issue, Givón (1989: 217) notes that there is a relation between the degree of predictability of a given referent and the phonological size of the grammatical device used to code it. This is known as the Code-Quantity Principle: “The less predictable/accessible a referent is the more phonological material will be used to code it”, by which is meant that material which is highly predictable by the interlocutors needs less coding material, since the information provided is more available or highly activated in memory. Thus, in the case of example (26), the writer uses the combination Florida trip instead of a longer sequence of items because s/he already knows that the information is highly available in the memory of the readers, given that the referential distance (RD) back to the previous mention is very short. 3.2 Earlier analyses of N+N structures The modification of nouns by nouns has been the object of study by various scholars during the 20th century. In what follows, I provide a brief overview of the different approaches that have been taken, especially of those dating from the last quarter of the 20th century. As previously mentioned, nominal modifiers have been of interest since Byington (1926, quoted in Varantola 1984) condemned the use of these complex constructions because 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 55 of their ambiguity. N+N structures were subsequently discussed by scholars such as Bloomfield (1984 [1933]), Lees (1960), and Marchand (1969). However, it is in the 1970s that monographs on the topic start to appear. Li (1971) views structures of this kind as compounds which have the function of subcategorising the referents of nouns (e.g. sugar bowl, rice bowl). They also provide names (e.g. Liberty Bell) and serve as a means for telegraphic speech (e.g. cradle song). These structures are seen to be generated through productive rules, and are formed by two constituents. There is a condition within the compound which limits the semantic relations of the constituents and these determine which nouns can appear in the construction. Li (1971) also considers that there are some exceptions to this process, as in the case of those structures created for telegraphic speech at a given moment, which are thus not part of a productivity process. This idea is refuted by Downing (1977: 816), who points out that “(…) any existing compound, telegraphic or not, may serve as the model for the analogical formation of any number of novel compounds.” From a Transformational Grammar perspective, Levi (1978) provides a thorough analysis of the syntax and semantics of what she calls complex nominals. Her main hypothesis is based on the idea that complex nominals are generated from earlier underlying sentence structures. They may be created by deletion of the predicate (e.g. drugs death Æ death caused by drugs) or by nominalization (e.g. city regulations). For deletion, Levi (1978) built up a set of predicates (cause, have, make, use, be, for, in, from, about), which she referred to as RDP (Recoverably Deletable Predicates). These predicates are deleted in the process of the transformation from an underlying sentence into a surface structure. For example, the complex nominal disease germ derives from the underlying structure a germ causes a disease. This rule of deletion has access to the semantic content, which makes it possible to identify the (omitted) RDP. As can be seen, the RDPs are extremely basic, which implies that, 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 56 from a semantic point of view, it is easy to establish a potential underlying structure for any given N+N structure. As noted in 3.1.4.1, above, Levi (1978) argues that the main function of complex nominals is the communication of information in a compacted way. Also, complex nominals are naming devices, a characteristic which clearly moves N+N structures further away from syntax and brings them close to (or even within) the field of morphology. In spite of this, she still distinguishes a modifier and a head inside each complex nominal, which implies that their structure is still that of a syntactic construct. They seem to be highly productive as a system, owing to their compacted structure. In addition, their formation is produced with a reduced loss of semantic content, since all the elements of the underlying sentence may be present in the new structure (e.g. senatorial industrial investigations Æ senators investigate industry), or the elided elements may be easily recovered (as in the case of drugs death). For the purposes of the current review, the most interesting contribution in Levi’s (1978) work is perhaps the idea that complex nominals undergo a process of semantic specialization. She establishes a continuum of derivational transparency: + transparent + opaque mountain village flea market honeymoon Figure III Continuum of derivational transparency as shown in Levi (1978) Whereas the most transparent complex nominals are derivable through regular syntactic processes, the meaning of the most opaque complex nominals cannot be easily inferred; hence they will eventually warrant their own dictionary entries. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 57 Bauer (1978: 54) establishes three features to distinguish a compound: morphological, phonological and semantic, when asserting that “[T]he compound, it is claimed, shows a degree of phonological, morphological and semantic isolation.” Those criteria, which will be discussed in Section 3.4.1, entail several problems, such as that of stress placement and its variability, already referred to in Section 3.1.2, above. Warren (1978) established the semantic patterns of noun compounds. She considers these structures as indivisible semantic-syntactic units: (i) in the middle of which no adjective can be inserted (e.g. *girl beautiful friend) (ii) the first element cannot be inflected for number (e.g. *girls friend) (iii) determiners preceding a structure of this kind refer to the second element but never to the first constituent (e.g. these girl friends) Once again, N+N structures are placed within the field of morphology. Warren (1978: 47) talks about a comment-topic semantic structure, in which the comment refers to what is said about the topic, whereas the latter refers to what is being talked about. The comment can have a classifying or an identifying function. Thus, she distinguishes six different types of semantic relations in N+N structures: (i) A is something which constitutes B, or vice versa: paste wax. (ii) A is something of which B is a part or feature or vice versa: board member. (iii) A is the location or origin of B in time or space: sea food. (iv) The comment indicates the purpose of B: pie tin. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 64 Finally, the work of Giegerich (2004) and Plag (2006) on the variability of stress assignment in N+N structures also falls within this period in the study of such structures. These two studies were discussed in Section 3.1.2, above. To summarise, various studies of N+N structures indicate that the question of nominal modification or compounding is still a matter of debate. Additionally, there seems to be no current solution to questions such as stress variability and the overlap with other structures like genitives or postmodifiers. Different approaches have shown that N+N structures are a phenomenon in constant development. 3.3 Ambiguity in N+N sequences The phenomenon of nominal modification is recursive in that new modifiers can be added to the head to specify and characterise its meaning. This possibility is also extended to nouns as modifiers, and as a result different combinations are obtained. This recursiveness is obviously limited by constraints of a psychological and stylistic nature. Hence we may find structures such as example (29a), with five component parts. (29a) tonnage scale air separation plants (LOB J07 L29) However, longer and more complicated structures are not at all common, even though a few examples do occur in my data. (29b) The Queen has appointed a Tory, aristocratic, soft drink, beer, insurance, gas light and coke, match, banking and estate company chief to be Governor-General of Australia. (LOB A13 L124-126) 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 65 As can be seen, this is a rich phenomenon, allowing the creation of an infinite number of constructions depending on the speakers’ needs at a given moment. However, the use of premodifiers implies a reduction in explicitness, since there are items carrying meaning -such as verbs or prepositionswhich occur in postmodification by prepositional phrases or relative clauses, but which are elided in nominal premodification. This reduction in explicitness may affect the meaning relations between the elements in an N+N construction, making it unclear or unpredictable from the semantic point of view (e.g. tree reader vs. a person who is reading under a tree). For that reason, the following sections are devoted to examining ambiguity in N+N structures from three perspectives, syntactic, semantic and categorial. 3.3.1 Syntactic ambiguity Within noun phrase structure, we may find adjectives and nouns with a premodification function. When only two nouns are combined (e.g. school leaders), the interpretation of the sequence is generally straightforward: a noun school modifies the head of the noun phrase leaders. As a result, there is no difficulty in ascertaining the semantic composition of the entire phrase, hence its overall meaning. However, difficulties appear when dealing with longer sequences. (30a) stock market news (FROWN A34 L113) Longer sequences of nouns require some extra attention in order to understand the internal relationships that their component parts display; that is, each of the component parts in a longer N+N sequence has its own function and this function must be known in order to understand the overall meaning of the nominal sequence. The above example, for instance, would break down as follows: 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 66 (30b) [[stock market] news] The whole expression stock market modifies the head noun news, and stock in turn modifies market. This is an example of what Payne & Huddleston (2002: 447) term submodification, and in this case the modifier market itself is internally modified by stock (see also Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3). The situation may be even more complicated with examples like (31a). (31a) bank insurance system (FROWN A34 L48) One cannot be sure about the internal relationship among the three constituents here. The overall meaning may be that of an insurance system from a bank, or a system of bank insurance. (31b) [bank [insurance system]] vs. [[bank insurance] system] Of all the possible interpretations that an N+N structure may have, speakers choose the one that is most contextually plausible. Of course, when an extralinguistic referent is “in the air” ambiguity fades away. The information from the shared cultural background within a community of speakers is also a potential source of disambiguation. Other such sources, in written English, include the use of hyphens (e.g. wire coat-hangers, public-school measure) and capital letters (e.g. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY attempts). However, extremely complicated cases also arise, such as example (32a) (Hirst, 1987: 144). 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 67 (32a) Airport long term car park courtesy vehicle pickup point This long and messy N+N sequence was taken by Hirst from a sign at Gatwick Airport. Its length challenges the psychological and stylistic constraints of any reader. The bracketing of such a sequence could be as shown in (32b). (32b) [1[2[3airport[4[8long term]8[7car park]7]4]3[6courtesy vehicle]6]2[5pickup point]5]1 Given the complexity of this phrase, we must ask whether the information it purports to communicate can in fact be retrieved by those people for whom it is intended. 3.3.2 Semantic ambiguity Determining the meaning of a word or a sequence of words is often a difficult task, not only because one single noun may have more than one meaning (e.g. rattle may refer to “a baby’s toy” or to “a series of short loud sounds”), but because the combination of that noun with another one can give rise to ambiguous relational meanings (e.g. rattle snake might mean that “the snake rattles” or that “the snake has a rattle”) (cf. Portero 2004). Warren (1978) explains that this ambiguity of some N+N structures is due to some sort of incompleteness; that is, some structures of this kind, such as air strip (“a strip for planes” instead of “a strip for air or made of air”), are incomplete, the complete form in this case being air plane strip. The abbreviated form is the result of the fact that the information of the elided element is coded by one of the elements which actually appears in the final structure. The elided element has a clear information value, but it has been elided because it is convenient for the interlocutors, who thus manifest a tacit agreement that this exclusion does not alter the reference of the whole nominal group. If it is indeed the case that this kind of 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 68 pact is extended to the whole community of speakers, then a short combination has already been established, such as fire box instead of fire wood box. There are, however, cases in which real ambiguity remains. This is the case with structures such as woman doctor, which Warren (1978) regards as truly ambiguous (is the doctor a woman, or does the doctor work with women?). Notice also that whereas an N+N structure may only have one referent, there is more than one possible relationship between the constituent elements, as in: water for the bath (33) bath water water in the bath water from the bath Ambiguity can also arise when the same extralinguistic reality may be expressed in more than one way: Wick that is part of a candle (whole-part) (34) candlewick Wick that is in the candle (place-object) As Warren (1978) points out, the selection of one or the other is arbitrary, and context often does not help. Modification in such cases tends to be unacceptable; however, there are ways 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 69 of solving these meaning difficulties. Levi (1983: 189) notes several disambiguation strategies of a semantic and pragmatic nature. They are based on the following assumptions: (i) The regularities which define the formation of N+N structures and pragmatic principles which define the best way of creating these complex constructions in order to produce the intended communicative effect (i.e., we may know the meaning of leisure shop by analogy with other structures with the same formal regularities such as book shop). (ii) The common referent within the speech community (i.e., we may know the meaning of a given N+N structure if we are aware of the referent from the extralinguistic reality). (iii) Lexicalised meanings (i.e., iron curtain is already known by the speech community since its meaning has been institutionalised, in spite of the fact that it has nothing to do with the individual meanings of each of its component parts). (iv) Naming patterns based on the semantic class of head and modifier and their semantic relationship (i.e., activities in a time or a place like morning lectures). Ambiguity in N+N combinations has been a focus of study in psycholinguistic research. Most of this work is based on experiments carried out to test how the meaning of N+N sequences is disambiguated. Costello & Keane (1997), for example, have based their research on cognitive assumptions, and consider that the linear distribution of nouns within N+N combinations plays an important role in diminishing semantic ambiguity. They distinguish between natural kind and artifact nouns on the one hand, and superordinate and 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 70 basic level nouns on the other (cf. Rosch et al. 1976). As for the former, natural kind nouns are said to be those concepts not created by man, such as girl, fish, flower, etc., whereas artifact nouns have been created by man (e.g. computer, book, car, etc.). As for the latter, superordinate nouns are those which refer to more general concepts, whereas basic level nouns refer to more specific referents (e.g. vehicle vs. car). Given these differences, they hypothesise that the appearance of N+N combinations in a language will be constrained by the tendency of specific classes of nouns to combine in an unambiguous way. Since they believe that the main intention of these combinations is purely informative, then these combinations must entail the least possible ambiguous information. They based their research on field work with a small number of subjects, who were asked to collect the most familiar N+N combinations they knew over the course of a 30 minute session. This was followed by a classification of those items according to the variables mentioned above: whether the component parts of those N+N structures were considered to be members of a superordinate or basic level of nouns, or whether they were considered to be artifacts or natural kind nouns. The results show that there are more natural kind nouns (e.g. girl friend) and basic level nouns (e.g. car crash) in modifier position than in head position. Conversely, there are fewer artifacts (e.g. book shop) and superordinate level nouns (e.g. vehicle fleet) functioning as modifiers. Since it is the modifier or first noun which usually restricts the reference of the second noun or head of the N+N combination, the fact that this modifier position is most of the time filled by natural kind and basic level nouns means that such a distribution actually contributes to avoiding ambiguity, or “polysemy” in their own words, within N+N combinations. Similarly, Gagné & Shoben (2002) carried out two experiments in order to determine whether the interpretation of an ambiguous N+N sequence is analogically influenced by the 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 71 exposure to previous similar combinations. As far as the first experiment is concerned, they hypothesised that it is easier to correctly interpret an N+N combination when the prime combination uses the same relations as the target sequence, for example, from adolescent magazine (“a magazine for adolescents”) to adolescent doctor (“a doctor for adolescents”) to animal doctor (“a doctor for animals”) than when the prime combination uses a different relation, for example, country doctor, adolescent experience. Consequently, for target combinations they selected combinations which were ambiguous in that they could have at least two meanings (e.g. adolescent doctor can be “a doctor for adolescents” and “a doctor who is an adolescent”). For the prime combinations, they selected three different kinds of combinations: those which used the target’s dominant relation, those which used the target’s subdominant relation, and those which used other relations than the ones of the target combination. Thus, from the prime combinations: (i) adolescent student (subdominant) (ii) adolescent magazine (dominant) (iii) adolescent experience (other), they were supposed to interpret an ambiguous target combination, such as (iv) animal doctor as “a doctor for animals”, since it is taken from the dominant prime combination, adolescent magazine, interpreted as “a magazine for adolescents.” A total of 112 combinations were generated, each of which generated at least two different interpretations. The participants 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 72 were 72 undergraduate university students who were native speakers of English. They saw the prime combinations, gave an answer to them, and checked their answers by looking at the target combinations only once. The resulting data showed that the dominant prime combination influenced the interpretation of the target combination. As for the second experiment, the participants had to generate, rather than verify, a definition for an ambiguous target combination. The participants were 40 undergraduate university students, again native speakers of English. Almost 90% of the interpretations used either the subdominant and dominant combination, favouring the use of the dominant combination. These results demonstrate that it is not necessarily the case that previous contextual information influences the interpretation of a combination such as an N+N sequence. In fact, a single combination can affect the interpretation of the following one. Finally, semantic ambiguity has also been the object of study in the field of Computational Linguistics, in areas such as automatic translation in information extraction. The literature on the topic focuses mainly on solving processing problems that N+N sequences present to natural language analysers. Such problems are related to the determination of the length of N+N sequences (and thus to their limits), the interpretation of the ambiguous semantic relations between their component parts, and the establishment of their meaning as a whole, which usually depends on a given context. As an illustration, Hirst (1987: 78) points out that determining the meaning of a combination of words does not only depend on context but also on local cues, such as the meaning of nearby words. First of all, there must be a script which is related to the contextual recognition and which helps to decide on the meaning of the combination (e.g. guitar player is included into the script of “musicmaking”). These cues may be, among other things, the semantic associations between the 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 73 words which are part of the nominal combination. Thus, on some occasions combined words are not as ambiguous as they appear, since only one of the meanings of one of them can fit with the meaning of the other. For instance, (35) fruit stone is not an ambiguous combination in spite of the fact that stone may have two different meanings, namely “a mass of hard mineral matter” and “a hard inner layer of the pericarp of some fruits”; the second meaning is the only one that fits with fruit here. 3.3.3 Categorial ambiguity: gradience and conversion in N+N structures Since our focus here is on the function of nouns as modifiers, which differs from their prototypical function as head of noun phrases, and since that function is typical of adjectives, we may wonder whether nouns as modifiers are in fact nouns at all, or whether they undergo a process of conversion from nouns into adjectives. As a first step here, we may consider what has been understood as a category over the course of linguistic scholarship. There seem to be two different views. The first is an Aristotelian vision of class membership, which implies that there are no intermediate categories (i.e., membership in a category is governed by the strict rule of the excluded middle) since the classic categories (noun, verb, adjective, and adverb) are well-defined and delimited. From this assumption it follows that there is no possibility for gradience between grammatical categories. The second viewpoint supports the idea that there are no clear-cut boundaries between grammatical categories, and thus gradience is a habitual phenomenon. This is the position held by cognitive linguists, Langacker (1987) being a good illustration. Furthermore, according to this view, categories have prototypes, which tend to be the most 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 80 3.4.1 Criteria for the definition of the status of N+N structures As noted briefly in Section 3.2, above, Bauer (1978: 54) puts forward three criteria for the identification of nominal compounds: “[T]he compound, it is claimed, shows a degree of phonological, morphological and semantic isolation.” From a phonological point of view, compounds carry stress on the first element, while phrasal constructions have two different foci for stress, even though one tends to be stronger than the other. However, as far as the stress criterion is concerned, some problems and inconsistencies exist, as discussed in Section 3.1.2. Giegerich 2004 (see also Aronoff & Fudeman 2005) observes the dependence of stress assignment not only on the structure of N+N constructions themselves, but also on analogy and the semantic relation between the constituents of an N+N sequence (cf. Plag 2006). Giegerich (2005a/b) distinguishes between two kinds of attribution, ascriptive and associative: (i) Ascriptive attribution is prototypical of adjectives, both in attributive or predicative use. It establishes a direct meaning relationship between the modifier and the head which is being modified (e.g. beautiful picture Æ the picture is beautiful). It thus expresses a property of the head noun. (ii) Associative attribution is a property of only some adjectives, when used as attributive modifiers. It establishes an indirect meaning relation between the modifier and the head which is being modified (e.g. beautiful dancer Æ the dancer is not beautiful but the activity of dancing which s/he performs is beautiful, thus s/he dances beautifully). Thus, it refers to an entity associated with the head noun. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 81 This distinction can also be applied to nouns in attributive position. Thus: (i) Nominal ascription: boy actor. (ii) Nominal association: milk man. Sometimes there are doublets, as in the case of woman doctor, which may be considered to be “a doctor for women” (hence, associative) or “a doctor who is a woman” (hence, ascriptive). Contextual information will help to solve the ambiguity. Adjectives with associative properties and nouns tend to be more lexical than phrasal, since their meaning is often more encrypted, obscure or opaque, that is, they have undergone a process of semantic lexicalisation. However, not all lexical N+Ns have fore-stress (some of them show end-stress, which is typical of syntactic phrases). For this reason, Giegerich concludes that it is the distinction between associative and ascriptive attribution that serves as a criterion to distinguish between compounds and phrases. Thus, it is not stress placement which defines and distinguishes phrases from compounds. Furthermore, the fact that lexical N+N structures show end-stress indicates that stress is one of the characteristics within a gradual process of lexicalisation and that, as a result, some N+N structures fall somewhere between lexicon and syntax. In other words, the lexicon-syntax divide, itself constructed with reference to three levels, namely syntax, semantics and phonology, shows in certain cases an overlap with the following potential divergences (Giegerich 2005b): (i) Syntax-semantics mismatches Æ forms that are lexical on semantic grounds (i.e., they are semantically opaque) are not supposed to allow pro-one; however, cigarette end does in a cigar end and a cigarette one. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 82 (ii) Syntax-phonology mismatches Æ forms that are fore-stressed should not allow pro-one, however ´peanut oil and ´corn oil do in a peanut oil and a corn one. (iii) Semantics-phonology mismatches Æ forms that are syntactic in semantic terms (i.e., they are semantically transparent) should not have fore-stress, however, corn oil does. Since these mismatches occur, Giegerich (2005b) concludes by pointing out that the boundaries between lexicon and syntax regarding N+N structures are in fact fuzzy and, as a result, some sequences of nouns may fall somewhere in between. Additionally, the results obtained from native speakers in an experiment carried out as part of the present research show inconsistencies in stress assignment (cf. Appendix IV and also Chapter 4, Section 4.4.1). Consequently, they do not provide a reliable answer to where stress falls. In some cases there seems to be no explanation at all for the different stress patterns (e.g. ´town house vs. country ´house, or ´rabbit warren vs. rabbit ´warren). As regards morphological isolation, compounds are characterised by the unbreakable cohesion of their component parts, which implies that they are two lexemes acting as a single unit. The existence of morphological units of this kind implies a series of conditions when defining the concept of word, as proposed by Bauer (1998): (i) Positional mobility. The word is placed within the sentence and moves as a single unit. (ii) Internal stability. The constituents of a word have a fixed order. (iii) Uninterruptability. No external items can be freely added to a word. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 83 It is expected that true morphological compound words, such as some N+N structures, will exhibit these conditions. Payne & Huddleston (2002) distinguish between what they call composite nominal from compound noun (cf. Chapter 2; see also Bisetto & Scalise 1999) on the basis of two syntactic criteria, namely coordination and modification. These are two syntactic rules that cannot apply to morphological units, in accordance with the Lexical Integrity Principle, as proposed by Haspelmath (2002: 161): syntactic rules relating to word order and constituency cannot apply to parts of words. Coordination and modification, therefore, are useful as a means of testing whether a given N+N structure is either a composite nominal or a morphological compound. The following figure illustrates the different syntactic analyses of chain saw and afternoon coffee, assuming, provisionally, that the former is a genuine compound, and the latter a composite nominal. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 84 COMPOUND ANALYSIS COMPOSITE NOMINAL ANALYSIS Figure V Syntactic analysis of a compound vs. a composite nominal For these two cases at least, the coordination and modification tests confirm the different structures of these N+N sequences. 1. An afternoon coffee 2. A chain saw 1.1. Various afternoon and evening coffees 2.1. * Various chain and metal saws 1.2. Various afternoon teas and coffees 2.2. * Various chain hammers and saws 1.3. Three afternoon and two evening coffees 2.3. * Three chain and two metal saws 1.4. Three [mid afternoon] coffees 2.4. * An [iron chain] saw 1.5. Three afternoon black coffees 2.5. * A chain iron saw Table 2 Application of modification and coordination criteria for the distinction of N+N structures NP DET NOM A Head chainsaw NP DET NOM An Head Mod afternoon coffee 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 85 However, Bauer (1998: 73-74) notes as an exception the existence of potential modifiers which apply only to the first element of a morphological N+N sequence. (38) High-energy physics (FROWN J01 L181) Furthermore, modification within syntactic N+N structures may present additional problems in cases in which there are complements which immediately precede the head. (39a) A linguistics student where linguistics is a complement and thus no other modifying items can be inserted after it. (39b) *A linguistics smart student As regards coordination, Bauer (1998: 74) has criticised this test, citing example (40). (40) * Bread and buttercups Here there is an evident problem for coordination, because of the idiomatic reading of both elements in the compound buttercups (“small plant with bright yellow flowers”), “so there can be nothing in the same domain to co-ordinate with it.” Thus, in the hypothetical case in which honeycup was a flower, the coordination honey and buttercups would probably be possible. The impossibility of coordinating a compound such as buttercup, in Bauer’s view, has to do with the semantic idiomaticity of the compound, not with its nature as a compound. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 86 Hence, the more idiomatic a construction is, the more difficult it is to coordinate it with other items. In other words, the impossibility of coordinating items such as *tooth and back ache and the possibility of coordinating others is not necessarily a consequence of there being two different constructions “one of which allows coordination and one of which does not; rather it can be seen to be the result of general constraints on coordination and varying degrees of lexicalization.” (Bauer, 1998: 75). However, in connection with this, Payne & Huddleston (2002: 450) point out that the semantic relationship between the component parts is not enough to account for their coordination independently, which again supports coordination as a criterion to distinguish compounds from syntactic phrases. Note example (41). (41) * The sunrise and set were amazing Sunrise and sunset are semantically comparable but cannot be split by coordination, as (41) illustrates. The same is the case with examples such as toothache and backache, teardrop and raindrop, etc. Payne & Huddleston (2002), then, support coordination as a test to distinguish between syntactic and morphological constructions. Furthermore, they add that abandoning such syntactic tests would imply that all N+N structures can either be only compounds or only syntactic phrases, which itself would lead to new problems. For example, if we consider that all N+N structures are syntactic objects, then there is no possible explanation for cases such as sunrise and sunset. Also, there would be a gap in the rules for forming compound nouns, in the sense that if there are so many compounds formed from adjectives (e.g. bittersweet, darkblue) and verbs (e.g. tape-record, blow-dry) why shouldn’t there be a compound formation system based on nouns? On the other hand, if all N+N sequences are considered to be 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 87 compounds, there seems to be a weakening of the boundaries between lexicon and syntax, since it would be difficult to explain why morphological units allow coordinations of Adjective + Noun (e.g. educational and integration projects), or elements with prepositional phrase complements (e.g. a Ministry of Defence official), whose appearance within a morphological item would be very difficult to explain. Payne & Huddleston (2002) also refer to what they call non-syntactic criteria, such as orthography, meaning and productivity. As regards spelling, N+N sequences may have three syntactic realisations, namely as one orthographic word (e.g. lifestyle FROWN G01 L164), hyphenated (e.g. blood-stain FROWN G04 L74) or as two orthographic words (e.g. radio console FROWN G01 L11). The use of hyphenation, however, is not always consistent in English. In fact, there are examples of variant spellings in the corpora. (42a) air raid (FLOB G06 L28) (42b) air-raid (FLOB G06 L196) As regards semantics, Faiβ (1981: 148) considered it to be the most valuable criterion to define the status of compounds. In this respect, there exist differences in the degrees of specialisation that an N+N sequence may acquire. Thus, in the case of clear syntactic N+N structures, their meaning is the result of the sum of the meanings of their component parts, that is, their meaning is characterised by its compositionality (e.g. drug addiction means “an addiction to drugs”). However, for morphological N+N sequences, their meaning cannot be inferred directly from the meanings of each of the constituents, since they have acquired a semantic specialisation (e.g. streetcar does not mean “a car in the street” but “a wheeled vehicle which runs on rails and is propelled by electricity”). In general, it may be claimed that 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 88 compounds have lost the transparency in meaning that is characteristic of syntactic phrases. This semantic change can be due either to a loss or an addition of meaning (cf. Portero, 2004: 73), in that an extra-feature of meaning can be either added to or excluded from each component part, entailing that the meaning of a given morphological N+N sequence will be unpredictable. (43a) A manuscript description (FLOB G50 L40) Æ “the description of a manuscript” vs. (43b) A house boy (FLOB G53 L77) Æ “a man or boy who cleans and does other jobs in someone else’s house” Example (43b) has specialised its meaning by adding special features related to the activity developed by a man or a boy in a house. In spite of this, it is often possible to interpret the constituent elements of a more or less semantically lexicalised N+N sequence separately (cf. Payne & Huddleston, 2002: 450). Thus, for example, handbag still retains the meaning of one of its lexemes, i.e., bag, and both hand and bag can be analysed separately as independent constituents. Furthermore, semantic specialisation can be found in syntactic phrases too (e.g. desk job); conversely, compounds may have a transparent meaning (e.g. toothache). In view of this, Stockwell & Minkova (2002: 13) make a distinction between syntactic and lexical compounds, based on the transparency of meaning of the constituents. While syntactic compounds are not listed in 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 89 dictionaries (e.g. shoemaker), because their meaning can be directly inferred from the individual meanings of their constituent bases, lexical compounds are (e.g. icebox). This distinction is obviously problematic: the fact that dictionaries list some compounds does not imply that all of them are semantically opaque; many are listed simply because they are widely used or are familiar to speakers, yet are semantically transparent. Moreover, it is not unconceivable that N+N structures are included in dictionaries as a means of achieving a greater number of entries, with the aim of making the dictionary comprehensive. Furthermore, Di Sciullo & Williams (1988) argue that listedness is not a property of words per se. There are phrases, such as idioms, which actually show semantic specialisation. In the same way, Booij (2007: 188) points out that semantic idiosyncrasy is not valid as a criterion for the definition of compounds because “[T]he fact that ‘yellow fever’ denotes a specific disease is a semantic idiosyncrasy that shows that this morpheme combination must be lexically stored. It is certainly a lexical unit, but not necessarily a word in the morphological sense” (emphasis added). As regards productivity, the third non-syntactic criterion proposed by Payne & Huddleston (2002), they also point to its gradient nature, once again implying that this is not a valid criterion for a binary distinction between compounds and phrases. In view of the difficulties outlined here, Payne & Huddleston (2002: 450) opt for giving preference to the criteria of coordination and modification in cases of divergent results. Their response to critiques such as Bauer’s (1998) is that “(…) the existence of borderline cases does not provide a reason for abandoning a distinction that can be recognised in a great range of clear cases.” In sum, the traditional criteria for the identification of morphological items and their discrimination from syntactic structures do not yield consistent results. Empirical work has 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 96 and which designate other entities different from those expressed by their constituent parts (e.g. pickpocket is not a kind of pocket but somebody who steals money or other goods). As can be appreciated, these compounds are generally based on some sort of metaphoric meaning16. Appositional compounds are those whose semantic meaning is a hyponym of both their component parts (e.g. maidservant is a type of maid and a type of servant). Finally, copulative compounds are those whose component parts refer to two separate entities (e.g. Alsace-Lorraine). However, semantics has not been the only source of classification of compounds. They have been also classified according to the syntactic relationships established between their component parts (cf. Levi 197817), based on the belief that compounds show a relationship between their members which is analogous to those pertaining between the constituents of a syntactic construction; that is, in Portero’s (2004: 104) words, “(…) one member is understood in relation to another member.” As an illustration, Quirk et al. (1985: 1570-1576) make a syntactic classification of noun compounds by distinguishing “subsets on the basis of a grammatical analysis of the elements involved in a canonical example, together with an informal indication of the relationship between them in terms of a syntactic paraphrase.” Thus, they make a distinction between subject and verb, verb and object, verb and adverbial, and verbless (subject and object and subject and complement) noun compounds: (i) Subject and verb compounds can be of three subtypes: a. subject + deverbal noun: sunrise (“the sun rises”) b. verb + subject: crybaby (“The baby cries”) c. verbal noun in –ing + subject: dancing girl (“the girl dances”) 16 For further research on meaning in metaphoric N+N compounds, see Benczes (2006). 17 Levi’s (1978) classification of Recoverably Deletable Predicates is explained in Section 3.2. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 97 (ii) verb and object compounds are divided into five subtypes: a. object + deverbal noun: blood test (“X tests blood”) b. object + verbal noun in –ing: fault finding (“X finds faults”) c. object + agential noun in –er: tax payer (“X pays taxes”) d. verb + object: push-button (“X pushes the button”) e. verbal noun in –ing + object : drinking-water (“X drinks water”) (iii) verb and adverbial compounds: a. verbal noun in –ing + adverbial: i. place: drinking cup (“drink out of a cup”) ii. instrumental: baking powder (“bake with powder”) b. adverbial + verbal noun in –ing: i. place: horse-riding (“ride on a horse”) ii. time: sleepwalking (“walk in one’s sleep”) iii. instrumental: handwriting (“write by hand”) iv. other: shadow-boxing (“box against a shadow”) c. adverbial + agential noun in –er: i. place: factory-worker (“work in a factory”) ii. time: daydreamer (“dream during the day”) d. adverbial + deverbal noun: i. place: moon walk (“walk on the moon”) ii. time: night flight (“fly during the night”) iii. instrumental: gunfight (“fight with a gun”) iv. other: telephone call (“message by the telephone”) e. verb + adverbial: 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 98 i. place: dance hall (“dance in a hall”) ii. instrumental: plaything (“play with a thing”) (iv) verbless compounds: subject and object compounds: a. a noun powers/operates another noun: windmill (“the wind powers the mill”) b. second noun produces/yields first noun: toy factory (“the factory produces toys”) c. first noun produces/yields second noun: bloodstain (“blood produces stains”) d. a noun has another noun: piano keys (“the piano has some keys”) e. second noun controls/works in connection with first noun: fireman (“a man who fights against fire”) (v) verbless compounds: subject and complement compounds: a. second noun is first noun: girlfriend (“the friend is a girl”) b. second noun is like first noun: frogman (“the man is like a frog”) c. second noun consists of first noun: snow flake (“a flake of snow”) d. second noun is for first noun: ashtray (“the tray is for ash”) Likewise, Lees (1960) establishes a classification based on the syntactic relationship between the component parts of a compound once this compound is paraphrased. Adams (1973: 61) has noted the disadvantages of this system, claiming that there is a placing together of compounds “(…) which one intuitively feels are rather different from one another (…). Another [disadvantage] is that it separates compounds which we feel are similar in an important respect.” Thus, for the latter case, consider (48). 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 99 (48) PLACE Bull-ring Objectpreposition Lake-dweller Verb-preposition Garden party Subject-preposition Each of the N+N compounds is classified in a different group (i.e., object-preposition, verbpreposition, and subject-preposition). However, the three compounds contain a locative element indicating place. In spite of this, Adams (1973: 64-89) establishes a syntactic classification of noun compounds which at times appears quite similar to semantic criteria: subject-verb, verb-object, appositional, associative, instrumental, locative, resemblance, composition/form/contents, adjective-noun, names and other. The last group, other, is supposed to comprise all the samples of N+N compounds which cannot be given a concrete status within the syntactic classification. For that reason, this classification seems rather incomprehensive and limited. Bauer (1983) uses a system based on the form class of each component part. This system establishes the semantic relationships among the elements of each compound. However, as Bauer (1983: 203) himself points out, any method of classification is susceptible of being controversial, implying that his own is not free of disadvantages. He goes on to note 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 100 that “because of the amount of conversion in English, it is not always clear what form class a particular element belongs to”, as in examples (49a) and (49b). (49a) waterfall (N+N) Æ a fall of water (49b) waterfall (N+V) Æ the water falls Furthermore, as previously noted, compounding is actually a recursive phenomenon, since new lexemes can be added to the former ones to form larger morphological units. As a consequence, any compound can be the immediate constituent of a further compound. Portero (2004: 104) illustrates this idea with example (50). (50) fruit-juice carton Here, the head noun carton is accompanied by the compound fruit-juice, forming as a result a larger construction fruit-juice carton. 3.4.2.2 The process of acquisition of new lexicon: institutionalisation, idiomatisation and lexicalisation The question now is: where do N+N structures stand with respect to the morphological phenomenon of compounding? In order to answer this question, reference to the concept of lexicalisation18 is needed. A lexical item is a unit which belongs to the lexicon and, as such, it is said to be lexicalised. Speakers use N+N structures on the spur of the moment to fill gaps for which there is apparently no morphological construction. The resulting unit is a nonce formation (cf. Portero, 2004: 71). Then, if that construction is accepted by a community of 18 Other related concepts are routinisation (cf. Haiman 1994) and petrification (cf. Leech 1974). 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 101 speakers and is used again for future applications, we may consider it to be institutionalised. Institutionalisation is defined as “(…) the process in the history of a lexeme when it comes to be accepted by other speakers as a known lexical item” (ibid.). Institutionalisation thus belongs to an earlier stage in the process towards lexicalisation19. As Bauer (1978: 77) points out, the elements of the complex institutionalised construction are no longer consciously analysed by the speech community and its denotation becomes more specific. The institutionalised construction is therefore accepted by the speech community as a normal word. Bauer (1983: 50) also indicates that both institutionalisation and lexicalisation are part of a process in which a given complex structure becomes established. The reasons for this happening are complex, and some words become institutionalised, while others do not. Among the factors leading to institutionalisation we can mention: (i) The status of the first user. It is generally agreed that language users belonging to dominant social groups, especially the upper classes, are more influential than other members of the society as regards expanding, by means of the new coining or the continuous use of a word or expression. (ii) The intelligibility of the complex word: speakers prefer expressions whose meaning can be easily discerned. (iii) The prestige of the complex word, related to its context of use, its users and the extralinguistic reality to which it refers. (iv) The ease of the complex word to achieve a specific effect or to save space (as in the case of journalism). 19 Note that, against the position adopted in this dissertation, some scholars argue that institutionalisation is the same phenomenon as lexicalisation. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 102 (v) The frequency of the designated object, that is, events, things, animate beings and the like to which we make continuous reference. Once a given structure is institutionalised, it may stay as it is or it may undergo further lexicalisation, as a result of which it becomes idiosyncratic. This implies that its behaviour is now unpredictable. There are two kinds of idiosyncratic properties which may obscure the complex structure: formal (phonological or morphological) and semantic. These new formal and semantic properties can no longer be explained in terms of the constituent parts of the N+N sequence or its word-formation pattern, since this new lexicalised structure is no longer productive from the point of view of word formation (Sauer, 2000: 1626). Lexicalisation can also affect syntactic structures but, as Bauer (2000: 838) points out, those are merely exceptions to the rule. In fact, the way in which lexicalisation acts on both kinds of structures is different, since it affects them to different degrees: whereas phrases may be affected by semantic idiosyncrasies (e.g. How do you do?), words may be affected by semantic but also formal idiosyncrasies, for example, in the semantic and phonological reduction of the word gospel (from OE god spel meaning “good news” to PDE gospel with a more specialised meaning “a doctrine that is considered to be of great importance”). Depending on these different idiosyncratic properties, lexicalisation can be of different types (cf. Bauer 1983; Sauer 2000): (i) Graphemic. Reflects phonological changes: e.g. tuppence (/’tΛpns/) for twopences (ii) Phonological. There are the following subtypes: 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 103 (ii.i) Segmental. The elements of a complex word develop in a phonetically different way in independent use: e.g. woman < OE wif + man (shortening of first element, loss of stress on the second element and assimilation) (ii.ii) Suprasegmental (prosodic). One element in a compound undergoes a change: e.g. in chairman, the second element loses its secondary stress and is also reduced phonetically (iii) Morphological. Further subdivided into: (iii.i) Linking elements: e.g. PDE nightingale < OE nihtegale (iii.ii) Unproductive word-formation patterns or elements: e.g. pickpocket (iii.iii) Blocked (unique) morphemes. Those which occur within one compound but no longer occur as single words: e.g. Tues in Tuesday (iii.iv) Obscured compounds: e.g. nostril < OE nos-pyrel (iii.v) Partly obscured compounds. This is only in cases when speakers notice the semantic relation of the element and the single word from which it was taken: e.g. cup in cupboard (iv) Semantic. This entails a change of meaning by the addition or loss of semantic features or by the mixture of both: 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 104 (iv.i) Addition (meaning restriction): e.g. ME hand-while “time to turn one’s hand > “very short time” (iv.ii) Loss (meaning expansion): e.g. arrive. Originally it meant “to land at the shore”, nowadays it means “come to a place” (iv.iii) Mixture: e.g. holiday lost its religious character but the meaning of “free from work or school” was added The way towards lexicalisation is in itself a diachronic, gradual process. In fact, Sauer (2000: 1632) distinguishes among different degrees of lexicalisation: Figure VI Degrees of lexicalisation according to Sauer (2000) Thus, from slight lexicalisation, there is a medium stage in the way towards total obscuration or demotivation, which implies a loss of semantic compositionality (cf. Brinton & Closs- Traugott, 2005: 32); thus, one or both constituents have lost their original meaning. In principle, words can be phonetically, morphologically or semantically motivated (e.g. onomatopoeic words such as bang). However, they may undergo a loss of motivation owing to changes that are intralinguistic or extralinguistic (within the cultural background). That loss may affect one or both constituents (cf. Sauer, 2000: 1633 with blackboard and butterfly). slight lexicalisation medium total obscuration cupboard bonfire lady 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 105 The process of lexicalisation affecting N+N structures is a central topic of the sections devoted to the empirical research in this dissertation, and as such will be examined in detail in the following chapter. 3.4.3 Concluding remarks. Can N+N structures be considered as a method of word formation? Once lexicalisation has taken place, the resulting complex structure becomes widely accepted by the community of speakers and enters the lexicon. Furthermore, there is no further need to think about its constituent elements in order to understand the meaning, since this new word is now stored by speakers as a single unit (both from a semantic and from a morphological point of view). As we have seen in the previous section, lexicalisation can affect complex words in such a way that speakers may not recognise the single parts of which it was once made (owing, for example, to phonological and graphemic reduction, such as in gospel). Given all this, the answer to the question regarding the status of N+N structures is clearly that, as with any other kind of coinage, they can enter a gradual process of institutionalisation and lexicalisation and consequently become lexical items, or they may remain as syntactic structures. However, are there N+N structures which are lexicalised from the very beginning? Or are they all syntactic phrases at first? In line with what has been discussed thus far, it makes sense to believe that the process of compounding is a phenomenon which all structures may go through. That is, in order to be a word, we need first of all to assemble a certain structure. As a result, we may say that all N+N structures must have been syntactic constructions once, some of which undergo the process of compounding more quickly, or do so in a more unconscious way. Among them, we may find those N+N structures which are analogically created from other existing constructions (e.g. book shop may yield forms such as pizza shop, barber shop and so on). The fact that speakers do not realize the process is in 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 112 examples have a metaphorical meaning which differs from the meaning of the noun as a modifier. This is the case of golden wedding, which has the metaphorical meaning of “the fiftieth wedding anniversary”, and not the same meaning as gold watch (“a watch made of gold”). These differences also prove that expressions such as steel bridge are syntactic phrases and not morphological constructions. In other words, steel bridge has a syntactic nature because, in the event that it were a lexical unit, there would be a strange gap in the syntax, that is, the supposedly morphological steel bridge would not have a counterpart in the syntax such as *steelen bridge, with a modifying adjective. 3.5.2 The postmodifying position As noted, Levi (1978) views N+N structures as deriving from underlying sentences which depend on a set of nine different predicates (cf. Section 3.2). In most cases, nominal combinations can indeed be replaced by underlying sentences with a relative clause. (54a) a stone wall (54b) a wall which is made of stone However, this combination can also be replaced by a prepositional phrase: (54c) a wall of stone What this shows, apart from the fact that Levi’s proposed system is inconsistent (cf. Section 3.4.2.1), is that there seems to be variation between nouns as modifiers and postmodifiers such as relative clauses and prepositional phrases, since the three of them can be used interchangeably in many cases. The main questions which arise from this are: are there any 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 113 differences in meaning? If this is not so, why do we choose one pattern instead of the others? Are there factors in operation other than those of a semantic nature? As far as meaning is concerned, the three constructions apparently mean the same thing. However, differences are found in the permanence of a given referent in time or in its utility as a means of communicating efficiently and economically. These are the reasons why speakers choose to use one or the other, depending on the effect they wish to achieve on their audience. Thus, in the case of stone wall, the referent is more permanent in time than in the case with a wall which is made of stone. Furthermore, the noun modifier provides the referent with a character of specificity that it does not have in the case of the prepositional phrase or relative clause postmodifiers. The fact that speakers and writers employ fewer words and thus less time in pronouncing or writing N+N combinations than noun phrases with prepositional phrase and relative clause postmodifiers is also a factor motivating the choice of N+N structures. As has already been pointed out in the case of nominal modifiers against genitive constructions, noun phrases with a noun as modifier contribute to linguistic economy. These reasons are going to be empirically tested in the following chapter. To conclude, the choice of one or the other modifying element depends on two main factors: subtle meaning differences and pragmatic differences of permanence and specificity. Speakers are generally not consciously aware of these differences and choose among the possibilities available to create a specific construct according to their communicative goals. 3.6 Summary and concluding remarks The present chapter has provided an overview of earlier literature on the definition, specification and function of N+N structures. It has been shown that nominal modifiers are characterised by their restrictive function, which has an effect on the order in which they appear in modifying position within the noun phrase. It has also referred to their 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 114 morphological properties, such as the lack of inflectional endings. Reference to the problem of stress variability has also been made. Several possible solutions to this problem have also been mentioned. In spite of these, the question of stress variability remains unsolved, and leads to many contrasting positions among scholars. Empirical research has shown that N+N structures are on the rise nowadays, a development for which, provisionally, there seem to be three possible explanations: (i) that they are compact packages of information; (ii) that the information they provide is easily retrievable; (iii) that interlocutors can easily predict the information conveyed by means of an N+N sequence. An overview of the previous literature on the topic has also been offered here, especially of that published during the last three decades of the 20th century and in the present century. Three main stages were distinguished: a first stage, in which there is a clear interest in unravelling the semantic relations among the component parts of N+N structures; at this stage it is generally considered that all N+N sequences are compounds, and interest focuses on their productivity within a word formation process. In the second stage, there is increasing interest in seeing nominal sequences from the perspective of textual genre studies and sociolinguistics; their status as morphological items or syntactic devices is also a source of debate. Finally, the third stage has shown studies devoted to the question of the boundaries between syntax and morphology as well as to stress variability. Currently, scholars are aware of the fact that N+N sequences are in constant evolution, which complicates their analysis of this supposedly discrete phenomenon. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 115 The fact that nominal sequences are simply juxtaposed items explains the difficulties that speakers may encounter when searching for the correct understanding of such combinations. Thus, the question of ambiguity in N+N structures has also been discussed in the present chapter. As noted above, ambiguity here has been studied from three different perspectives: (i) from the point of view of syntax, since longer N+N sequences need internal bracketing for their understanding; (ii) from the point of view of semantics, since the meaning of the resulting combination of nouns can be ambiguous; (iii) finally, from the point of view of the categorial structure of the first elements, since the use of nouns in premodifying position can lead to the consideration that they undergo a process of conversion from nouns into adjectives. Hence, the issue of gradience was carefully considered in the section on ambiguity, above. However, this was not the only problem related to fuzzy boundaries that N+N structures display. A question which has been a continuous matter of study is that of the status of nominal sequences as syntactic structures or morphological items. In the present chapter this problem has been related to the questions of institutionalisation and lexicalisation and to the process of compounding within word formation. Lexicalisation has been seen as a gradient process that certain N+N structures undergo, and has been considered to be a combination of semantic, orthographic, phonological and morphological changes. Finally, this chapter has briefly reviewed the contrast of nouns as modifiers with other kinds of modification patterns within noun phrase structure. It has been shown that, on some 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS occasions, nouns as modifiers entail the same meaning as other modification patterns, such as relative clauses or prepositional phrases. However, there are also some differences between them, and these are of pragmatic origin (such as their compact form and their character of permanence over time). Such differences allow speakers to make choices as to which construct to use according to the objectives of each communicative situation. Also, as far as the contrast between adjectives and nouns is concerned, it has been explained that the choice between them (whenever there is one) depends most of the time on the semantic goals of the speaker. In the following chapter of this dissertation, some of the views reviewed above, including the issue of lexicalisation, and also the relation between N+N sequences and textual genres, speech communities and modes, will be tested empirically. 3 NOMINAL MODIFIERS: DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 116 117 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH This chapter will deal with the evolution and use of nominal premodifiers in Present Day English. For that purpose, several corpora of written and spoken English have been selected and analysed. I have opted for a corpus study because it represents the best way of analysing N+N sequences from different perspectives (text category, speech community, time period, and mode) as well as the best way of providing information which otherwise would not be available by means of intuition. Besides, as noted in Svartvik (1992: 8), the results deriving from a corpus study are more objective. In this respect, Biber, Conrad & Reppen (2001: 4) offer a useful summary of the benefits derived from a corpus study: (i) It is empirical. (ii) It is based on a collection of natural texts. (iii) It relies on computers for the analysis. (iv) It depends on both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis. Firstly, Section 4.1 presents an explanation of the main hypothesis of this dissertation from the perspective of the four different variables chosen for the study: text category, speech community, time period, and mode. Section 4.2 gives an account of the corpora used and of the methodology employed for the extraction of data. Section 4.3 then provides an overview of the data itself, taken from the corpora of written and spoken English, from the perspective of the four variables. Section 4.4 goes on to examine the process of lexicalisation. Finally, Section 4.5 is an account of the most relevant results, and sheds light on the reasons and implications for the use of N+N structures with each variable in mind. It also summarises the main findings and includes some concluding remarks. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 118 4.1 A hypothesis around four variables The use of N+N sequences in Present Day English has evolved significantly over the second half of the 20th century (cf. Biber & Clark 2002; Rosenbach 2005). The increased use of such sequences is not random, and explanations must be sought. This dissertation supports the idea that N+N structures are constructs which generate in the syntax to fill a gap for which there is no morphological item. In spite of their syntactic origin, some N+N structures undoubtedly contribute to the expansion of the lexicon in English by becoming morphological items in a gradual process of lexicalisation. In addition to this, other factors also play an important role in the distribution and evolution of N+N structures, and these are here discussed in relation to the four variables text category, speech community, time period, and mode. The emergence of a globalised information society in the last half of the 20th century has a linguistic correlate in the increase of nominal premodifiers. The use of N+N sequences in genres such as journalistic language is an example of this increase (cf. Jucker 1992; also Chapter 3 Section 3.2), from which other genres may be influenced. Differences in the use of N+N sequences depending on speech communities, such as British and American English, may also be found; and, given that American English is considered to be an innovative speech community (cf. Hundt 1997), it would be expected that a higher proportion of newly coined N+N structures will flow from American than British English. Structures here would include those uttered for a specific purpose at a given moment but not yet present in the language as institutionalised or lexicalised constructs. Likewise, differences are expected within the time span under study. Given that N+N structures are on the rise from the 1960s, it is expected that this increase continues until the end of the 20th century. Finally, there are no indications in the literature as to how we may predict the use of N+N structures in spoken language. Spoken language is grammatically simpler and uses fewer nouns than its written counterpart (cf. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 119 Halliday 1989), and for this reason we may predict that the number of N+N sequences found in spoken language is lower. The corpora of written English chosen for the analysis (presented in depth in Section 4.2) allow us to work from three different perspectives: text category, speech community and time period. Furthermore, the corpora of spoken English (cf. also Section 4.2) add a new dimension to the research, that of spoken language from the 1990s and from two different speech communities (British vs. American English). Findings from the spoken data will be compared to corpora of written English from the same period (FROWN and FLOB). The corpus analysis will test the assumptions referred to in this section, and will help to explain the observed tendency to use more N+N sequences. In what follows, the four variables are described and their potential implications in the use of N+N structures explored. 4.1.1 Text category Analysis of the corpus of written English has taken differences across genres into account, since these differences may imply differences in the number of nominal modifiers used as well as differences in the reasons why those nominal modifiers are used. As will be explained in Section 4.2, the main genres into which the corpus has here been divided are journalistic language (Reportage and Editorial), scientific language, and narrative language (Fiction and Belles Lettres, Biographies, Memoirs). The five text categories are arranged into two different groups: Reportage, Editorial and Science (non-narrative genres), and Fiction and Belles Lettres, Biographies, Memoirs (narrative genres). It is expected that non-narrative texts will exhibit a higher proportion of nominal premodifiers than narrative genres. This is due to the belief that non-narrative genres resort to premodification by nouns, since, in the case of journalistic texts, they provide readers with a great density of information using the lowest 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 120 number of words. In what follows, an account of the main characteristics of these genres is given. The English language has existed in printed form for over 400 years. The earliest newspapers, such as The Weekly Newes (established 1662) and The London Gazette (1666) offered general information as well as information about shipping. The most influential newspapers, like The Times, emerged in the 18th century, with the most important Englishlanguage news agencies, including Reuters and Associated Press, appearing in the following century. The technological advances of the Industrial Revolution facilitated the spread of newspapers written in English, which, with the advent of the steam train, could be distributed on a massive scale to a diverse community of readers. Written press style has changed over time, as newspapers have evolved in terms of both their content and format. The communicative goal of journalistic language consists in transmitting as much information as possible by means of messages which are intended to be disseminated widely. The fundamental basis for the structure of informative language is that of the “rule of the falling interest” or “inverted pyramid”, whereby information begins with an account of the most important content. This content is ordered depending on the previous information on the topic, along with explanations and details. This implies that there is a tendency to concentrate the most interesting information in the first (lead) paragraph. Typically, five wh-questions must be answered by journalists in the opening paragraph of their stories: What? When? Where? Who? Why? 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 121 This method demands that information be given precisely and clearly. Once this is done, there is a need for creating a cohesive text which also has rhythm and a certain style. In order to obtain that coherence journalists must: (i) employ a clear, simple and concise language, (ii) limit the use of adjectives, (iii) avoid the use of subordinate clauses and appositions, (iv) maintain a sober and distant tone. Journalists must bear in mind not only the new information provided but also any related information already known by the audience. Thus, superfluous data must be elided in order to avoid redundancy and the consequent waste of space and time. This style has been known as journalese. However, the label journalese has frequently had pejorative connotations, and many have referred to it as exactly the kind of language which should be avoided in press. In this sense, Crystal & Davy (1973: 173) point out to the difficulties in defining it strictly, adding that journalese “(…) is rarely more than a vague and (sometimes nastily) pejorative criticism of a way of writing that people feel is in some way typical of the press or a particular paper.” However, the kind of English used in the press is rather heterogeneous in style, differing in a number of ways as a result of the different audiences that newspapers have. Hence, Crystal & Davy (1973: 173) prefer to define journalese as “(…) a blend of what is characteristic of a number of different kinds of journalistic material.” Given all this, Crystal & Davy decide to study journalistic language from the point of view of two different newspapers. There are linguistic differences between them, but there are also similarities, which can in general be taken as characteristic of journalese. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 128 the Brown Corpus of Standard American English (BROWN; compilation year: 1961) and the Freiburg-Brown Corpus of American English (FROWN; compilation year: 1992) (cf. Mair 2002).20 These four corpora allow for analyses from both a diachronic and synchronic perspective. Two more corpora were chosen for spoken English, the International Corpus of English: the British Component (ICE-GB; compilation years: 1990-1993) and the Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE; compilation years: 1994-1998). In what follows, a detailed description of the chosen corpora is given. 4.2.1 The corpora of written English As noted, the BROWN/FROWN, LOB/FLOB are four matching corpora of American and British written English which allow us to focus on three different variables: national variety (American vs. British English), time period (1960s vs. 1990s), and text category (to be discussed further, below). Each of the four corpora contains 500 samples of approximately 2,000 words each, resulting in a total of 1,000,000 running words per corpus, which are distributed into fifteen textual categories and different subcategories as shown in Table 4. 20 Available in Hofland et al. (1999). 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 129 TEX CATEGORIES NUMBER OF SAMPLES NUMBER OF WORDS BROWN/FROWN LOB/FLOB BROWN/FROWN LOB/FLOB A: Press: Reportage 44 44 88,000 88,000 B: Press: Editorial 27 27 54,000 54,000 C Press: Reviews 17 17 34,000 34,000 D Religion 17 17 34,000 34,000 E Skills and Hobbies 36 38 72,000 76,000 F Popular Lore 48 44 96,000 88,000 G Belles Lettres, Biographies, Memoirs 75 77 150,000 154,000 H Miscellaneous 30 30 60,000 60,000 J Learned/Science 80 80 160,000 160,000 K General Fiction 29 29 58,000 58,000 L Mystery and Detective Fiction 24 24 48,000 48,000 M Science Fiction 6 6 12,000 12,000 N Adventure and Western Fiction 29 29 58,000 58,000 P Romance and Love Story 29 29 58,000 58,000 R Humour 9 9 18,000 18,000 TOTAL 500 500 1,000,000 1,000,000 Table 4 Distribution of text categories in the corpora of written English 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 130 Each sample in the corpora starts at the beginning of a sentence and comprises around 2,000 words. All texts are prefaced by a number of identification codes which provide details of text-type, corresponding subdivisions, and line numbers, as shown in (56)21. (56) This eight-line extract is taken from the first sample of the General Fiction category from the LOB corpus. For the identification here of the examples taken from the corpus, the following notation will be used: the capital letter corresponding to a specific text category22 plus the line number, together with the number of sample to which the excerpt belongs, as shown in (57). (57) Shirt cuffs 21 My own emphasis. 22 Each capital letter which is employed to name a text category corresponds to those shown in the corpora, which can be seen in Table 4. (LOB K 01 L8) Corpus (LOB) Text category (K General Fiction) Sample number (01) Line number (8) K01 1 **[375 TEXT K01**] K01 2 ^*0*'Are you sure you're quite fit? ^It's terrible weather.**' He K01 3 turned round to face his colleague. K01 4 |^For some esoteric reason Fairbanks always completed the buttoning K01 5 of his flies in the main area of the lavatory. ^*'Good morning, K01 6 Harold,**' he said. ^*'I'm pretty chipper, thanks, considering.**' ^He K01 7 was a tiny man, of fanatical neatness, his remaining hair snowy, and K01 8 cropped like a Prussian's. ^His white shirt cuffs were actually 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 131 4.2.2 The corpora of spoken English The International Corpus of English: Great Britain (ICE-GB) is the British component of a larger corpus, the International Corpus of English, which is currently being compiled and will include texts from different national varieties of English (cf. Greenbaum 1991). It was compiled at the Survey of English Usage (SEU), University College London, and comprises contemporary British English texts produced during the years 1990-1993 and designed to cover both spoken and written English. The corpus is 1,000,000 words long, divided into 500 samples of approximately 2,000 words each, across eleven textual categories and thirty-two subcategories. The distribution of the total words is uneven, with the written part comprising 400,000 words (200 samples) and the spoken part 600,000 words (300 samples). As far as the spoken section of the corpus is concerned, it is divided into Dialogues, Monologues and Mixed texts. Dialogues are further subdivided into Private and Public texts. As for the former, these are divided into Direct conversations and Telephone calls. The latter include the most formal kinds of text: Classroom lessons, Broadcast (which is further subdivided into Discussions and Interviews), Parliamentary debates, Legal crossexaminations and Business transactions. Monologues are divided into Unscripted and Scripted texts. The former are subdivided into Spontaneous commentaries, Speeches, Demonstrations and Legal presentations. The Scripted texts are themselves subdivided into Broadcast talks and Non-broadcast speeches. Finally, Mixed texts include Broadcast news. Table 5 shows the distribution of text categories in the spoken part of the ICE-GB corpus. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 132 TEXT CATEGORIES NUMBER OF SAMPLES NUMBER OF WORDS DIALOGUES PRIVATE Direct conversations 100 200,000 Telephone calls PUBLIC Lessons 80 160,000 Broadcast Discussions Interviews Parliamentary debates Legal cross-examinations Business transactions MONOLOGUES UNSCRIPTED Spontaneous commentaries 70 140,000 Speeches Demonstrations Legal presentations SCRIPTED Broadcast talks 50 100,000 Non-broadcast speeches TOTAL 300 600,000 Table 5 Distribution of text categories in the spoken ICE-GB corpus Each sample is classified according to several codes which represent the text category, section, subsection, text number and line, as indicated in example (58). 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 133 (58) Noun phrase (S 1 b 7 172) The American counterpart of the British spoken corpus is still in preparation, and thus it is preferable to find an alternative corpus which, to a greater or a lesser extent, can be adapted to the structure of the ICE-GB corpus. In this regard the corpus that best fits our purposes is the Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE), which contains transcriptions of formal conversations collected from 1994 to 1998. As a consequence, while in the case of written English the corpora match strictly, this is not the case with the corpora of spoken English. Nevertheless, both of these spoken corpora comprise samples collected from formal spoken language, which is the main focus of interest for the present investigation. The CSPAE comprises 2,000,000 words, and is divided into two main sub-corpora. The first is a record of academic discussions, and contains two different subsections: Faculty meetings held at the University of North Carolina, which contains 3 samples; and Committee meetings, held at different locations around the United States, which contains 7 samples. The second sub-corpus includes transcriptions from press conferences in the White House, mainly Text category (S: spoken) Section (1: dialogue) Subsection (b: public) Text number (7: classroom lesson) Line (172) 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 134 of question and answer sessions, and contains 6 samples. The distribution of the sub-corpora and their samples is presented in Table 6. SUB-CORPORA SAMPLES WORDS White House 94 0.9 million 95 96A 96B 97A 97B Meetings Faculty 95 1.1 million 96 97 Committee 6A97 6B97 8A97 597 697 797 897 Table 6 Distribution of texts in the CSPAE corpus For the purposes of the present investigation, I have opted for the untagged version of this corpus, since the search for N+N structures in the corpora has been made manually. Hence, the only extra information which is here provided for data from this corpus is the name of each speaker in the dialogues. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 135 (59) In order to classify the samples from the corpus, I have taken the same codes that are employed in CSPAE: (60) Access place (FACMT97) 4.2.3 Text sampling After selecting the corpora, the next step involved the selection of the text categories for each corpus. In the case of the corpora of written English, they are divided into fifteen text categories, as shown in Table 4 above (cf. Section 4.2.1). In line with one of the main hypotheses of the present research, non-narrative genres are expected to contain more N+N structures than texts which are narrative in nature (cf. Brown & Yule 1983; Biber & Clark 2002). Because of this, I have chosen the five text categories shown in Table 7. Section (FAC: faculty) Sub-corpus (MT: meeting) Sample (97) <SP>MANDEL:</SP> I'm David Mandel. I direct the MPR Center for Curriculum and Professional Development in Washington, D.C. I am responsible for the staff support for both the development of the mathematics specifications and the reading specifications on this national initiative. And we are joined here by Cathy Seeley from the University of Texas who is the lead writer for this committee and by Sharon Kallus who is a teacher from Pfulgerville, Texas. <SP>DOSSEY:</SP> Okay. And then, Wayne. <SP>MARTIN:</SP> Yes. That is timely. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 136 NONNARRATIVE NONABSTRACT JOURNALISTIC LANGUAGE NONPERSUASIVE A Press: reportage PERSUASIVE B Press: editorial ABSTRACT SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE J Science NARRATIVE EXTENSIVE REFERENCE K General fiction EXPLICIT REFERENCE G Belles Lettres, Biographies, Memoirs Table 7 Distribution of text categories according to linguistic dimensions Following Biber (1988), text categories have been divided according to different linguistic dimensions, the necessity of which is easy to appreciate. As noted in Biber (1988: 13), “(…) a linguistic dimension is determined on the basis of a consistent co-occurrence pattern among features”, that is, features which co-occur in a text define a linguistic dimension. Linguistic dimensions allow us to establish relations among texts of different kinds within particular situational or functional parameters (e.g., formal vs. informal, or interactive vs. non interactive). However, as Biber himself points out, these dimensions define “(…) continuums of variation rather than discrete poles” (ibid.: 9), which implies, for example, that it is better to describe a text as more or less formal rather than fully formal or fully informal. In other words, linguistic dimensions serve to “(…) specify the ‘textual relations’ among different kinds of texts in English” (ibid.: 19); as a result, variation in genres is scalar along a 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 137 continuum and as such these dimensions can affect the characterisation of a given text category to different degrees. Figure VII illustrates this continuum. + NARRATIVE 7 Romantic fiction 6 Mystery, science and general fiction Adventure fiction 5 4 3 2 Biographies Spontaneous speeches 1 Humour Prepared speeches Personal letters 0 Press reportage Popular lore Face-to-face conversation Religion; editorials -1 Interviews Press review -2 Telephone conversations Professional letters Academic prose23 Official documents -3 Hobbies Broadcast - NARRATIVE Figure VII Mean scores of Dimension 2, Narrative vs. non-narrative concerns, as shown in Biber (1988: 136); emphasis added 23 Academic prose is used by Biber (1988) to refer to Science, a term which is preferred here since it matches that used in the LOB, BROWN, FLOB and FROWN corpora. 4 THE CORPUS RESEARCH 240 (LB9/56) (LA13/226) (LK2/20) (LA10/191) (LB14/116) Code words (LG55/206) Coffee bar (LA9/130) Colditz Castle (LA9/92) College education (LG55/56) College extensions (LB6/216) Collimator system (LJ15/198) Committee Room (LK3/21) Commonwealth (Technical) (Training) Week (LA12/81) Commonwealth countries (LA12/85) Commonwealth Fund Fellows (LK26/99) Commonwealth Immigrants Bill (LB9/4-5) Commonwealth Office (LB8/63) Communication methods (LG55/204) Communication theory (LJ18/43) Company news (LA16/162) Company profits (LB7/141) Company taxation (LB7/141) Compatibility tests (LJ13/142-143) Competitions Committee (LB16/181) Composition bricks (LB10/113) Compound words (LG51/105) Compression instability (LJ71/216-217) Compression specimens (LJ71/57) Compression stress-strain curve (LJ71/169-170) Compression test (LJ71/55) Concentration camps (LA10/131) Concert status (LA9/205) Conference decisions (LB6/162) Confidence limits (LJ14/55-56) Conscript soldiers (LB8/172) Constituency Parties (LA12/159) Consultation Board (LB9/128) Consumer durables (LB7/182) Control cells (LJ13/78) Control group (LJ14/24) Control serum (LJ13/2) Cook boy (LK2/16) Cookery course (LA9/122) Coombs Technique (LJ13/51) Copenhagen police (LG53/29) Coronation Stakes (LA10/68) Corporation tax (LB7/148) Correction factors (LJ15/140) Cortisone glucose tolerance tests (LJ14/131) Cottesmore Hunt (LA9/14) Cough linctus (LB14/219) Cough reflex (LJ16/85) Coulomb forces (LJ70/18) Council house tenants (LB23/109) Council houses (LB23/142) Country landowners (LA13/70-71) Country village (LK22/186) County Cork (LK24/122) Court judge (LA9/9-10) Craft apprentice ships (LB6/231-232) Crash barriers (LA4/86) Crew-cut (LK5/175) Cross-country run (LK3/78) Crown Prince (LG54/190) Crowther Committee (LG58/9) Crystal density (LJ70/171) Crystal samples (LJ70/188) Cumberland children (LG51/177) Currency countries (LB10/232) Current/time curve (LJ69/131) Curry nap (LK2/27) Curzon Street (LK5/35) Customs Duties (LA15/146) Daily Worker Reporters (LA4/4) Death duties (LB7/121) Death toll (LA13/3) December quarter (LA13/222) Decision makers (LB7/68-69) Decision theory (LJ18/54-55) Deck chair (LK22/35) Deck passengers (LA13/13) Decomposition temperature (LJ70/120) Defence Minister (LB6/20) Defence policy (LB23/5) Defence statement (LB6/168) Degree-giving power (LG58/38-39) Delta Function (LJ69/145) Demolition men (LK24/102) Demonstration model (LA10/174) Depth dose (LJ15/65) Depth-dose curves Depth-dose data Deputy Director Deputy Premier Design methods 6 APPENDIX 241 (LJ15/59-60) (LJ15/21-22) (LA9/29) (LB8/74) (LJ71/83) Devilment business (LB5/168-169) Diabetics Diagram (LJ14/97) Dialect form (LG51/191) Dialect name (LG51/164-165) Dictionary-maker (LG51/23-24) Dilution factor (LJ13/150) Dinner time (LK22/143) Disarmament problem (LA4/97) Dividend shock (LA16/151) Dog-days (LG54/14) Dog-Latin (LG77/114) Doncaster Cups (LA23/65) Donor Blood (LJ13/152) Dorchester Hotel (LA16/140) Doria Palace (LK4/73) Dose-rate (LJ15/194) Downing Street (LB8/11) Draught-proof floor coverings (LK22/25) Drink, beer, insurance, gas light and coke, match, (banking) and estate company chief (LA13/125-126) Drug addict (LG56/109) Drug bill (LB9/179) Drug costs (LB9/191) Drug exports (LB9/164) Dust disease (LA13/92) Dust standard (LA13/87) Earth tremor (LK24/138) Earth-bath (LG56/133) Earth-bathing (LG56/121) Ease questions (LB11/91) East Kent Quarter Sessions (LA12/212) Ebony (black) hair (LK21/142) Edinburgh character (LG56/176) Edinburgh Faculty (LG56/181) Edinburgh University (LG56/100) Editorial article (LA3/175) Ego-ideal (LG55/107) Eichmann Mind (LB5/98) Eigenfunction expansion (LJ20/59) Eigenvalue problem (LJ20/31) Election programmes (LG53/147) Election year (LA3/162) Electricity industry (LA16/60) Electron shell (LJ70/57) Embassy personnel (LB9/213) Emergency resolution (LB11/19) Emergency session (LA15/27) Emmanuel College (LK26/148) End product (LJ70/142-143) End-plate thickness (LJ15/54) Enemy action (LA4/122) Enemy hands (LG55/163-164) Energy radiation (LJ15/25) Engesser equation (LJ71/172) England trial (LA23/210) Enox hand tools (LA16/175) Entropy increase (LJ18/194) Equilibrium pressure (LJ70/81) Escape officer (LA9/97-98) Escape route (LK22/8) Espresso bars (LK26/26) Esso Petroleum Bill (LG53/131-132) Estate Duty (LB7/117) Eton and Cambridge boy (LA13/144) Euler curve (LJ71/155) Evening lectures (LG56/120) Everest expedition (LA10/118) Examination questions (LB11/84-85) Exchange transfusion (LJ13/163) Exchequer subsidy (LB23/162) Excise duty (LB7/170) Exclusion clauses (LB16/160) Export markets (LB9/161-162) Export performance (LB7/42) Export trade (LB9/198) Extrusion orifice (LJ70/146-147) Extrusion techniques (LJ70/150) Eye complaint (LG56/181) Eye consultant (LG54/137-138) Failure behaviour (LJ71/15) Family circumstances (LA12/179-180) Family connection Family doctor Family firms Family man Family ownership 6 APPENDIX 242 (LK1/44) (LB14/183) (LB7/120) (LB8/134) (LB7/126) Family party (LG54/117) Family purse (LB14/147) Fancy-dress party (LG54/108-109) Fare and dinner grants (LB23/91) Fares freeze (LA15/31) Fares levels (LA15/22) Farewell speech (LA4/88) Fashion magazines (LK23/158) Fashion show (LA9/40) Father figure (LA3/120) Fear-relief (LG55/148) Feather bed (LK23/67) Feed Grains Bill (LA15/192-193) Female audience (LG56/135) Female side (LG54/118) Female slaves (LG54/155) Fence sitters (LB8/146) Ferrite sample (LJ70/170) Ferrite spinels (LJ70/52) Ferrite structure (LJ70/4) Fertility cults (LG77/58) Fiat millionaire (LA10/177) Field method (LJ15/85) Field work (LJ14/184) Field-marshals (LG54/93-94) Fighter ace (LA9/24) Fighter aircraft (LA3/211-212) Fighter bombers (LB6/49) Film manufacturers (LB10/215) Finance house (LB10/176-177) Financial Times index (LA16/79) Fire brigade (LA12/51) Fireside chat (LA12/78) Fish-shop (LK21/89) Fison Award winner (LA13/73) Flame fusion process (LJ70/192) Flower display (LA10/54-55) Fly preparations (LG56/15) Foggia police (LG54/77) Folk etymology (LG51/31) Food rationing (LJ14/91-92) Football pools (LA22/37) Form feldware (LG51/160-161) Fort Beit (LK23/59) Fourier coefficient (LJ20/232-233) Fourier conditions (LJ20/61) Freight charge (LB10/114) Freshwater drowning (LJ16/15) Fruit standard (LK1/26-27) Function tables (LJ69/15) Funeral director (LK24/24) Furnace equipment (LJ70/200) Furniture vans (LK23/158) Galois Field (LJ21/9) Gamma rays (LJ15/148) Gang-plank (LK22/58) Gas chamber (LJ18/148) Gas cylinders (LK24/140) Gas formation (LJ16/90) Gas lamps (LK24/95) Gas meters (LK26/176) Gas Purification (LA16/152) Gas Works cylinders (LK24/198) Gateway burst (LA23/156) Gauge length (LJ71/66) Geneva conference (LA4/46) Gerard extensometer (LJ71/54) Germ warfare (LG55/168) Ghost story (LG77/196) Glass carafes (LK1/74) Glass panel (LK24/9) Glass tubes (LG56/6) Glenview Avenue (LB10/117) Glory-hole (LG51/167) Glossop Road (LB10/222) Gloucester Railway Carriage (LA16/182-183) Gloucester shares (LA16/187) Gloucester Wagon (LA16/188) Gloucester Wagon shares (LA16/186) Glucose method (LJ14/30) Glucose tolerance curve (LJ14/99) Glucose tolerance test (LJ14/25) God-hypothesis (LG69/136) Gold Cup winners (LA23/152) Gold losses (LB10/228) Golf bargain Government circles Government connivance Government finance Gower Street 6 APPENDIX 243 (LA9/208) (LA4/209) (LB6/15-16) (LB7/162) (LK26/54) Graham anecdote (LG56/25) Gramophone records (LG77/147) Grass roots (LA3/81) Grattan Warehouses (LA15/213) Grievance work (LG53/6) Group Captain (LA9/24-25) Group discussion (LG55/80) Group loyalties (LG55/133) Group O blood (LJ13/150-151) Group profits (LA16/127) Group-structure (LG55/151) Grundig company (LA16/153) Guarantee terms (LB16/154) Guilt-anxiety (LG55/104) Gypsy encampment (LK4/143) Haemolytic transfusion reaction (LJ13/134) Hall committees (LB16/63) Ham sandwich (LA10/224) Hamilton-road (LA12/221) Hampshire farmer (LG51/156-157) Hand baggage (LK26/15) Hand basin (LK26/78) Hants Hospital (LJ15/158-159) Hardware shop (LK21/17) Harem ladies (LG54/154) Haul category (LB10/123) Head girl prefect (LB23/177) Head injuries (LA12/203) Head-dress (LK3/108) Health authority (LB14/174) Health charges (LB14/8) Health expenditure (LB9/184) Health Minister (LB14/135-136) Health Service (LB9/170) Health Service bill (LB9/179) Health Service changes and charges (LB14/130) Health Service lists (LB14/157-158) Health Service prescription (LB14/86-87) Health visitor (LJ14/108) Heart beats (LJ16/33) Heart disease (LJ16/81) Heart failure (LJ16/12) Heart muscle (LJ16/14) Heat treatment (LJ70/114) Hedge berry (LG51/175) Helmet title (LA22/17-18) Hermit type (LJ14/169) Hill farmers (LA13/69) Hill-side (LK4/206) Hinchliffe Report (LB9/168) Hire-purchase goods (LA12/216) Hire-purchase network (LA12/210) Holders Hill Avenue (LB10/163) Home buyer (LA16/195) Home hazard (LB10/196) Home help (LB14/175) Home industry (LB10/65) Home market (LB10/29) Home Secretary (LB8/18-19) Home seekers (LA16/192) Home-builders (LA16/209) Home-makers (LA16/212) Homily folk etymology (LG51/153-154) Honeymoon plane (LA10/168) Honours examination question (LB11/81-82) Hook shot (LA22/134) Hornsey Journal (LB9/38) Hornsey Labour Party (LB9/31) Horror story (LG77/196) Horse racing (LK1/120) Hospital and consultant services (LB14/1701-171) Hospital Boards (LB14/170) Hospital dispensary (LB10/147) Hospital Dispensing (LB11/193) Hospital doctors (LB11/200) Hospital nurse (LK23/139) Hospital pharmacists (LB11/195) Hospital physicists (LJ15/14) Hospital service (LB14/181) Hospital treatment (LB14/72) Hotel owner (LA10/162) Hotel room (LK5/51) House (of Commons) rumpus (LB14/129) House boy (LK23/166) House debate (LA15/206) House-building Household goods Hulme Grammar Schools Hurricane rush Hyde Park Corner 6 APPENDIX 244 (LB9/23) (LB7/182) (LB23/89) (LA23/99) (LA9/37) Immigration officials (LK5/6) Income groups (LB9/72) Income tax (LB7/51) Income tax laws (LG56/73) Income tax rate (LB7/142) Income tax scale (LB7/64) Income taxation (LB7/78) Incubation period (LJ13/23) India Steam Navigation Co. (LA13/22-23) Indoctrination Process (LG55/11-12) Information concept (LJ18/60) Information function (LJ18/81) Information service (LB9/212) Information theory (LJ18/41) Insulin treatment (LJ14/113) Insurance companies (LA16/199) Insurance contributions (LB14/9) Insurance stamp (LB14/19) Interior decoration (LK23/157-158) Investment allowance reliefs (LB7/147) Investment income (LB7/88-89) Ionization chamber (LJ15/31) Iteration process (LJ20/124-125) Ivory towers (LG58/72) Jazz Club (LB16/75) Jersey (Royal) Court (LA12/137) Jesuit College (LB8/128) Joan of Arc mentality (LB8/154) Jochey judge (LA9/3) John Brown Land Boilers (LA15/89) Jugular vein (LJ13/129) Juke box (LA9/124) Jungle animal (LK1/80) Kashmir carpets (LK2/117) Kemp ionization current comparator (LJ15/37) Kennedy Administration (LB6/142) Kensington Palace (LA9/146) Kent engineers (LA16/182) Kentucky Derby (LA10/160) Kidney damage (LJ16/183) Killer dust (LA13/81) Kitchen equipment (LB7/179) Kite-flying (LB6/144) Klein selection (LJ21/52) Knife edge (LJ70/183) Knightsbridge pub (LA9/98) Knowledge claims (LG63/105-106) Labour and trade union movement (LB6/155) Labour election arrangement (LB9/142) Labour Government (LB6/149) Labour leaders (LB6/169) Labour majority (LB9/145) Labour movement (LA4/109) Labour MP (LA12/247) Labour Party (LA12/152) Labour Party Conference decisions (LB23/32) Labour Party leader (LA13/154) Labour Party members (LB23/5) Lace handkerchief (LK21/98) Lace tablecloth (LA10/42) Lager war (LA16/133) Lambeth Hospital (LJ15/108) Lancashire corruption barleymen (LG51/179) Lancaster House constitution (LB11/187-188) Land Bank (LK23/72) Language theory and behaviour (LG55/116-117) Laos agreement (LA4/45) Laos ceasefire (LA4/45) Laos invitation (LA3/43) Largest retail societies (LA15/125) Latex factory (LK2/42) Lathe operator (LA12/121) Lattice constants (LJ70/174) Laundry basket (LA10/44) Laundry bill (LK1/53) Laundry hamper (LA10/44) Le Rosay School (LA9/170) League game (LA22/132) League rider (LA22/36) Leakage resistance (LJ69/116) Leather bindings (LK26/32) Leather desks (LK26/32) Left-winger (LB8/57) Legacy Duty (LB7/123-124) Les Allen header (LA22/120-121) Letter home Liberal Party leader Library book Life blood Life-history 6 APPENDIX 245 (LG55/181) (LA3/77) (LK5/125) (LJ13/119) (LG55/81) Lincoln College (LA9/167) Linen basket (LK1/49) Lithium ferrite (LJ70/23) Liverpool (brewing) concern (LA13/164-165) Liverpool C.I.D. (LA13/167) Liverpool lawyer (LB8/12) Loan stock (LA16/187) Lobster-pot (LK21/124) Loch Polaris protest marchers (LA13/235-236) London (booking) office (LB9/109) London Airport (LA4/29) London crowds (LK3/61) London friends (LA9/211) London Hospital (LJ15/10-11) London hotel (LK5/40) London mews house (LA9/94-95) London musicals (LA10/194) London police (LA13/167) London shows (LA10/199) London Society (LA15/126) London stations (LB23/210) London Underground (LK26/23) London University sermon (LB16/95-96) London Wall (LA16/4) Longchamp paddock (LA23/123) Love affair (LK23/7-8) Love-play (LK2/142) Lunch contest (LA10/14) Lunch-time (LA13/250) Luxury travel (LA10/176) Magnesium aluminate (LJ70/10) Majority decisions (LB6/92) Majority rule (LG57/133) Male section (LG54/117) Male slaves (LG54/123) Malmo final (LA22/221) Management committees (LB14/171) Manchester places (LB23/91) Marble stairs (LK4/18) Market place (LK22/164) Market quotation (LA16/29) Market Square (LK21/121) Market support fund (LB10/94) Market value (LA16/15) Marriage guidance (LG77/126) Marriage rate (LA13/216) Marsden Hospital (LJ15/158) Marshall horses (LA23/140) Martens extensometers (LJ71/66) Mass meeting (LA13/46) Match Race (LA22/17) Match-winner (LA22/115) Maternity Clinic (LB14/105) Maternity services (LB14/174) Mau Mau troubles (LA9/64) Mayfield Avenue (LB9/154) McAdams goal (LA22/184) Melbourne Herald (LA13/131) Melton Street (LB11/62) Mental Health Review Tribunals (LA13/195-196) Metal rods (LG56/5) MgMn ferrites (LJ70/118) Microwave applications (LJ70/8-9) Microwave interest (LJ70/60) Microwave properties (LJ70/119) Microwave user (LJ70/214) Middlesex Hospital (LB11/214) Milford Haven project (LA16/95) Milieu-manipulations (LG55/87) Mill-hill (LA12/128) Miniature edition (LK24/90) Ministry spokesman (LA3/192) Missile battalions (LB6/51) Missile fears (LA3/184) Money-spinners (LB8/182) Monopoly basis (LB9/101) Mortality rate (LJ16/55) Mosquito-net (LK2/132) Motor industries (LB9/204) Motor trader (LB10/170) Mountain gypsy (LG51/165) Mountain ranges (LA10/129-130) Mountain road (LG54/62) Mountaineering book (LA10/123) Music Hall (LK24/155) Mutton fat Nato alliance Nato ally Nato council Nato council meeting 6 APPENDIX 246 (LG54/142-143) (LA4/154) (LB6/27) (LA4/58-59) (LB6/32) Nato headquarters (LA4/61) NE6-M specimens (LJ71/34) Needs test (LB23/146) Negro slaves (LG54/178-179) Neill obstacle (LA22/171-172) Neo Lao Haksat Party (LA3/66-67) Nerve fibres (LJ18/113) Neville Developments (LA16/7) New Year holiday (LB9/114) New York State (Racing) Commission (LA10/163) New Zealand and Southampton Speedway ace (LA22/189) Newcastle Breweries (LA16/137) News Chronicle (LJ16/111) Newspaper cartoonist (LK1/79) Newspaper-packets (LG54/175) Nickel zinc ferrite (LJ70/70) Night nerves (LA22/204-205) Night-school French (LK5/72-73) Nitrogen oxides (LJ70/121) Nitrogen plant (LA16/92) Noble gas configuration (LJ70/55) Noise level (LJ69/104) Norfolk House Farm (LB10/104) Northampton captain (LA23/195) Northampton men (LA23/182) North-country star (LA23/162) North-country voice (LK5/200-201) Northern Ireland selectors (LA22/162-163) Notice-board (LK21/2) Nuremberg trials (LG55/113) Nut-crackers (LK3/209) Oak lockers (LK1/71) Oak Ridge (National) Laboratory (LJ15/163-164) Office hours (LK1/95) Oil tax (LB7/172) Oldham Labour Party (LB23/30-31) Ontario Cancer Institute (LJ15/159-160) Open air game (LB5/81) Operator approach (LJ20/8) Opposition back-benchers (LK3/98) Orange juice (LB14/118) Orange planters (LK23/16) Orchard House (LB16/165) Orientation programme (LK26/134) Outpatient departments (LB10/145) Overspill building (LB23/130) Oxford Dictionary (LB5/81) Oxford-street (LB5/14) Oxygen anions (LJ70/28) Oxygen deficiency (LJ70/83) Oxygen equilibrium pressure (LJ70/166) Oxygen reserves (LJ16/87) Oxy-hydrogen flame (LJ70/204) Paint sprayer (LB5/77) Palace Cinema (LK24/160) Pall Mall establishment (LG56/86) Palmerston House (LA16/3) Panton Street (LG56/118) Papain technique (LJ13/15) Paper game (LK22/142) Paper section (LA16/48) Paper work (LB10/187) Paper-making combine (LA16/224) Paris Air Show (LA10/203) Paris meeting (LA15/75) Paris salon (LA9/225) Park station (LK5/150) Park-lane hotel (LA9/41) Particle aspect (LJ18/35) Particle formulation (LJ18/17) Party advisers (LA3/126) Party and (domestic) policy (LB8/75) Party bureaucrats (LG53/150-151) Party conferences (LG53/143) Party members (LA4/136) Party officials (LK3/34) Party scale (LB9/77) Party unity (LB6/120) Party zealots (LG53/153) Passenger cabin (LA10/187) Passenger list (LK26/110) Patrol leader (LB5/230) Patron saints (LB5/89) Pay claims (LB9/61) Pay dispute (LA13/39) Pay pause Payroll tax Peace movement Peace policy Peace settlement 6 APPENDIX 247 (LB9/59) (LB8/23-24) (LB6/130) (LB6/135) (LB9/126-127) Pen picture (LA22/46) Penalty area (LA22/175) Pencil stubs (LK1/61) Pension liberalisation (LA15/204) Pension scheme (LB14/41) Percentage depth dose (LJ15/43) Percentage figure (LJ14/179) Percentage rate tax (LB7/190-191) Permutation representation (LJ21/2) Perry-Robertson strut curve (LJ71/216) Phase shift (LJ69/187-188) Phil Taylor charge (LA23/179) Philharmonia Orchestra (LA10/139) Philharmonia players (LA10/144) Photon energy (LJ15/185) Pic prize money (LA22/218) Piccadilly firm (LA9/40) Pince-nez (LK22/23) Plains Development (LA16/53) Plastic buckling (LJ71/168) Plastic torsion-flexure approach (LJ71/207) Platen apparatus (LJ71/67) Platform exit (LK3/33) Po Valley (LG54/39) Polaris base (LA4/112) Polaris depot ship (LA4/129) Polaris missile base (LA4/103) Polaris submarine (LA4/123) Polaris submarine bases (LA4/193) Police description (LA12/26) Police headquarters (LG54/185) Police methods (LG55/189) Police officer (LA12/205) Police organisation (LA12/24) Police quarters (LK23/50) Police statement (LA12/23) Policy decisions (LB6/87) Policy details (LB6/133) Policy differences (LB23/40) Polythene Bags (LB10/194) Polythene film (LB10/195) Polythene Product Committee (LB10/200) Pop and gas baron (LA13/122) Population groups (LJ14/60) Port wine (LG56/51) Post Office (LA16/59) Post Office stores (LB9/84) Postwar years (LB23/141) Potato Acreage (LB10/75) Potato Marketing Board (LB10/77) Potato Marketing Scheme (LB10/89) Pottery moulds (LG77/139) Poultry business (LA12/127) Poultry farmer (LA12/117) Pound notes (LK23/74) Power cable (LG54/63) Powerhouse performance (LA22/60-61) Prescription costs (LB14/201) Prestige satellite (LA3/173-174) Pre-war houses (LB23/139) Price movements (LA15/217) Price Regulation Scheme (LB9/163) Price restraint (LB9/160-161) Prince Edward Island (LA3/103) Probability distribution (LJ18/87) Probability ratio (LJ18/72) Probability theory (LJ18/47) Production methods (LB7/39) Profit figures (LA16/17) Profits jump (LA16/118) Profits tax (LB7/142) Programme Panorama (LA12/79-80) Proof strength (LJ71/73) Proof stresses (LJ70/5-6) Property ownership (LB7/116) Property tycoon (LB8/184) Property tycoonery (LB8/193) Protocol confussion (LA13/130-131) Publication Bill (LG77/76) Public relations organisations (LB16/205-206) Pullman car (LK1/105) Punishment cell (LA9/106) Purchase tax (LB7/160) Purchase-tax system (LB7/190) Question Time (LG53/134) Quota prescriptions Race favourite Race migration Race parade Racecourse debut 6 APPENDIX 248 (LB10/83-84) (LA23/9) (LK26/108-109) (LA23/126) (LA23/166) Radio equipment (LK2/112-113) Radio-therapist (LK23/106) Rafferty header (LA22/156) Railway boards (LB11/34) Railway employees (LK5/129) Railway rates (LB11/53) Raleigh Industries (LA16/123) Range-cost graph (LB10/130) Rarity value (LK22/13) Rate subsidy (LB23/168) Ravine Road (LB11/192) Rebate scales (LB10/180) Receipt-book (LG54/69) Reception room (LK23/36) Recession Bills (LA15/190) Record cards (LJ14/107) Recurrence paradox (LJ18/174) Recurrence time (LJ18/189) Renaissance princes (LG54/93) Rent Act (LA16/219) Rent income (LB23/146-147) Rent policies (LB23/117) Rent rebate (LB23/154) Rent resources (LB23/150) Rent scheme (LB23/104) Rents policy (LB23/152) Research centre (LK23/22) Research work (LK26/71-72) Resistanceless case (LJ69/238) Rest chapels (LK24/24) Retail pharmacists (LB11/199) Retail society (LA15/129) Retail trading committee (LA15/139) Retirement pensions (LB14/94-95) Revenue accounts (LB23/150) Revenue people (LB5/147) Revenue-raiser (LB7/208) Reversibility paradox (LJ18/172) Rh antibodies (LJ13/7) Rh system (LJ13/183) Rh typing (LJ13/103) Rhodes scholar (LG58/149) Ridgeway House (LB11/69) Rimswell-road (LA12/171) Risk-taking (LB7/38) River Derwent (LJ16/111) Road work (LA23/143) Robbins Committee (LG58/9) Robertson extensometer (LJ71/53) Rockefeller Brothers (LG55/93) Rocket and Space Travel (LA3/200) Rocket stages (LA3/193) Roll call (LA9/107) Rome airport (LG54/204) Rome reports (LG54/87) Rome specialists (LG54/136) Rome Treaty (LB11/119) Rosyth dockyard (LB6/235) Rough-house treatment (LA23/102) Routine antibody detection method (LJ13/8) Rugby Union Specials (LA23/178) Russell plea (LA4/189) Safety officer (LA13/88) Sage and screen comedian (LA22/28-29) Sakai weapons (LK2/116) Salem Institute (LK24/139) Sales consultant (LA10/50-51) Sales Tax (LB7/164) Sales-girl (LA9/43) Saline albumin and trypsin or papain techniques (LJ13/73-74) Saloon number (LA12/31) Salt water (LJ16/9) Salt water drowning (LJ16/44-45) Salvage vessels (LA13/8) Sassenach fame and fortune (LA22/242) Saturation magnetisation (LJ70/221) Savile Rw suit (LK5/197) Scarborough conference decisions (LA4/134) Scarborough decisions (LB6/114-115) Scarborough Labour Party Conference (LB6/87) Scatter component (LJ15/124) Scatter contribution (LJ15/139) School curriculum (LB11/94-95) School friends (LA9/170) School leavers (LA12/102) School life School teacher School work School-masters Science places 6 APPENDIX 249 (LB23/186) (LB11/96) (LA9/174) (LG58/34) (LG58/29-30) Sea voyages (LG56/47) Sea water (LJ16/19) Sea water drowning (LJ16/23-24) Seat mile (LB10/124) Security affairs (LA4/24) Security officer (LA9/92) Social Security system (LG56/74) Series circuit (LJ69/93) Serum/papain mixture (LJ13/19-20) Service Dates (LA15/108) Sewage problems egghead (LA3/123) Sex group (LG77/46) Shame-anxiety (LG55/105) Share purchase (LA16/52-53) Share transactions (LB7/132) Share values (LA16/80) Share-exchange terms (LA16/185) Shear centre (LJ71/99) Shear modulus (LJ71/164) Shift system (LG54/148-149) Shirt cuffs (LK1/8) Shirt-sleeves (LK3/58) Shock news (LA16/152) Shoe shops (LA15/113) Shoe stores (LA15/116-117) Shop stewards (LA4/174) Shop-assistant opponent (LA9/127-128) Sickness benefit (LB14/71) Sidney property (LA13/141) Sight-seeing (LK22/178) Sillett accident (LA22/82) Silver cigarette box (LA10/60-61) Siren song (LB16/24) Sister organizations (LG55/190) Site preference (LJ70/58) Sixpenny bargain (LA16/5) Skin dose (LJ15/202) Slave-girls (LG54/159) Sledge-hammers (LB5/56) Sleeveless summer dresses (LK3/59) Slenderness ratio (LJ71/157) Slenderness Ratio method (LJ71/218) Sloane Street (LB10/143) Slum clearance (LB23/129) Soccer lesson (LA22/63) Social Service expenditure (LB9/185) Societies Gazette (LA16/196) Society branch managers (LA16/216-217) Society Footwear (LA15/117) Society managers (LA16/203-204) Sodium lighting (LK24/96) Soldier-father (LB8/133) Sound change (LG51/120) Sound groups (LG51/171) Source container (LJ15/209) Source voltage (LJ69/156) Source-skin distance (LJ15/206-207) South Wales area (LA13/86) Southampton Society (LB16/85) Southend Airport (LA10/219) Southend leader (LA22/148-149) Southport police station (LA12/17) Soviet Communist Party newspaper (LA4/73) Space age (LB6/214) Space constant (LJ69/56) Space Project (LA3/144) Space research (LA3/151) Space satellite (LA3/155) Space satellite project (LA3/149-150) Speech experts (LA3/128) Speedway Box Office (LA22/55) Speedway history (LA22/11) Spin trap (LA22/125) Spinel crystal structure (LJ70/16) Spinel crystals (LJ70/20) Spinel lattice constant (LJ70/172-173) Spinel unit cell (LJ70/27) Sponge cake (LK22/170) Sports car (LB16/169) Spurs boss (LA22/238) Spurs equaliser (LA22/111) Squad-leaders (LG55/17) St. Leger chance (LA23/101) Stable door (LK24/8) Stable yard (LA23/143) Stamp Duty State monopoly State reactions State visit State-Police 6 APPENDIX 256 (FRJ13/81) (FRJ13/108-109) (FRJ13/42) (FRK3/30) (FRJ14/205) Bone marrow aspirate (FRJ14/40) Bone marrow suppression (FRJ14/119) Bone Marrow Transplantation (FRJ14/154) Bone preservation (FRJ13/114) Bone sites (FRJ13/3) Bone Tissue-Type Comparison (FRJ13/1) Book-case (FRK1/128) Boot camp (FRG1/108) Border stops (FRG2/16) Bosom beat (FRB23/240) Boston Celtics (FRA19/150) Boston Co. (FRA34/167) Boston roadhouse (FRA24/73) Boundary conditions (FRJ20/141) Boundary layer (FRJ7/166) Bounty hunters (FRA23/59) Boy network (FRA23/199-200) Brain irradiation therapy (FRJ14/114) Brain radiotherapy (FRJ14/125-126) Brain regions (FRJ15/101) Brain slice preparation (FRJ15/218) Brain slices (FRJ15/209) Brain tumors (FRG7/14) Breakfast waitresses (FRK2/9) Breast cancer research (FRA23/174) Brick road (FRA35/227) Brigade commander (FRG6/69) Brigade sound trucks (FRG6/75) Broadcast networks (FRA1/29) Brocade pantaloons (FRK25/85) Bronx boy (FRG4/46) Bronze horse (FRG4/167-168) Bronze Star (FRB6/223) Brooklyn Navy Yard (FRK4/101) Brush analysis (FRA34/27) Buck consultants (FRA35/71) Buck operators (FRB23/226) Budget cuts (FRB21/151) Budget deficit (FRA5/59-60) Budget line item (FRB7/175) Budget problem (FRB21/204-205) Budget shortfalls (FRG10/25) Bug-zapper (FRK26/199) Bulls manager (FRA19/169-170) Bungalow colonies (FRK25/197) Burna-Shave signs (FRB7/128-129) Bus caravan (FRA1/112) Bush administration (FRA1/131) Bush campaign (FRA1/143) Business and consumer loans (FRA34/196) Business community (FRG8/51) Business enterprise certification (FRB21/24-25) Business firms (FRG2/27) Business interests (FRB7/34) Business owners (FRB5/98) Business Roundtable (FRA35/51) Business troubles (FRK1/38-39) Cable companies (FRA1/81) Cable industry (FRA1/86) Cable legislation (FRA1/76) Cable operators (FRA1/93) Cable prices (FRA1/80) Cable rates (FRA1/62) Cable service (FRA1/92) Cable television regulation bill (FRA1/6) Cable television re-regulation bill (FRA1/61) Cadillac El Dorado limousine (FRA1/200) Calcium channel blockers (FRB25/187) Calf bruise (FRA16/120) Caliber pistols (FRB5/220) California employees (FRA35/98) California estate market (FRA34/20) California Democratic Party Nominees (FRA23/101) California market (FRB21/18) California senators (FRA1/15) California state parks system (FRB21/110) California Technology Stock Letter (FRA34/225) CALLA antibodies (FRJ14/174) Caltrans demands (FRB21/36) Caltrans inquiries (FRB21/32) Caltrans letter writer (FRB21/40) Calumet City (FRA28/88) Cambridge University Press (FRB27/16) Camp Lejeune (FRB27/65) cAMP system (FRJ15/166) Campaign appearance Campaign dollars Campaign expenditures Campaign funds Campaign money 6 APPENDIX 257 (FRA1/117) (FRG10/75) (FRG10/86) (FRB5/84) (FRB5/171) Campaign organization (FRG10/125) Campaign services (FRG10/73) Campaign stops (FRA1/165) Campaign strategy (FRB7/130) Campaign stroll (FRA1/189) Campaign Tactics (FRB5/138) Campaign trail (FRA1/41) Campaign visit (FRB5/73) Campus paper (FRG1/40-41) Canal companies (FRG13/121) Canal-building (FRG13/117) Cancer and Leukemia Group b (FRJ1453) Cancer cells (FRK1/53) Cancer deaths (FRJ79/169) Cancer mortality rate (FRJ79/173) Cancer rate (FRJ79/86) Candle jar (FRK28/135) Candy store (FRK33/77) Canoga Park (FRA16/226) Canoga Park rallies (FRA16/222) Canvas corners (FRA28/39) Canyon High football team (FRA16/44) Cap Breton (FRK28/42) Cap pistol (FRG4/9) Cape Bretoners (FRK28/51-52) Capital market (FRG2/175) Capital ratios (FRA34/31) Capitol Hill (FRA1/29) Car alarms (FRB25/244-245) Car crash (FRG1/187) Car story (FRB21/129) Carbon dioxide (FRJ2/200) Carbon monoxide (FRB7/77) Cardboard containers (FRG7/27) Carlton and Buttimer letters (FRB24/111-112) Carpentry work (FRK28/111) Cation channel (FRJ15/130) Cattle guard (FRK2/122-123) Cavalier attitude (FRB21/88) Cellulose chromatography (FRJ16/91-92) Celtics draftee (FRA19/151) Center lane (FRA19/70) (Central) Intelligence Agency (FRG6/28) (Central Nervous) System disease (FRJ14/120-121) (Central Nervous) System incidence (FRJ14/128) (Central Nervous) System involvement (FRJ14/23) (Central Nervous) System leukemia (FRJ14/123) (Central Nervous) System prophylaxis (FRJ14/42-43) (Central Nervous) System Prophylaxis and Treatment (FRJ14/104) (Central Nervous) System relapse (FRJ14/147) Cesium chloride centrifugation (FRJ16/90) Chain classes (FRJ14/222) Chain reaction (FRJ79/124) Channel ferrying (FRK4/100) Charcoal drawing (FRG4/85) Charity event (FRA23/228-229) Charles Schwab lobby (FRA34/103) Chatham County (FRB5/65-66) Chatham County Commission Chairman (FRB5/6) Chatham County Police Department (FRB5/218-219) Chatman County Commission (FRB5/47) Check-writing scandal (FRB24/21) Chicago (public) school students (FRB7/40) Chicago Bulls (FRA19/156-157) Chicago school reform law (FRB7/2) Chicago Tribune (FRA1/4) Chicken crates (FRK27/146) Child abductions (FRA23/9) Child imprisonment (FRA23/65) Child pornography (FRB27/154) Childhood strontium levels (FRJ13/210) Chimpanzee liver (FRJ16/58) Choice consequences (FRB24/129-130) Chow hall (FRG1/178) Christmas decorations (FRG4/178) Church Street (FRK4/7-8) CIO organizers (FRG10/49) Circuit Judge (FRB7/154) Circular letter (FRG13/19) Circus employees (FRA28/33) Circus fans (FRA28/60) Circus owner (FRA28/44) Circus performer (FRA28/22-23) Circus performing (FRA28/21) Citizen-activists (FRB27/133) 6 APPENDIX 258 City and FEMA officials (FRB5/134) City attorney (FRA30/1) City automobiles (FRB21/143) City business (FRA30/23) City cars (FRB21/161-162) City center (FRA5/214) City children (FRB7/42) City Clerk (FRA30/10) City College (FRA1/227) City Council (FRA30/7) City department heads (FRB21/170) City Dwellers (FRB25/74) City employees (FRB21/153) City fathers (FRB24/205-206) City Hall (FRB5/78) City Hall brass (FRB21/130) City Hall salaries (FRB21/127) City Manager (FRB5/120) City markings (FRB21/149-150) City officials (FRA24/76-77) City ordinance (FRB24/198) City policy and procedure (FRA30/18-19) City vehicles (FRB21/177) (Civil) War recruiter (FRG8/34) Class clown (FRG1/105) Class preparations (FRK5/108) Classification theorem (FRJ21/84) Cleveland State University (FRA34/10-11) Clint Eastwood movie (FRA28/56-57) Clinton campaign (FRA1/158) Clinton campaign co-director (FRA23/123) Clinton passport file (FRA1/156) Clinton-Gore campaign (FRA1/223) CLL lymphocytes (FRJ14/225) Closet leftist (FRG6/66) CNS relapse rates (FRJ14/146) Coal miner (FRG10/112) Coal-mining families (FRG10/111) Coat jacket (FRK3/139) Code violations (FRB23/190) Coffee Bluff (FRB5/114) Coffee table (FRK5/134) Collar counties (FRB6/155) Collar job (FRK1/45) College air cadet (FRG1/82) College instructor (FRA23/49-50) College students (FRK5/78-79) Collision broadening (FRJ2/101) Color scheme (FRG14/19) Colt revolvers (FRG4/179) Columbia Pictures (FRA24/143) Combat troops (FRG6/185) Combustion exhaust gases (FRJ2/139) Comeback victory (FRA19/187-188) Comeback win (FRA16/228) Comedy Channel convention coverage (FRB13/8-9) Comedy genius (FRA24/45-46) Command headquarters (FRG6/51-52) Command post (FRG6/96) Commercialization activities (FRJ79/93-94) Commission chairman (FRB5/15) Commonplace word (FRG11/181) Community colleges (FRA5/13) Community countries (FRG2/183-184) Community unionism (FRG10/199) Companion star (FRJ7/77) Company proxy statements (FRA35/42-43) Comparison purposes (FRJ2/65-66) Compensation consultants (FRA35/11) Compensation consulting (FRA35/71) Compensation data (FRA35/169) Compression Labs (FRA35/235) Computer experiments (FRJ1/38) Computer market (FRB9/143) Computer models (FRJ1/127) Computer programs (FRB9/219) Computer realm (FRB9/148) Computer screens (FRB9/213) Computer simulations (FRJ1/114) Concentration camps (FRG11/97) Condemnation powers (FRB25/11) Congress members (FRB27/100) Connecticut labor leaders (FRG10/176) Conspiracy theorist (FRB9/184) Conspiracy theory (FRB9/197) Construction unions (FRG10/180) Consumer and business interest rates (FRA34/133-134) Consumer and business loan rates (FRA34/194) Consumer complaints (FRA1/80) Consumer costs (FRA1/32-33) 6 APPENDIX 259 Consumer groups (FRA1/91) Consumer products (FRJ79/52) Contour maps (FRJ1/85) Contract agreements (FRA30/226-227) Contract offer (FRA30/205) Contract talks (FRA30/220) Control experiments (FRJ16/10) Conversation props (FRK1/144) Conversion run (FRA16/110) Cook County (FRB6/157) Cook County Board (FRB7/156) Cook County Hospital (FRB7/156) Cook County property owners (FRB6/120) Coordinate function (FRJ20/5) Coordinate system (FRJ20/46) Cop Killer (FRA24/212) Coprolite analysis (FRJ13/171) Coral Gables (FRB23/213) Coral Gables (Public) Works Department (FRB23/199-200) Core-polymerase fusion proteins (FRJ16/78) Coriolis deviation (FRJ7/105) Corn farmers (FRB7/71) Corn growers (FRB7/63) Cornell (Medical) Center (FRB25/207) Correlation and distribution functions (FRJ1/129) Correlation energy (FRJ1/144) Correlation function (FRJ1/39-40) Cotton-mouth snakes (FRK27/180) City seal (FRB21/155-156) Council member (FRA30/35-36) Country counter (FRK25/40) Country group (FRA24/185) County Board (FRB7/209) County commissioners (FRB7/158) County enforcement officers (FRB23/188-189) County Hospital (FRB7/164) County jail (FRA30/64) County Manager (FRB23/85) County police officers (FRB5/220) Court appearance (FRA23/36) Court challenge (FRA30/78) Court documents (FRA30/152) Court proceedings (FRA23/32) Courthouse lawn (FRK27/4) Court-martial (FRB27/143) Cowboy snits (FRK2/218-219) Creek bed (FRA28/156) Croatia rally (FRA19/165) Cross-border investments (FRG2/32) Cross-border mergers (FRG2/29) Crowd favorite (FRA19/34) Crystal structure (FRJ1/201) Crystal vase (FRK5/47) Culver City (FRB27/188) Currency evaluation (FRG2/211) Currency exchanges (FRA34/162) Currency realignments (FRG2/207) Curvature equation (FRJ20/91) Custom union (FRG2/114) Customer-service standards (FRA1/93) Customs gate (FRK29/84) Cypress Club (FRA23/136) Cypress Club audience (FRA23/132) Dade County (FRB23/46) Dade County Citizens (FRB23/38) Dade residents (FRB23/36) Daily News Staff Writer (FRA16/81) Dairy Queen employee (FRA24/152) Daisy air rifle (FRG4/52) Dam failures (FRJ79/184) Damage control (FRB9/28) Dance Coalition director (FRA23/111) Davis Junction woman (FRA30/59) Day classes (FRA30/202) De Laval nozzle problem (FRJ7/147) Deaconess Hospital (FRK2/179) Death camps (FGR11/101) Death episode (FRA28/208-209) Death rate (FRA1/166) Debt reduction (FRB6/62-63) Decision-maker (FRB7/188) Decision-making (FRG2/102) Decision-making body (FRG2/20) Decision-making process (FRG2/120-121) Deck group (FRJ20/111) Deck volunteer general (FRK4/2) Defense attorney (FRG6/119) Defense minister (FRA5/85) Defense ministry daily (FRA5/149) Defense officials (FRA5/95) 6 APPENDIX 260 Defense policy (FRG2/96) Deficit Spending (FRB24/1-2) Degeneracy index (FRJ2/209) Degrees Kelvin (FRJ2/36) Dehn twist (FRJ20/102-103) DeKalb (Sanitary) District (FRA28/77) DeKalb Assistant Fire Chief (FRA28/119) DeKalb County Health Department (FRA28/178) DeKalb County Landfill (FRA28/68) DeKalb County Landfill leachate (FRA28/87) DeKalb Fire Department (FRA28/111-112) DeKalb parkway (FRA28/109) DeKalb Police Lt. (FRA28/115) Deligne-Mumford (compactified) moduli space (FRJ20/10-11) Density gradient (FRJ7/10-11) Department actions (FRA28/197) Department head (FRB9/186) Department managers (FRB21/178) Deportation orders (FRA5/69) Deposit Insurance Corp. (FRA34/42) Deputy Campaign Director (FRB23/73-74) Deputy DA (FRA23/39) Deputy district attorney (FRA23/2) Desert land (FRJ79/94) Design consultants (FRA35/55-56) Design standards (FRJ79/106) Designer Jeans (FRB25/210) Desk chair (FRK1/109) Desk jobs (FRG6/184-185) Desk lamp (FRK4/175) Desktop units (FRB9/151) Development period (FRJ79/109) Development programs (FRJ79/26) Diagenesis evaluation (FRJ13/106) Diamond cartel (FRB21/24) Diaz pass (FRA16/109) Dinner speech (FRG14/127) Dinner table (FRK5/95) Director slates (FRA35/147) Dirt Band (FRA24/185) Discount broker (FRA34/83) Discount rate (FRA34/185) Discount rate cut (FRA34/192) Display cases (FRG4/158) Distance function (FRJ20/193-194) Distance races (FRA19/90) Distribution function (FRJ1/63) District attorney (FRA23/64) District borders (FRB9/220) District lines (FRB9/217) District manager (FRA28/72) DNA fragment (FRJ16/113) DNA sequence (FRJ16/42) Doctor-patient relations (FRB25/174) Dollar amounts (FRB24/9) Donahue show (FRA1/118) Donor site GT (FRJ16/197) Doppler and Lorentz profiles (FRJ2/110) Doppler profile (FRJ2/107) Dose rates (FRJ79/73) Dot-matrix comparison (FRJ16/129) Douglas family (FRG8/193) Douglass household (FRG8/198) Dow Jones (industrial) average (FRA34/79) Downtown Miami (FRB23/243-244) Downtown Sarajevo (FRA5/175) Draft resisters (FRB27/83) Dream Team (FRA19/134) Drill yards (FRG1/100) Drug abuse (FRJ15/10) Drug Addiction (FRJ15/1) Drug companies (FRG7/43) Drug delivery (FRJ14/137) Drug exposure (FRJ15/36) Drug use (FRJ15/54) Drug withdrawal (FRJ15/91) Dryland farms (FRK2/104) Dublin government (FRB9/56) DUI Law (FRB24/219) DUI school (FRB24/228) Duke supporters (FRG10/138) Earth metal (FRJ13/228) Eastern Europe tragedy (FRB23/120) Economy car (FRB21/168) Editorial Board colleagues (FRB23/229) Education programs Effector systems Elbow foul Election campaign Election day 6 APPENDIX 261 (FRA5/29-30) (FRJ15/82-83) (FRA19/171) (FRB5/228-229) (FRB9/68) Election night (FRB6/78) Election summer (FRK26/7) Election year (FRA24/189) Election-year economy (FRA5/6) Electron configuration (FRJ13/234) Element correlations (FRJ13/63) Element Selection (FRJ13/37) Elephant slats (FRK25/37) Elephant trainer (FRA28/12) Elite battalions (FRG6/202) Elite unit (FRG6/195) Elm Avenue (FRA30/95) Elm Avenue residents (FRA30/97-98) Emcee tuxedo (FRA28/37-38) Emergency Management Agency (FRB5/99-100) Emergency ward (FRK28/28) Emission line widths (FRJ7/196) Emission lines (FRJ7/71) Employee stock options (FRA35/177-178) Energy dissipation rate (FRJ7/210) Energy generation (FRJ7/220) Energy source (FRJ7/179) Energy technologies (FRJ79/183) Enforcement mechanism (FRB7/8) Entry permit (FRA24/64) Enzyme types (FRJ14/234) Equilibrium shapes (FRJ7/54) Equipment compound (FRK2/123) Equity standards (FRA34/20) Eskimo poster (FRK2/37) Establishment candidates (FRB13/157-158) Estate loans (FRA34/39) Estate market conditions (FRA34/66) Estate values (FRA34/61) Ethanol derivative (FRB7/92) Ethanol producers (FRB/72) Ethanol proponents (FRB7/85) Ethanol sales (FRB7/86) Ethanol use (FRB7/94-95) (European) Council agreement (FRG2/40) Evening remarks (FRA1/232) Evening water (FRK28/141) Everglades eco-system (FRB25/12) Evergreen Park (FRA28/165) Examiner news services (FRA1/98) Examiner staff (FRA23/97) Exchange rates (FRG2/153) Expense accounts (FRB13/15) Experimenter error (FRJ13/116) Export superpower (FRB6/52) Expulsion orders (FRA5/86) Extension times (FRJ16/109) Extrapolation model (FRJ79/165) Ex-US star (FRA16/230) Fall contest (FRB5/197) Family (residential) area (FRB24/195) Family Guide (FRG7/161) Family health care (FRG10/118-119) Family Leave bill (FRA23/173) Family life (FRK1/112) Family members (FRJ14/167-168) Family photographs (FRK5/151) Family physicians (FRG7/130) Family unit (FRB24/199) Family values (FRB13/185) Farm leaders (FRB7/67) Farm workers (FRG10/44) FASB task force (FRA35/137-138) FBI tapes (FRB5/156) FDIC costs (FRA34/58) FDIC insurance premiums (FRA34/55) FDIC losses (FRA34/50) FDIC projects costs (FRA34/52) Fear and punishment model (FRB24/130) February report (FRB23/50) February sky (FRG4/84) Fed policy makers (FRA34/132) Feed supply store (FRK1/41) FEMA regulations (FRB5/119) Female figure (FRG14/203) Female suffrage (FRG8/130) Fenchel-Nielsen coordinates (FRJ20/66-67) Fenchen-Nielsen parameterization (FRJ20/16-17) Fenchen-Nielsen twist angle (FRJ20/30) Fermi resonance polyad (FRJ2/210-211) Fermi-and Coriolis-type FIBV officials Field commander Field goal Fieldstone cellar 6 APPENDIX 262 interactions (FRJ2/44) (FRA19/203) (FRG6/59) (FRA16/124) (FRK2/112) Fighter and reconnaissance planes (FRA5/106) Film audiences (FRB27/215) Film history and theory (FRB27/233) Film medium (FRG14/70-71) Film plots (FRA24/33) Film scholar (FRB27/205) Film tradition (FRG14/56) Finance authority (FRB7/17) Finance authority approval (FRB7/45-46) Finance Committee (FRB21/151-152) Finance minister (FRB23/27) Finger pointing (FRA5/63) Fire department (FRA28/119-120) Fire escape (FRK25/38) Fire-eater (FRA28/16) Fish box (FRK27/40) Fish count (FRA28/160) Fish kill (FRA28/142) Fission products (FRJ79/140) Flag issue (FRB24/143) Flannel shirtsleeve (FRK1/182) Fleetwood Mac songs (FRA24/182-183) Flintlock rifles (FRG4/173) Flood control (FRB5/101-102) Flood damage (FRB5/108) Flood insurance premiums (FRB5/97) Flood plain (FRB5/116) Florida suntan (FRK25/72) Florida trip (FRA1/115) Flotilla commander (FRK4/90) Flower stems (FRG4/184) Flu remedy (FRG7/133) Food and Drug Administration (FRG7/42-43) Food poisoning (FRG7/14) Food resources (FRJ13/188) Food supplements (FRG7/59) Foot soldiers (FRG10/165) Football (half) time (FRG1/30) Football game (FRA16/198) Foothill team (FRA16/93) Formica table (FRK25/166) Forum letter (FRB23/149) Forum luncheon (FRA23/202) Fraternity dance (FRK5/6) Freestyle final (FRA19/63) Freestyle race (FRA19/91) Freestyle relay preliminary (FRA19/41-42) Freestyle relay team (FRA19/26) Freshman class (FRG1/67) Frog-wash (FRA24/224-225) Front-page play (FRB23/120) Fruit and vegetable crates (FRG4/93) Fuel cycle (FRJ79/62-63) Fund support (FRB21/100) Fund-raiser (FRA1/216) Funds rate (FRA34/189-190) Galatry line shape (FRJ2/147) Galaxy clustering (FRJ1/14) Galaxy counts (FRJ1/9) Game victory (FRA19/181) Garage doors (FRK1/27) Garbage incinerator (FRB23/208) Garbage police (FRB23/183) Garin-Hart (Strategic) Research (FRG10/135) Gas chamber (FRG11/175-176) Gas ovens (FRG11/199) Gas phase (FRJ2/225) Gas pressure (FRJ2/106) Gas samples (FRJ2/89) Gas stations (FRK1/6) Gas temperature (FRJ2/36) Gas-phase measurements (FRJ2/229) Gay protesters (FRA1/202) Gaza Strip Arabs (FRA5/81) Gene expression (FRJ15/88) (General) Motors executives (FRB13/17-18) Genome replication cycle (FRJ16/27) Genre painting (FRG14/177) Geometry point (of view) (FRJ20/41) Georgia House (FRB5/44) Georgia primary voting (FRB5/183) Georgia Southern University freshman students (FRB24/201- 202) Gerrymander wars (FRB9/212) Giraffe herds (FRK29/187) 6 APPENDIX 263 Girl-friends (FRG1/147) Glass doors (FRG4/163-164) Glioma cells (FRJ15/196) Glycoprotein species (FRJ16/46) Gold brocade (FRK5/131) Gold diggings (FRB21/23) Gold Fields (FRB21/22 Gold medal (FRA19/16) Gold mining companies (FRK1/62) Gold-medal performance (FRA19/57) Goodwill Industries building (FRB5/115) Goose Cove (FRK28/77) GOP counterpart (FRB6/99) Governance changes (FRA35/102-103) Government (military) officials (FRA5/200) Government affairs manager (FRA30/20) Government commission (FRB9/24-25) Government contract opportunities (FRB21/49) Government contracting (FRB21/11) Government debt (FRG2/186) Government forces (FRA5/181) Government instruction (FRG2/165) Government offices (FRA5/214-215) Government procedure (FRB7/184) Government procurement (FRG2/31-32) Government regulators (FRA35/12) Government services (FRB23/88) Government soldier (FRA5/223) Government spending (FRB24/11-12) Government troops (FRA5/173) Government witness (FRB5/161) Government workers (FRG10/26) Granada Hills Highlanders (FRA16/198-199) Granite banks (FRK1/22) Grant Avenue (FRA1/201) Grass-roots (FRB24/184) Grass-roots organization (FRB21/190) Gridlock Democrat Congress (FRB6/32) Grocery-line checkout ‘journalism’ (FRB23/172) Ground squirrel hepatitis virus (FRJ16/32) Ground state (FRJ2/70) Growth rate (FRG2/39) Growth time scale (FRJ7/5-6) Guanidine thiocyanate (FRJ16/89) Guerrilla offensive (FRG6/53) Guest list (FRA24/76) Guest speaker (FRA23/202) Gulf war (FRA5/110) Gulf war allies (FRA5/113) Gulf War effort (FRB27/81) Gulf War resisters (FRB27/120) Gun crew (FRK4/67) Gunshot wounds (FRB7/177) Gym suits (FRK25/47-48) Hand-balancers (FRA28/26) Hand-slap (FRA24/216) Harlem poll (FRB9/197) Harlem Road-Elmwood Road bridge (FRA30/118) Harlem Superintendent (FRA30/206) Hart quarterback (FRA16/5) Hartman Farms (FRA28/145) Hay mow (FRG1/54) HBV genome (FRJ16/71) Head coach (FRA16/45-46) Head Start program (FRA23/175) Headline story (FRB23/125) Headquarters positions (FRB21/107-108) Health agencies (FRB24/120) Health benefits (FRG10/111) Health Care Company (FRG7/60) Health Center (FRJ15/5) Health department (FRA28/181) Health effects (FRJ79/66) Health hazard (FRA28/171) Health or safety or (environmental) regulations (FRG1/12) Health procedures (FRB7/168-169) Health-care industry (FRG7/8) Health-care system (FRG7/134) Heart beat (FRA28/228) Heart defibrillator (FRA28/202) Heart disease (FRG7/14) Heart monitor (FRA28/227) Heart surgery (FRB7/177) Heavy-metal stalwarts (FRA24/200-201) Hepadnavirus family (FRJ16/22-23) Hepadnavirus genome Hepadnavirus messenger RNA Hepadnavirus replication Hepatitis B virus Herald Editor 6 APPENDIX 264 (FRJ16/53) (FRJ16/40) (FRJ16/29) (FRJ16/18) (FRB23/217) Herald staff writer (FRB23/185) Herald writer (FRB23/163) Highland head coach (FRA16/96) Highland High football team (FRA16/83) Highland Hospital (FRA23/85) High-school coaching debut (FRA16/175) Highway shoulder (FRB7/122) Highway speed limit (FRJ79/195) History teacher (FRA28/14) HITRAN abundances (FRJ2/99-100) HITRAN and GEISA (spectroscopic) line parameters compilations (FRJ2/202-203) Hog farmer (FRA28/162) Hog manure (FRA28/146) Holder resolutions (FRA35/103) Hollywood Babylon (FRA24/75) Hollywood Beach (FRB23/167) Hollywood westerns (FRG4/55) Holocaust archive (FRG11/39) Home Loan Mortgage Corp. (FRA34/202-203) Home mortgage (FRB13/164) Home place (FRK2/107) Home radios (FRG1/7) Home state (FRK1/19) Hospital (waiting) rooms (FRK5/139) Hospital administrators (FRB7/168) Hospital grounds (FRG4/79) Hospital room (FRA23/17) House arrest (FRG6/190) House leadership (FRB5/210-211) House minority whip (FRB5/198) House overdraft scandal (FRB5/203) House repair sectors (FRB21/12) House seat (FRB5/46) House stint (FRB5/194) House vote (FRA1/18-19) Household incomes (FRB24/13) Household producers and consumers (FRJ13/180) Houston Republicans (FRB13/91) Hubble constant (FRJ1/55) Hubble flow (FRJ1/147) Hubble time (FRJ1/19-20) Hung-jury mistrials (FRA24/90) IBM executives (FRB9/159) Ice creams (FRK25/40-41) Ice people (FRB9/188) Ice sign (FRK3/163) Idiotype specificity (FRJ14/223-224) IEPA division (of land) (FRA28/83-84) IEPA worker (FRA28/138) Illinois (Environmental) Protection Agency (FRA28/73-74) Illinois farmers (FRB7/101-102) Illinois legislature (FRB6/161) Illinois Press Association (FRA30/20-21) Illinois State Fair (FRA5/240-241) Ilopango airfield (FRG6/29) Imitation gun (FRG4/91) Incest practitioners (FRB13/131) Income levels (FRB21/105) Income taxes (FRB6/165) Incumbent labor commissioner (FRB5/141) Index finger (FRK5/206) Induction courses (FRJ14/79) Induction regimens (FRJ14/45) Industry people (FRA23/205) Industry pioneer Picture Tel (FRA35/196-197) Industry profits (FRA34/38) Inflation credentials (FRG2/210) Inflation rate (FRA1/81) Information investors (FRA35/106) Infrared vibration-rotation lines (FRJ2/103) Inmonoglobulin molecules (FRJ14/219-220) Inner city structure (FRG10/201-202) Insiders column (FRB21/142) Insurance premiums (FRB5/110) Intensity measurements (FRJ2/73) Intensity parameters (FRJ2/11) Intensity value (FRJ2/96) Interbone variation (FRJ13/3) Interest cost (FRB13/39) Interest rates (FRA34/37) Intracommunity border delays Intracommunity borders Investment activity Investment banker Investor disappointment 6 APPENDIX 265 (FRG2/5) (FRG2/10) (FRB6/186) (FRA23/166) (FRA34/146) Investor relations director (FRA34/25-26) Ion channels (FRJ15/161) Ionization energy (FRJ13/233) Ionization regions (FRJ7/32) Irrigation ditches (FRJ13/182) Irrigation systems (FRJ13/168) Irrigation water (FRK2/221) Isotopy classes (FRJ20/102) Issue activist (FRB6/91) Issue price (FRA35/137) ITT Corp (FRA35/151) Ivory pistols (FRG4/161) Jacket pocket (FRK1/143) Jail duty (FRA30/68) James River and Potomac canal companies (FRG13/116) Japan game (FRA19/210) Jesuit priests (FRG6/10) Jitterbug contests (FRG1/57) Job loss (FRG10/151) Job market (FRA34/151) Job offer (FRK5/217) Job training (FRA5/1) Job-training programs (FRA5/7) June grass (FRK28/54) Jury tampering (FRG6/157-158) Justice system (FRA23/70) Kennel Club (FRB25/216) Kern County (FRA16/94) King show (FRA1/107) Kishwaukee Community Hospital (FRA28/233) Kishwaukee River (FRA28/77) Kitchen table (FRA28/215) Knee injury (FRA19/217) Knife point (FRK25/60) Knight-Ridder Newspapers (FRA24/181) Knights linebacker (FRA16/148) Kosovo hospital (FRA5/214) Kulubnarti Nubians (FRJ13/200) Kulubnarti population (FRJ13/176-177) Kushnick imbroglio (FRA23/232) Labor bosses (FRA1/179) Labor campaign dollars (FRG10/72) Labor Commissioner (FRB5/35-36) Labor contracts (FRB7/46-47) Labor Day weekend (FRA24/80) Labor movement (FRG10/55) Labor party (FRG10/94) Laboratory spectra (FRJ2/140) Laboratory animals (FRJ15/22) Laboratory data (FRJ14/198) Laboratory studies (FRJ2/155) Labor-party supporters (FRG10/99) Ladies lunch (FRA23/93) Lake County Board Member (FRB7/110) Land units (FRB25/8) Landfill leachate (FRA28/65) Landmark report (FRJ79/140) Land-use regulations (FRB24/56) Laser frequencies (FRJ2/166) Laser transition (FRJ2/216-217) Law professor (FRG6/158) Law student (FRB27/66) LC (firing) rates (FRJ15/156-157) LC neurons (FRJ15/127) League ballplayer (FRG4/29) League title (FRA16/86) Lebesgue probability space (FRJ21/21) Level designations (FRJ2/215) Level eyesores (FRK1/23) Liberties advocates (FRB27/122-123) License plate (FRK25/20) Life-style (FRJ79/90) Light chain type (FRJ14/220-221) Light curve data (FRJ7/53-54) Light effects (FRG14/205) Lilac bush (FRK28/209) Limestone court-houses (FRK1/22) Line California firm (FRG7/56-57) Line coupling (FRJ2/153) Line intensities (FRJ2/26) Line mixing (FRJ2/153) Line profiles (FRJ2/113) Line shape (FRJ2/104-105) Line shifts (FRJ2/162) Line strength (FRJ2/34) Line width Line-intensity measurements Lipstick pictures Literacy connection Literature survey 6 APPENDIX 272 (FRA23/168) (FRK1/228) (FRJ20/24-25) (FRB9/221-222) (FRG6/15) Rights records (FRG6/70) Risk analysis (FRJ79/150) Risk assessments (FRJ79/202-203) RNA degradation (FRJ16/179) RNA splicing (FRJ16/3-4) RNA template (FRJ16/28) RNA transcription (FRJ16/53) Roche surface (FRJ7/55) Rock ’n’ roll bands (FRA24/193) Rock bands (FRA24/219) Rock fans (FRA24/230) Rock world (FRA24/223) Rockenbacker Causeway (FRB247) Rockford EPA field office (FRA28/188) Rockford-area schools (FRA30/225) Rockton district (FRA30/228) Rohklin Lemma (FRJ21/30) Role model (FRA23/156) Rolodex experts (FRB13/13) Room temperature (FRJ2/182) Rooster Hill (FRK28/139) Rubber bands (FRG4/93) Rubber pad (FRG7/99) Rubber stamp president (FRA5/241) Rubbish dump (FRG11/63) Rule-making body (FRA35/126) Runoff elections (FRB5/18-19) Runoff set (FRB5/143) Rupee nights (FRK29/186-187) Rust Belt bus tour (FRA5/236) Rust stain (FRG4/76) Safety cushion (FRA19/207) Safety improvements (FRJ79/208) Safety issues (FRJ79/147) Safety objective (FRJ79/127-128) Safety philosophy (FRJ79/102-103) Safety principles (FRJ79/135-136) Safety technology (FRJ79/114-115) Safety testing (FRJ79/99) Safety-experiment reactors (FRJ79/118) Sagebrush country (FRK2/105) Salary increase (FRB23/86) Salary story (FRB21/128) Salt diet (FRB25/193) Sample case (FRK3/161) Samuelson incident (FRA19/199-200) San Clemente coach (FRA16/77) San Francisco AIDS Foundation (FRB21/192) San Francisco city government (FRB21/144) San Francisco Law firm (FRA23/144) Sanctuary purposes (FRB25/61) Sanctuary staff (FRB25/56) Sanitation workers (FRG10/45) Santa Clara County mother (FRA23/46) Savannah area (FRB5/3) Savannah Morning News (FRB24/192) Saw mill (FRK27/156) Scalzi Park (FRA24/238-239) Scandal-lovers (FRA24/76) School auditorium (FRG1/10) School band (FRG1/20-21) School Board (FRA30/189) School board administrator (FRB7/33) School board races (FRB5/55) School district (FRA35/185) School Finance Authority (FRB7/10) School functions (FRG1/56) School gang (FRG1/47) School leaders (FRA30/206) School superintendent (FRB7/35) School talks (FRA30/181) School vouchers (FRB7/34-35) School-record (FRA16/14) Scrap yard (FRA28/117) Screen bottom (FRK29/163) Screen buffoon (FRA23/70) Screen pass (FRA16/58) Screen-writer (FRA23/121) Sea duty (FRK4/25) Sea frontier (FRK4/16) Sea mist (FRK5/137) Sealladh Na Mara Restaurant (FRK28/74) Season opener (FRA16/138) SEC approval (FRA35/29) Section performers (FRA16/10) Securities and Exchange Security forces Security reasons Security zone Seduction Duet 6 APPENDIX 273 Commission (FRA35/24-25) (FRB9/25) (FRG6/130) (FRA5/165) (FRG14/95) Self-sticker methods (FRA24/228) Senate (Judiciary) Committee hearings (FRB6/83-84) Senate candidate (FRA1/214-215) Senate Minority Leader (FRA1/69) Senate Minority Whip (FRA1/49-50) Senate race (FRG10/161) Sentinel staff (FRB13/4) Sequenase system (FRJ16/121) Sequence B star (FRJ7/52-53) Sequence data (FRJ16/183) Sequence star (FRJ7/64) Service areas (FRB23/65) Service charge (FRK29/99) Service Personnel (FRB27/29) Services area (FRA30/93) Set defeat (FRA19/188) Sewage disposal (FRB25/47) Sewage water (FRA28/98) Sex Scandals (FRA24/1) SF executives (FRB21/162) S-gene transcript (FRJ16/212) Share prices (FRA34/228) Shareholder groups (FRA35/6) Shareholder interests (FRA35/140) Shareholder money (FRA35/139-140) Shareholder votes (FRA35/18) Shareholder voting (FRA35/44) Shareholders Association (FRA35/114-115) Shareholders list (FRA35/176-177) Shell-sand beaches (FRK28/182) Shift coefficient (FRJ2/189) Ship tanks (FRK4/34) Shirtwaist dresses (FRK5/168) Shore batteries (FRK4/47) Shore duty (FRK4/117) Shoulder bag (FRK29/74) Show breeders (FRB25/227) Show business people (FRA23/209) Show business reporters (FRA23/192-193) Side effects (FRG7/68) Sierra Club (FRB24/40) Sight/taste confusion (FRK29/170) Sign change (FRJ7/96) Sign post (FRB7/121) Signature events (FRA19/81) Silk stockings (FRK3/39) Silver (drinking) cup (FRG4/157-158) Silver leg (FRB25/103) Silver medalist team (FRA19/146-147) Silver ray (FRK25/93) Sinai-Samaritan hospital (FRA28/236) Single remedy room (FRG7/91) Site mean (FRJ13/50) Size volume (FRJ1/4) Skin tissue (FRJ14/230) Slab boards (FRK27/155) Slander suit (FRG6/81-82) Slate shadings (FRG4/85) Slave society (FRG8/151) Smith & Wesson revolvers (FRG4/180-181) Smoke detectors (FRJ79/52) Snake cage (FRK27/161) Snake zoo (FRK27/59-60) Snowflake design (FRG7/31) Sodium chloride (FRG7/94) Sodium phosphate (FRG7/212) Soil and (between-) bone comparisons (FRJ13/100) Soil values (FRJ13/78) Sophomore tailback (FRA16/229) Soul-searching (FRB24/238) Sound bite (FRA24/212) Sound radiation protection standards (FRJ79/6) Sound speed (FRJ7/88) Soup bowl (FRG14/183) Sox shirt (FRA28/38) Spaak Report (FRG2/44) Space propulsion (FRJ79/111) Speech acts (FRG11/42-43) Speech fight (FRB27/126) Speed-metal song (FRA24/212) Spendthrift Congress (FRA5/242) Spin doctors (FRA23/112) Spin-orbit coupling (FRJ7/78-79) Spiral waves (FRJ7/168) Splice junctions (FRJ16/5-6) Spool truck Sports Cars Square One restaurant SS sergeantry Staff job 6 APPENDIX 274 (FRA28/51) (FRB25/210-211) (FRA23/105) (FRG1/25) (FRK4/133-134) Staff positions (FRB21/110-111) Staff Writer (FRA28/3) Stag-antler powder horns (FRG4/177) Stage actress (FRA23/126) Stakes fight (FRA1/83) Stamford Advocate (FRA24/237) Stamford Bocce League (FRA24/240) Standards Board (FRA35/125) Staple crops (FRJ13/169) State (and federal) officials (FRB5/126) State (of the Union) address (FRB5/231) State and (Federal) requirements (FRB25/48) State and (local) government employees (FRG10/23) State and ( Federal) agencies (FRB25/41) State budget process (FRB21/90) State capitals (FRG10/33) State Department (FRG6/219) State Department file (FRA1/162) State Department officials (FRA1/155) State equalizer (FRB6/143) State Ethics Commission (FRB5/169) State home (FRG4/81) State hospital (FRG4/50) State income tax (FRG10/177) State Labor Commissioner (FRB5/140) State law (FRA30/194) State legislator (FRB5/144) State park unit (FRB21/98) State parks (FRB21/92) State parks director (FRB21/85) State parks systems (FRB21/80) State plans (FRB21/79) State Rep. (FRB7/32) State Senate Appropriations Committee (FRB5/187-188) State taxes (FRB23/87-88) Statesboro City Councilman (FRB24/193-194) Steel containment canister (FRA28/128) Steel racks (FRG7/84) Steel stockpots (FRG7/89-90) Steel traps (FRK27/164) Stock buys (FRA34/69) Stock market (FRA34/81) Stock market aficionado (FRA34/103) Stock market news (FRA34/113) Stock option plans (FRA35/163) Stock options (FRA35/122) Stock price (FRA35/136) Stock-option accounting (FRA35/132) Stock-option proposal (FRA35/138) Stomach and chest wounds (FRA5/223) Stone gates (FRK1/59) Strand DNA template (FRJ16/199) Strand talks (FRB9/48) Strands approach (FRB9/71) Straw sombrero (FRK1/166) Stream formation (FRJ7/123) Street fight (FRA30/153) Street improvements (FRA30/103) Street-smart South Boston politico (FRG6/17) Strength tests (FRA24/195) Stress tensor (FRJ7/213) Strontium concentration (FRJ13/239) Strontium/barium and sodium/magnesium correlations (FRJ13/69) Student conductor (FRG1/42) Student hostel (FRA5/216) Studies Department (FRB9/182) Studio City (FRB27/171) Studio executive (FRA24/96) Studio publicity materials (FRA24/169) Stump speeches (FRA24/186) Style monger (FRG7/34) Subsistence methods (FRJ13/191-192) Subsistence patterns (FRJ13/204) Succession process (FRG7/109) Sugar pellets (FRG7/119) Sugar tablets (FRG7/112) Suit top (FRB23/249) Summary dismissal (FRA23/194) Summer months (FRA28/34) Summer vacation season (FRB9/37) Sun people (FRB9/187-188) Sun Systems (FRB9/146) Sunday school (FRK29/149) Superior Court Judge (FRB21/51) Supernova envelopes (FRJ7/27) 6 APPENDIX 275 Supernova remnants (FRJ7/34) Superstring theories (FRJ1/209-210) Supper table (FRK27/83) Supply company (FRK1/30-31) Supply flights (FRG6/30) Survival time (FRJ14/10) Sweetheart weather (FRK3/174-175) Sycamore Fire Chief (FRA28/213) Sycamore Fire Department (FRA28/201) Sycamore firefighter (FRA28/200) Sycamore resident (FRA28/147) Symmetry breaking (FRJ1/187) T cell disease (FRJ14/171) Table references (FRJ2/198) Table salt (FRG7/94) Tablet-making machine (FRG7/82) Tabloid fare (FRA24/14) Taft 5-yard line (FRA16/239) Taft head coach (FRA16/228-229) Takings clauses (FRB24/46) Talks process (FRB9/58-59) Tampa Bay area (FRA24/167-168) Target list (FRA25/147-148) Target neurons (FRJ15/80) Target shooting (FRG4/13) Task force (FRG6/18) Tax bills (FRB6/159) Tax burden (FRB13/206) Tax Commissioner (FRB5/61) Tax cuts (FRA5/24) Tax increase (FRB6/8) Tax money (FRB21/206) Tax policy (FRB6/139) Tax rates (FRB6/140) Tax reductions (FRB6/61) Tax subsidy (FRB7/73-74) Tax time (FRB24/26-27) Tax, environment and labor policies (FRG2/105) Tax-backlash (FRB6/164) Taxes pledge (FRB6/56) Taxpayer bailout (FRA34/5) Taylor series (FRJ20/77) TD Catch (FRA16/163) TD pass (FRA16/183) TD pitch (FRA16/156) Teacher salaries (FRA30/217-218) Teacher strike (FRA30/221) Teacher talks (FRA30/186) Team USA (FRA19/129-130) Technology and biotechnology companies (FRA34/219-220) Technology companies (FRA34/231-232) Technology Research (FRA35/232-233) Teichmüller space (FRJ20/99) Telecommunications newsletter (FRA35/200) Telephone & Telegraph Co. (FRA35/204-205) Telephone calls (FRB27/62) Telephone pole (FRB7/121-122) Television and radio spots (FRG10/117) Television Arts (FRA23/201) Television screens (FRG10/61) Temperature dependence (FRJ2/67) Template sequence (FRJ16/212-213) Tennis club (FRG1/19) Tent sides (FRA28/39) Terry-cloth robes (FRK5/49) Tet offensive (FRB6/223-224) Theorem B (FRJ20/61) Ticker tape (FRA34/76) Time bomb (FRB25/159-160) Time course (FRJ15/204) Time magazine (FRB13/116) Tincture storage room (FRG7/83) Tissue-type comparison (FRJ13/2) Tissue-type differences (FRJ13/25) Tissue-types (FRJ13/43) Toe shoes (FRK25/74-75) Touchdown pass (FRA16/19) Touch-down run (FRA16/112-113) Toulon Journal (FRB25/98-99) Tow chain (FRK2/134) Towers Perrin (FRA35/137) Towers Perrin client (FRA35/130) Town center (FRK2/100) Trade agreement (FRA1/177-178) Trade association (FRG10/81) Trade dealings Trade group Trade mark violation Trade schools Trade union passions 6 APPENDIX 276 (FRA1/131) (FRA35/28) (FRB21/195-196) (FRA5/13) (FRG10/59) Trailer home (FRA28/165) Trailer park (FRK29/90) Transformation rank (FRJ21/45) Transit agencies (FRB21/166) Transition moment (FRJ2/18) Transportation perks (FRB21/153) Travel destination (FRK2/201) Treatment facilities (FRA28/94-95) Trial date (FRA30/177) Tribune Staff Writer (FRA24/3) Triphosphate concentration (FRJ16/164) TV actor (FRB5/184) TV characters (FRB13/186) TV newscaster (FRA1/196) TV preachers (FRK26/11) TV-talk politics (FRA1/111) Twist diffeomorphisms (FRJ20/245) Twist variable (FRJ20/82) Type families (FRK5/81) UAL Corp (FRA35/152) UMWA (International Executive) Board member (FRG10/112-113) UMWA members (FRG10/102) UN control (FRA5/182) UN mediator (FRB9/112) UN peacekeepers (FRA5/184) Unemployment rates (FRA34/107-108) Unemployment report (FRA34/148) Union activist (FRG10/93) Union campaigns (FRG10/25) Union leaders (FRG10/189) Union lobbyists (FRG10/36) Union PACs (FRG10/30-31) Unions support (FRG10/68) Unit interval (FRJ21/50-51) (United) Nations (European) Community talks (FRB9/104- 105) United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FRB25/14-15) Uranium exploration (FRJ79/110-111) US (Atomic) Energy Commission (FRJ79/115) US (Federal) Reserve System (FRG2/162-163) US high-tech firms (FRB9/137) US high-tech sector (FRB9/169-170) US (industrial) union (FRG10/159-160) US (Long) Course Nationals (FRA19/92) US (naval) vessel (FRG8/47) US (Nuclear Regulatory) Commission (FRJ79/201) US (nuclear) plant (FRJ79/145) US (Olympic) basketball team (FRA19/118) US administration (FRA1/132-133) US advisers (FRG6/198) US (Armed) Forces (FRB27/27) US backstroker (FRA19/19) US banks (FRA34/13) US chances (FRA19/206) US citizen (FRA24/63) US Congressman (FRG6/15-16) US Department Minority- (Disadvantaged) Business Enterprise program (FRB21/4- 6) US District Judge (FRB23/40) US economy (FRA34/168) US House candidates (FRG10/78) US Marine Corps family (FRB21/185) US mayors (FRB21/128-129) US Mexico (Free) Trade Agreement (FRG10/22) US military (FRA5/95) US military officials (FRA5/161) US opener (FRA19/172) US output (FRB23/111-112) US Park Funds (FRB25/74) US racism (FRB9/175) US Secretary (of State) (FRB9/106) US Senate (FRB21/41) US Senate incumbent (FRG10/82) US Senate investigator (FRA5/209) US Senator (FRB25/93) US soldiers (FRA5/159) US stock prices (FRA34/127) US Swimmers US team US training US trials US women 6 APPENDIX 277 (FRA19/89) (FRA19/45) (FRG6/197-198) (FRA19/22) (FRA19/96) USS Prairie State (FRK4/3-4) Utility and oil stocks (FRA34/100-101) Utility poles (FRB7/113) Varsity debut (FRA16/232) Varsity experience (FRA16/52) Veto defeat (FRA1/7) Veto victories (FRA1/1) Vibration-rotation lines (FRJ2/158) Vibration-rotation transitions (FRJ2/223) Victory Lane residents (FRA30/99) Video Generation (FRA24/206) Video Telecom Corp. (FRA35/189) Vietnam War (FRB27/83) Viewer calls (FRA1/108) Viewpoints Page article (FRB23/243) Village Board (FRA30/84) Village green (FRK1/54) Vincristine and prednisone combination (FRJ14/51-52) Virginia (General) Assembly (FRG13/115) Virginia Key Beach (FRB23/247) Virginia Woolf thing (FRK1/88-89) Virion DNA (FRJ16/13) Virus replication (FRJ16/50) Visitor access (FRB25/89) Visitor fees (FRB21/101) Visitor services (FRB21/118) V-neck sweater (FRK5/164) Voigt profile (FRJ2/111) Volleyball Federation (FRA19/189) Volleyball gold medals (FRA19/187) Vote-getter (FRB5/50) Voter turnout (FRB5/3) Voucher system (FRA23/176) Wage-earner (FRB13/58) Wall Street Journal (FRA35/4) Wall Street news (FRA34/75) Wall Street tailspin (FRA34/159) Wall Street types (FRB13/30) War criminals (FRB9/107) War effort (FRK4/14) War lords (FRB9/130) War protest (FRA1/146) War talk (FRG1/7) War years (FRG11/65) Ward nurses (FRG4/43) Warsaw Pact (FRG2/135) Washington (economic consulting) firm (FRA34/154- 155) Washington Post (FRG6/166) Washington State (National) guard (FRB6/225) Washington Times (FRA1/144) Waste hauler (FRB23/197) Waste Management (FRA28/79) Waste problem (FRB23/205) Watch dials (FRJ79/52-53) Water glass (FRK28/102) Water pipe (FRG4/72) Water quality (FRB25/55) Water-quality experts (FRB25/58) Water-quality plan (FRB25/50-51) Wave number (FRJ2/241) Wavelength region (FRJ7/183-184) Way Products (FRG7/58) Weapons boys (FRG4/91) Weekend visit (FRA23/47) Weight loss (FRB25/200) Weight-reduction program (FRB25/193-194) Weinberg-Salam model (FRJ1/184) Welcome news (FRB6/217) Welfare mothers (FRK29/88) Welfare recipients (FRG10/142) Welfare work (FRK29/136) Wheel lock carbine (FRG4/166) Wheel locks (FRG4/161) Wheelchair hunt (FRG4/61) White House lobbying (FRA1/5) White House Office (FRA34/53) WHV DNA (FRJ16/166) WHV map coordinates (FRJ16/131-132) Wilderness Society (FRB25/25) Wildlife refuge (FRB25/5) Winchester rifle (FRG4/180) Wind collision (FRJ7/35) Window dressing (FRA35/76) Window seat (FRK29/5) Wind-wind collision (FRJ7/29) 6 APPENDIX 278 Wind-wind interface (FRJ7/15) Wing editorials (FRB27/173) Wing line shapes (FRJ2/155-156) Winnebago County jailer (FRA30/54) Winnebago County Sheriff (FRA30/64) Winter afternoon moment (FRG4/107-108) Winter light (FRG4/41) Winter twilight (FRK4/174) Wire coat hangers (FRB7/143-144) Wire fences (FRB21/96) Wire reports (FRA34/3) Withdrawal activation (FRJ15/193-194) Withdrawal syndrome (FRJ15/33) Wofford campaign (FRG10/166) Wolf-Rayet winds (FRJ7/34) Woman abolitionist (FRG8/177) Women leaders (FRG8/168) Wood frames (FRG4/92) Wood slats (FRG4/92) Wood stocks (FRG4/151) Woodchuck Hepatitis virus (FRJ16/1) Wood-frame houses (FRK1/21) Woodland cranny (FRG1/73) Word phrase (FRB6/82) Work buildings (FRJ79/60) Work habits (FRK25/47) Worker concerns (FRG10/194) Workers rights (FRG10/118) Works director (FRA30/86-87) World and (Olympic) records (FRA19/56) World Bank (FRB23/25) World capital (FRB9/91) World countries (FRB23/221) World Health Organization (FRB9/190-191) World history (FRB6/189) World order (FRB25/127) World record (FRA19/15) World record-holder (FRA19/34) World War (FRG1/33) Writer-director-star (FRA24/12) Yale Law School (FRA23/162) Yale University School (FRJ15/4) Year-end figures (FRA34/29) Yiddish writer (FRG11/71) Yongbyon (nuclear) complex (FRB6/212) York City College President (FRB9/180) Zone enforcement (FRB9/113) 6 APPENDIX 279 N+N STRUCTURES IN WRITTEN BRITISH ENGLISH II (FLOB CORPUS, 1990) Abortion Act (FLG57/4) Abortion culture (FLG57/128-129) Abortion numbers (FLG57/216) Abortion service (FLG57/79) Abortion work (FLG57/188) Abuse cases (FLA14/99) Acquisition costs (FLJ77/111) Action Party (FLA1/36) Action potentials (FLJ17/170-171) Activation energy (FLJ6/48) Actor friends (FLK23/197) Adams victory (FLB5/27) Admission process (FLJ6/112) Adult audience (FLB11/114) Adult pleasures (FLK23/127) Adult responsibilities (FLK23/127-128) Adult world (FLK23/125) AEI bid (FLA16/107) Aerospace industry (FLA15/27) Age group (FLA11/110) Aid agencies (FLB11/236) Aid scheme (FLK26/186) AIDS cases (FLJ14/125) AIDS deaths (FLJ14/206) AIDS disease (FLJ14/75) AIDS-developers (FLJ14/58) AIDS-developers and carriers (FLJ14/43) Air activity (FLB12/148) Air Force base (FLG51/100) Air force jets (FLA5/127) Air Ministry (FLG51/69) Air Ministry files (FLG51/15) Air pollution (FLA24/197) Aircraft design objectives (FLJ77/26) Aircraft design phase (FLJ77/13) Aircraft designer (FLJ77/1) Aircraft failure rate (FLJ77/190) Aircraft levelling (FLJ77/196-197) Aircraft maintenance (FLJ77/33) Aircraft manufacturers (FLJ77/10) Aircraft performance (FLJ77/16-17) Aircraft performance and weight (FLJ77/18-19) Aircraft performance requirements (FLJ77/12) Aircraft project (FLJ77/55) Aircraft safety (FLJ77/238-239) Aircraft skin (FLJ77/133) Aircraft specification (dry) weight (FLJ77/236) Aircraft specification (FLJ77/113) Airline bill (FLB6/187) Airport agreement (FLA5/159) Air-sea rescue helicopter (FLA24/201) Album sales (FLG59/93) Alpha-particles (FLJ1/105) Amateur audiences and performers (FLG50/78) Amazon region (FLA14/36) Amazon town (FLA14/45) Amber hair (FLK1/71) Anderson Committee (FLG51/141) Angelini group (FLA15/61) Animal research (FLB14/241) Ankle injury (FLA33/13) Anode wires (FLJ1/131) Anti war neurosis (FLK4/167-168) Anti-abortion doctors (FLG57/214) Anti-Labour smear campaign (FLB6/95-96) Anti-pollution vessels (FLA14/213) Anti-union legislation (FLA1/115) Appointment times (FLB14/23) April shower (FLA11/75) April weather (FLA11/74) Arauco II cellulose plant (FLA15/64) Arkhangelsk Region (FLG62/195) Army bombardments (FLA5/148) Army psychiatrist (FLK4/21-22) Art Gallery (FLA11/3) Art styles (FLG50/146) Arts Correspondent (FLA11/4) Assistant Secretary (FLG57/158) Association football (FLG59/54) Association gathering (FLB14/128) Autograph fatigue Autumn bandwagon Autumn Cup Autumn election Autumn poll 6 APPENDIX 280 (FLK1/182) (FLB5/214) (FLA32/62) (FLB8/16) (FLA1/101) Avenue (of Eternal Peace) Route (FLA5/187) Aviation authorities (FLG51/61) Aviation interests (FLG51/88) Aviation world (FLG51/87) BA cabin steward (FLB8/99) Baby Bear (FLK21/118-119) Baby Food (FLB9/198) Baby harnesses (FLB8/212) Baby Love (FLK23/1) Back pain (FLA33/210) Badminton final (FLA33/10) Balance sheets (FLA16/28) Ball valve (FLJ77/184) Ballot papers (FLB5/10) Ballot rigging (FLB14/71) Balnald House (FLB11/89) Balokole leader (FLG53/48) Banbury Road (FLK3/59) Band Aid response (FLB11/229) Bandra home (FLK5/39-40) Band-wagon (FLB9/82) Bank borrowers (FLB14/175) Bankrupt businessmen (FLB5/117) Bar chart (FLJ77/61) Barber judgment (FLA15/168) Base line levels (FLJ17/180) BAT industries (FLA16/11) Bataka movement (FLG53/128) Bath Road (FLG51/171) Bath University (FLA10/220) Battle-cry (FLA32/52) BBC feature films (FLB11/121) BBC show (FLB5/221) BBC television (FLB11/108) BBC World Service show (FLG59/155-156) BCCI affair (FLB8/192) Beam particles (FLJ1/16) Bear height (FLK21/134) Bear idea (FLK21/81) Bear nation (FLK21/18) Bed linen (FLG56/80) Bedrock income (FLG59/122) Bedroom door (FLK1/202) Bedside drawer (FLK21/167) Bedside visit (FLA24/124) Belgrade television (FLA5/117) Bell towers (FLG62/114) Benefit shows (FLK21/72) Benetton poster (FLB6/95) Bertelsmann Group (FLG59/178) Beth David Hospital (FLJ16/109) Beverly Hills home (FLA10/120) Bible belt (FLG54/100) Biosphere Sciences (FLB9/91) Biotechnology revolution (FLJ16/81) Birchgrey company (FLA33/163) Birthday presents (FLB14/95) Blackburn Clackhawks (FLA32/38) Blade heater plugs (FLJ77/194-195) Blade tethering (FLJ77/198-199) Blood donors (FLJ16/31) Blood or body products (FLJ16/117) Blood transfusions (FLJ14/92) Board room (FLJ16/82) Body hair (FLK21/51) Body language (FLK21/140) Body material (FLJ16/26) Body parts (FLJ16/12) Body tissue (FLJ16/95) Body waste (FLJ16/21) Bomber air fields (FLG51/120-121) Bomb-making gear (FLA24/84) Bone grafting (FLJ16/120) Bone marrow transplants (FLJ17/53) Book publishing (FLG59/45) Border areas (FLA14/22) Border settlement (FLA14/236) Bottom lip (FLA33/211) Boundary conditions (FLJ21/6-7) Bournemoth studio (FLB8/121) Boy children (FLK21/121) Boy-scout Christianity (FLG52/164) Breakaway movement (FLG53/118) Breast pocket (FLK24/27-28) Brent Cross (Shopping) Centre (FLA24/210) Brent magistrates Brianchon point Brick former city Brigadier-General Brioni accord 6 APPENDIX 281 (FLA11/63) (FLJ20/123) (FLB7/56) (FLA1/83) (FLA5/108) Bristol City Museum (FLA11/2-3) (British) Council type (FLK3/137-138) Brown & Sharpe (Grinding) Machines (FLA15/6) Brownlow Hill (FLB11/245) Bruges group (FLB12/159) Brussels discussions (FLB10/146) BTG Fellows (FLJ78/156) BTG model (FLJ78/1) Bubble chambers (FLJ1/118) Buckingham Palace (FLB10/219) Buckingham Palace spokesman (FLA10/132) Bulletin board (FLK21/159) Bum-boys (FLB7/115) Bureaucrat rules (FLB12/54) Bus shelter (FLK3/59) Bush shirt (FLK5/97) Business activity (FLG56/178) Business Administration (FLB10/55) Business cards (FLK21/160) Business effect (FLG59/104) Business house (FLG56/126) Business practice (FLG56/132) Bwana stuff (FLK26/182) Cabin roof (FLJ77/127-128) Cabinet Committee (FLG51/113) Cabinet government (FLB5/196) Cabinet minister (FLK26/5) Cable channel (FLK23/24) Cable TV (FLK23/43) Cadbury Schweppes (FLA16/35) Calendar quarter (FLA15/131) Calibration curve (FLJ17/87) California Democrat (FLA1/192) Campaign strategy (FLA1/91) Capital repatriation (FLA15/107) Car dealer (FLB14/10) Car owners (FLB14/99) Car thieves (FLA24/143) Car wash (FLK3/120) CARDIFF flanker (FLA33/46) CARE Campaigns (FLG57/88) CARE Report (FLG57/127) Care threat (FLA14/73) Career lead (FLA33/186) Case children (FLA14/73) Cash call (FLA15/1-2) Cash flow (FLA15/147-148) Cash mountain (FLA16/38) Cash nexus (FLG56/170) Cash pile (FLA16/146) Cassette case (FLA24/230) Castle Howard (FLA10/179) Casualty figures (FLA5/119-120) Cattle truck (FLK24/152) Cell line (FLJ16/171) Cell products (FLJ16/76) Cellar Music (FLK1/150) Cellulose production (FLA15/59-60) Centre stage (FLA1/89) Chain reactions (FLJ6/21) Challenge match (FLA32/57) Champagne cocktail parties (FLA10/15) Chanakya Avenue (FLK5/66) Channel Tunnel (FLG59/19) Chapel or church style (FLG50/158) Chapter XIX rules (FLA15/69) Charity Commissioners (FLB11/223-224) Charity Commissions (FLB11/235) Charity screening (FLA10/85) Charity workers (FLG56/67) Charles Dickens Christmas (FLB13/234-235) Charm bracelet (FLK22/89) Cheesefoot Head (FLA24/186-187) Chelsea register office ceremony (FLA10/177-178) Chernobyl disaster (FLB9/126) Chess problem (FLB6/7-8) Chief clerk (FLG53/70) Chief Officer (FLB6/12) Child abuse (FLA14/96-97) Child abuse guidance (FLA14/121) Child benefit (FLB12/190) Child movie star (FLK23/181-182) Childhood home (FLK21/147) Cholera epidemic (FLA14/1) Christmas Day (FLA1/113) Christmas terror blitz Christmas terror warning Christmas wedding Church going Church militant 6 APPENDIX 288 (FLB14/242) (FLB8/30) (FLK5/115) (FLJ16/42) (FLG53/50-51) Kikuyu term (FLG53/25) Killer disease (FLA24/243) Kinship obligations (FLG56/179) Kipsigi country (FLG53/126) Kitchen cabinet meetings (FLK5/109-110) Korteweg-de Vries equation (FLJ21/6) KP rations (FLK23/45) Kremlin chief (FLA5/6) Kremlin wall (FLB7/40) Labour (Foreign) Secretary (FLA5/219-220) Labour (foreign) spokesman (FLA24/259) Labour camp (FLB8/58) Labour candidate (FLA24/171) Labour counterparts (FLB13/5) Labour Editor (FLA1/103) Labour government (FLA1/16) Labour law (FLA1/152) Labour lead (FLB5/53) Labour leader (FLA1/110-111) Labour Ministers (FLB5/159) Labour movement (FLA1/127) Labour Organisation (FLA1/153) Labour party (FLA5/206) Labour policy (FLA1/124) Lace-making (FLG56/168) Lady friend (FLK21/154) Land Rover (FLK26/36) Lands Improvement Group (FLB10/218) Landslide victory (FLA1/40) Latsis connection (FLB5/88) LCC plaque (FLB7/64) Leadenhall Street (FLB10/29) Leadership elections (FLA1/149-150) Lecture circuit (FLB13/158) Leicester company (FLA15/18) Leisure services committee (FLA11/18) Lenin museum (FLB7/55) Lenin Street (FLG62/142-143) Library-book reminders (FLK23/86) Licence agreements (FLJ78/105) Licence deal (FLJ78/198) Licence income (FLJ78/105) Lie algebra (FLJ21/12) Lie group (FLJ21/12) Life Cycle Costs (FLJ77/8) Life imprisonment (FLB13/166) Life Insurance (FLB10/4) Life insurance industry (FLB10/4-5) Life insurance underwriters (FLB10/23) Life style (FLB7/176) Lifestyle questionnaire (FLB10/5) Lily air (FLK1/196) Limehouse Declaration (FLA5/207) Linen pillow (FLK2/181) Linen suit (FLK3/64-65) Lip-service (FLG55/46) Liverpool Broadgreen MP (FLA24/169) Locum senior house officer (FLG57/84) London (Old) Boys (FLA33/80) London Airport (FLG51/111) London area (FLG51/194) London buses (FLB14/30) London department stores (FLK22/36) London hospital (FLG57/139) London Hospital (Medical) College (FLB11/19) London life (FLG56/56) London meeting (FLG50/98) London numbers (FLB14/111) London street (FLA24/60) London telephone numbers (FLB14/110) London Underground (FLA11/168) London Weather Centre (FLA11/78) London Zoo (FLB14/239) Lord Nelson (of Stafford) Lecture (FLJ78/60-61) Los Angeles Open (FLA33/137) Los Angeles Rams (FLA33/35) Love stories (FLK24/136) Love-making (FLK21/178) LPI protection (FLA15/176) Luguru rioters (FLG53/129) Lung disease (FLJ17/165) Luxury caravan (FLK26/183) Lymphocyte culture (FLJ17/53) M62 coach bombing (FLB13/165) Maastricht summit (FLA24/245) Machine tool manufacturer Magazine pages Magazine publishing Mail-order firm Maintainability advantages 6 APPENDIX 289 (FLA15/4) (FLK21/31) (FLG59/47) (FLK3/190) (FLJ77/129) Maintainability discipline (FLJ77/110) Maintainability features (FLJ77/93) Maintainability point (of view) (FLJ77/212) Maintenance areas (FLJ77/139) Maintenance bridge (FLJ77/202) Maintenance Cost Analyses (FLJ77/39) Maintenance feature (FLJ77/177) Maintenance man hours (FLJ77/66) Maintenance personnel (FLJ77/130) Major decision (FLB5/182) Major-Heseltine reforms (FLB12/182) Male experience (FLG55/186) Male identity (FLG55/77) Mama and Baby games (FLK23/105) Management features (FLB10/249) Manhattan hotel (FLA10/93) Manufacture/build and development phases (FLJ77/100) Manuscript description (FLG50/40) Manuscript preparation (FLG50/69) Marivent palace (FLA10/152) Market (gardening) area (FLG51/43) Market conditions (FLA15/197) Market dominance (FLG59/63) Market favourites (FLA16/34) Market forces (FLA16/192) Market place (FLJ77/36) Market principles (FLB10/119) Market research work (FLJ78/151-152) Market setback (FLA15/117) Market size (FLG59/60) Market valuations (FLA15/139) Market value (FLJ16/161) Marriage ceremony (FLA11/89-90) Marriage contract (FLJ16/46) Marriage rate (FLA11/83) Mass mailing (FLG54/167) Mass production (FLB9/77) Mass slaughter (FLB13/100-101) Mass spectrometer (FLJ6/196) Mass spectrometer records (FLJ6/69) Mass tourism (FLG62/99) Match tactics (FLA33/198) Match views (FLA33/208) Mathematics degree (FLG53/87) Matrix proof (FLJ20/89) May bandwagon (FLB5/217) Mayday Hospital (FLA24/140) Meadow stadium (FLA10/95-96) Meadow View (FLB9/193) Medici family (FLG50/139) Melancholy sight (FLK1/132) Member nations (FLA24/242) Member state (FLB10/178) Meru land case (FLG53/111) Metal bus stop signs (FLB5/175) Metal gates (FLK26/75) Methyl radicals (FLJ6/40) Metro Books (FLK23/70-71) Metrology products (FLA15/16) Middlesex County Council (FLG51/56) Midnight ceremony (FLA10/50) Mijikenda peoples (FLG53/120) Milkmaid bodices and sleeves (FLK1/125) Minibus ticket (FLK3/62-63) Ministry spokesman (FLA1/201-202) Minority Malays (FLA1/66) Mission school (FLG53/11-12) Mitsushita purchase (FLG59/183) Mommy Bunny (FLK23/144) Money supply (FLB12/194) Monopoly (broadcasting) service (FLG59/87-88) Monopoly rents (FLB10/124) Moore case (FLJ16/170) Mortar attacks (FLA5/121) Mortgage and company car perks (FLB12/189) Mortgage bills (FLB8/49-50) Mortgage lending (FLB12/193-194) Moscow City Soviet (FLB7/66) Mother and daughter combination (FLA32/88) Motor racing (FLB5/227) Mount Ruwenzori FLG53/132) Mountain town (FLK24/129) Muganda farmer (FLG53/51) Murdoch rag (FLA10/166) Museum official (FLB7/73) 6 APPENDIX 290 Musgrave Park hospital (FLB13/215) Music business (FLG59/112) Music culture (FLG59/88) Music hall prime (FLB5/5) Music income (FLG59/142) Music industry (FLG59/36) Music market (FLG59/191) Music press (FLG59/88) Music printing (FLG50/1) Music programming (FLG59/143) Music success (FLG59/204) Music volumes (FLG50/83) Music world (FLG59/117) Music-making (FLG59/70) Muswell Hill (FLB11/148) Muthamaki tradition (FLG53/25-26) Nadir News (FLB5/89) Nancy-boys (FLB7/116) Nation (trading) status (FLA1/193) Nation states (FLB10/154) Natwest Trophy (FLB6/98) Neck wound (FLA24/137-138) Nehru family (FLB12/90) Neon signs (FLK3/156) Nerve conduction studies (FLJ17/71) Netaji Subhash Road (FLK5/117-118) Network Television (FLB11/95) New England Journal (FLJ16/83) New York Democrat (FLA1/194) New York harbour (FLB6/84) New Zealand forestry group (FLA15/52) New Zealand group (FLA15/66) Newberry-Oscott partbooks (FLG50/100) News bulletin (FLA10/4) Newspaper publisher (FLG53/56) NGS staff (FLA1/16) NHS (waiting) list (FLA14/142) NHS hospital opt-outs (FLA1/1-2) Night air (FLK1/147) Night match blues (FLA33/197) Night shopping (FLA24/219) NIH syndrome (FLJ78/44) Nimrod defence contract (FLA16/158) Nitrogen dioxide (FLB10/233) Non-vertex point (FLJ20/122) Norfolk and Norwich Pensioners (FLB9/192) Normandy landings (FLG51/13) North London precinct (FLA24/214) North Sea deal (FLA11/126) NORTH Sea oil and gas companies (FLA11/128) Note pad (FLK23/142) Nottinghamshire Health District (FLG57/89) November election (FLB5/45) Number plates (FLB14/93) Nut-shell (FLG54/69) Ocean currents (FLA14/37) OECD countries (FLB9/129-130) Offences Act (FLB7/159) Office equipment (FLK24/171) Office Minister (FLA5/73) Oil level sensing and replenishment (FLJ77/208) Oil requirements (FLB9/130) Oil spill (FLA14/198) Olive bodies (FLK24/184) Operations Divisions (FLJ78/110) Opinion poll (FLB5/39) Opposition candidates (FLA1/62-63) Opposition leaders (FLA1/211) Opposition parties (FLA1/71) Opposition politicians (FLA1/80) Opposition seat (FLA1/45) Orbit sizes (FLJ20/63) Organ Transplants Act (FLJ16/49) Orkney child abuse row (FLA14/75) Orkney children (FLA14/104) Orkney Islands council (FLA14/78) Outpost trench (FLK4/210-211) Outside forces (FLG53/147) Oxford graduate (FLA10/202-203) Oxidation processes (FLJ6/20) Oxygen concentration (FLJ6/186-187) Palace Athene hotel (FLA10/139) Palace Pier (FLK23/55) Panel administrator (FLA14/125) Panel latches (FLJ77/172) Paper analysis (FLG50/44) Par value (FLA15/98-99) Paradigm shift (FLJ78/15) Parameter plane (FLJ6/123) Parent and child relationship (FLA1/98-99) 6 APPENDIX 291 Paris hotel (FLA10/51) Parish church (FLA11/6) Particle apparatus (FLJ1/9) Particle energy (FLJ1/73) Particle lifetimes (FLJ1/126) Particle physicist (FLK5/36-37) Particle soyabean girl (FLK5/35-36) Particle tracks (FLJ1/124) Party (Central) Committee (FLA5/13) Party (General) Secretary (FLA5/9) Party congress (FLA5/16) Party funds (FLB5/75-76) Party giver (FLA10/122) Party interests (FLA1/76-77) Party leader (FLA1/217) Party opposition (FLA1/5-6) Party workers (FLB8/98) Party-goers (FLK1/94) Patent action (FLJ78/129-130) Patent agents (FLJ78/134) Patent application (FLJ78/124) Patent cover (FLJ78/117) Patent position (FLJ78/129) Patent protection (FLJ78/107-108) Patent Specification (FLJ78/172) Patents Department (FLJ78/116-117) Patient care (FLG57/21) PDFM director (FLA15/195) Peace conference (FLA5/100) Peace hopes (FLA5/77) Peace-time purposes (FLG51/155) Peak height ratio (FLJ17/85) Peak incidence (FLJ14/1) Peak levels (FLJ17/181) Peak plasma level (FLJ17/20) Peak year (FLA16/32) Peat bog (FLG62/206) Peel Report (FLJ16/148) Peking public (FLA5/192) Peking regime (FLA1/222) Pennine Cup (FLA32/57) Pennine Cup clash (FLA3/38) Pension Fund Indicators (FLA15/194) Pension fund managers (FLA15/178) Pension fund picture (FLA15/11-112) Pension funds (FLA15/213) Pension scheme surpluses (FLA15/158) Pension schemes (FLA15/167) People power (FLA1/164) People reporters (FLA24/2) Pep talk (FLK3/138) Performance measurement service (FLA15/149) Performance measures (FLB10/125) Perry Oaks (FLG51/31) Perry Oaks Farm (FLG51/53) Perry Oaks Problem (FLG51/166) Perry Oaks site (FLG51/197) Perry Oaks sludge disposal works (FLG51/54) Perry Oaks Sludge Works (FLG51/52) Personnel selection (FLJ77/82-83) Pet Shop Boys (FLG59/145) Petrol combustion (FLB10/234) Phantom patients (FLA14/177) Phase extraction (FLJ17/75) Philips & Drew Fund Management (FLA15/193) Phone call (FLK3/1) Photo session (FLA24/103) Physicians researchers (FLJ16/170) Physics apparatus (FLJ1/8) Physics experiments (FLJ1/100) Picture researcher (FLK21/29-30) Ping pong ball (FLK23/167) Pink and vanilla ice cream (FLK24/130) Pipal tree (FLK5/140) Pipe lengths (FLJ77/134) Piston arms (FLK1/118) Pittsburg Steelers (FLA33/39) Plasma levels (FLJ17/48) Plasma samples (FLJ17/63) Platinum ring (FLK5/103-104) Plausibility structure (FLG54/36) Plaza Athenee (FLA10/83) Pleasure wave (FLK23/188) Plug stowages (FLJ77/194) Plump bob (FLJ77/196) Plymouth SDP (FLA5/204) Poisson bracket (FLJ21/38) Poisson manifold (FLJ21-15-16) Police attention (FLA11/59) 6 APPENDIX 292 Police chief (FLB13/168-169) Police department (FLJ16/23) Police duties (FLA33/54-55) Police escort (FLA10/99) Police officer (FLA33/48) Police sergeant (FLA24/128) Police spokesman (FLA24/195) Policy guidelines (FLB9/83) Policy options (FLA14/96) Poll Shock headlines (FLB6/155-156) Poll Tax (FLB5/139) Polo accident (FLA10/160) Pop fan (FLG59/20) Pop groups (FLG59/145) Pop institutions (FLG59/148) Pop norms (FLG59/90) Pop star (FLA5/218) Pop talent pool (FLG59/74) Pop terms (FLG59/30) Population Censuses and Surveys (FLA11/91) Population-level considerations (FLJ14/154-155) Post Office (FLB14/13) Post office box (FLK5/167) Post Tiananmen quarantine (FLA1/197) Post-Beatles situation (FLG59/44) Post-war (civil) aviation needs (FLG51/114-115) Pot beads (FLK24/142) Potential difference (FLJ1/47) Potential well (FLJ1/157) Poverty line (FLB10/68) Poverty reduction (FLB10/88) Power engineering (FLJ78/205) Power engineering field (FLJ78/28) Power plants (FLA16/180-181) Power production (FLB9/129) Power vacuum (FLA5/50) Power-holders (FLG53/183) Power-player (FLA10/125) Practice session (FLA33/178-179) Prediction techniques (FLG52/101) Pre-match ear bashing session (FLA33/174-175) Press conference (FLA11/152) Press pressure (FLB9/45) Pressure difference (FLJ6/156-157) Pressure gas (FLJ1/129) Pressure limits (FLJ6/140) Preston railway station (FLA24/98) Pre-tax profits (FLA15/30) Pre-transmission announcements (FLB11/106) Prevention programmes (FLA14/64) Price indexation (FLA15/172) Primetime hospital drama (FLK23/76-77) Prince Edward Theatre (FLA10/27) Prison conditions (FLA1/176) Prison doctor (FLA1/181-182) Prison wardens (FLK3/170) Product development (FLJ78/166) Product Liability (FLJ16/90) Production and promotion costs (FLG59/138) Production costs (FLG59/61) Profit participation (FLJ16/10) Profits performance (FLA16/138) Programme managers (FLJ77/75) Project expenditure (FLJ78/145) Project investment (FLJ78/94) Project Managers (FLJ77/228) Project timescales (FLJ77/79) Pro-life position (FLG57/12) Property interest (FLJ16/175) Property Law Doctrine (FLJ16/88) Property right (FLJ16/72) Proprietary interest (FLJ16/55) Prosecution lawyers (FLB13/174) Protein content (FLB9/206) Protest movement (FLB8/222) Protestant figure (FLG53/80) Proton and antiproton beams (FLJ1/86) Proton beams (FLJ1/47-48) Proton Synchrotron (FLJ1/78-79) Prototype example (FLJ21/79) Provo bomb girl (FLA24/65) Publication scheduling (FLK23/160-161) Pullman car (FLB7/92) Pulse height (FLJ1/110) Puma Wimbledon Open title (FLA33/6) Punjab Infantry Frontier Force Rifles (FLB11/155-156) Punk and indie bands (FLG59/121) Puppet master (FLA1/87) Push-chairs (FLB8/216) Pyjama bottoms (FLK23/18) 6 APPENDIX 293 Quality control (FLJ16/33-34) Quality food (FLB9/224) Quality improvement techniques (FLB10/256) Quality shows (FLG59/53) Quality tours (FLG62/100) Quality turf (FLG51/66-67) Queensferry Chambers (FLB11/269) Queensferry Street (FLB11/270) R&M department (FLJ77/97) R&M design (FLJ77/8) R&M design features (FLJ77/66) R&M design improvements (FLJ77/232) R&M disciplines (FLJ77/233) R&M engineers (FLJ77/14) R&M expertise (FLJ77/223) R&M features (FLJ77/52) R&M issues (FLJ77/42) R&M requirements (FLJ77/14-15) R&M specialist (FLJ77/73) R&M specialist knowledge (FLJ77/81) R&M tools (FLJ77/39) Radio 1 programmes (FLG59/157) Radio and TV shows (FLG59/134) Radio deejay (FLG59/152-153) Radio frequency cavities (FLJ1/75) Radio Luxembourg (FLG59/35) Rail standards (FLB8/167) Railroad travel (FLG56/61) Railway sidings (FLB14/216) Railway suicides (FLA11/166) RAMC badge (FLK4/221) Ramillies Drive (FLK3/60) Rat bitch gynaecologist (FLK2/68-69) Rat bone marrow transplant model (FLJ17/38-39) Rathburn chemicals (FLJ17/92) (Raven Black) hair dye (FLK21/132) Reactant consumption (FLJ6/205) Reaction consumption (FLJ6/145-146) Reaction evolution (FLJ6/80) Reaction processes (FLJ1/137) Reaction product particles (FLJ1/24) Reaction rate (FLJ6/55) Reaction rate constant (FLJ6/16) Reaction studies (FLJ1/36) Reaction temperatures (FLJ6/53) Reaction timescale (FLJ6/113) Realm Act (FLG51/175) Receiver Rice (FLA33/29) Record company (FLG59/175) Record labels (FLG59/205) Record Office (FLG51/15) Record sales (FLG59/202) Record sleeves (FLG59/165) Re-design activities (FLJ77/68) Redlands Road (FLB10/113) Redundancy payments (FLA11/137) Reference books (FLK21/30) Reference junction (FLJ6/61) Registrar posts (FLG57/139-140) Reliability assessment (FLJ77/94) Reliability problems (FLJ77/85) Relief packages (FLB11/229-230) Remarriage rate (FLA11/97) Renaissance music (FLG50/5) Renaissance sources (FLG50/26) Renaissance Studies (FLG50/98-99) Renewable Energy resources (FLB9/72) Renewable Energy sector (FLB9/63-64) Reposition (hydraulic) ground (servicing) points (FLJ77/127) Research and development level (FLJ78/112) Research budget (FLB9/159) Research ideas (FLJ78/55) Research staff (FLJ78/155) Re-settlement bonus (FLK26/180) Resonance (Imaging) patents (FLJ78/132) Restoration tasks (FLG62/61) Results season (FLA16/3) Retail sales (FLB13/8) Retention times (FLJ17/90) Retirement ages (FLA15/169-170) Retirement valley (FLK5/14) Revenue deficiency (FLB8/161) Revenue sharing (FLJ78/94) Review Body (FLB10/122) Rex Café (FLK5/5) Richmond College (FLB10/56) Right complaints (FLA1/189-190) Rights abuses (FLA1/214) Rights issue (FLA16/27) Ring road (FLK3/71) 6 APPENDIX 294 Riot act (FLA33/179) River connection (FLA14/56) River Dvina (FLG62/72) River systems (FLA14/3-4) River water (FLA14/54-55) Riviera beaches (FLA14/201) Rock institutions (FLG59/150) Rock star (FLA10/43) Role model (FLB7/147) Roof deck (FLJ77/202) Room service (FLK23/42) Rotor blade (FLJ77/198) Rotor head (FLJ77/194) Routine actions (FLG50/64) Rovers camp (FLA32/228) Royalty level (FLJ78/185) Ruby challenge (FLA33/43) Rugby post (FLA24/103) Rugby union (FLA24/205-206) Rundown services (FLB8/181) Rush hour (FLA11/198) Rush-hour commuter trains (FLB8/120-121) Rutherford or Coulomb scattering (FLJ1/148) Rwenzururu movement (FLG53/132-133) Ryder Cup team (FLA33/143) Rye and barley crops (FLG62/184) Safari suit (FLK5/41) Safety latch (FLJ77/172) Safety orders (FLA14/80) Sale (of Goods) Act (FLJ16/115) Salnikov model (FLJ6/25) Salnikov scheme (FLJ6/149) Salt water (FLJ77/179) San Diego Chargers (FLA33/28) Sandstone screens (FLK5/79) Sargasso Sea (FLK3/175) Savona hotel owner (FLA14/225-226) Scheme surpluses (FLA15/112) School education (FLG53/92) School field (FLA24/105) School friend (FLK1/105) School magazine (FLA24/117) Schouten-Nijenhuis bracket (FLJ21/47) Science fiction (FLG54/50-51) Scintillation counters (FLJ1/101) Scotland Yard spokesman (FLA24/77) Sea and weather conditions (FLJ77/88) Sea Dragons (FLA11/10) Seahawks reporter (FLA32/34) Sector deficits (FLB10/76) Sector investment (FLB13/40-41) Security and (foreign) policy issues (FLA5/62) Security Consultant (FLK24/157-158) Security Council (FLK5/36) Security guards (FLK26/69) Security Pacific (FLA15/54) Security Pacific Valores (FLA15/83) Security ring (FLK5/117) Security warders (FLA11/19) Security work (FLK24/158) Semiconductor detectors (FLJ1/102) Semtex explosive (FLA24/84) Sense experience (FLJ18/73) Sepia tones (FLK24/107) September count (FLA14/160) September totals (FLA14/187) Set theory (FLJ18/62) Seventies rock independents (FLG59/109) Severn Tunnel (FLA24/4) Sewage works (FLG51/57-58) Sex fun (FLK3/181) Sex quality (FLA15/113-114) Shadow Cabinet (FLB6/221) Shadow health secretary (FLA14/186) Shape (elastic) scattering (FLJ1/158) Share price (FLA16/48) Shell model level (FLJ1/197) Shell-hole (FLK4/139) Shotton Vicarage (FLB11/36) Showbiz dynasty (FLK23/181) Showbusiness merger (FLA10/125) Sigma chemicals (FLJ17/96) Silver dishes (FLK23/47) Silver globes (FLK1/35) Silver pots (FLK23/46-47) Singapore (Democratic) Party (FLA1/44) Singles semi-finals (FLA33/14) Singles champion (FLA33/8) Singles sales (FLG59/92) Sixties pop (FLK21/26) 6 APPENDIX 295 Skin changes (FLJ17/149) Skin texture (FLJ17/113) Sky Sport (FLB5/225) Sludge disposal works (FLG51/161) Sludge works (FLG51/60) Smack bar (FLK3/156) Snatch bar (FLK3/157) Soap opera (FLB7/30) Soap-boxes (FLB5/77) Soccer team (FLA33/79) (Social) Security Act (FLA15/171) (Social) Security benefit payments (FLB14/48) (Social) Security offices (FLB14/14-15) (Social) Services Committee (FLG57/108) (Social) Services correspondent (FLA11/84) Soho Square (FLB10/192) Solo show (FLA1/90) Solution-phase (FLJ6/171) Solution-phase clock reaction (FLJ6/11) Solution-phase counterparts (FLJ6/4) Soul contribution (FLB11/23) Source-book (FLA15/194) South Ronaldsay parents (FLA14/116) Specification (dry) weight (FLJ77/216) Speedboat missions (FLA5/163) Spierenburg Committee (FLB10/173) Sports Medicine (FLB11/18) Springhead Harriers strength (FLA32/3) Spunik tourist agency (FLG62/97) St Andrew Animal Fund (FLB11/268) St Ives Invitation Team Tournament (FLA32/119) St James University Hospital (FLJ17/5-6) Stab victims (FLA24/131) Stage 2 development (FLG51/172-173) Stanford (Linear) Accelerator (FLJ1/94) State Council (FLA5/60) State House (FLK26/77) State interference (FLA1/157) State jobs (FLB12/68) State pension (FLB9/170) State responses (FLJ6/166) State services (FLB14/231) Station layouts (FLA11/206) Statistics graduate (FLA16/103) Stock market (FLA16/5-6) Stock market strength (FLA15/128) Stockbrocker belt (FLA10/15) Stone set (FLK5/105) Stone wall (FLK26/74) Straw hat (FLK2/133) Straw-plaiting (FLG56-168) Street doors (FLK24/172) Stress disorders (FLA11/191) Strike ballots (FLA1/149) Strike force (FLB6/66) Strozzi family (FLG50/140) Studio appearances (FLG59/144) Subject matter (FLB11/117) Subsidy issue (FLA15/81) Suicide attempts (FLA11/177) Suicide mission (FLK24/15) Sukova and Ug rivers (FLG62/126) Summer evenings (FLB14/41) Summer holidays (FLB13/72) Summertime blues (FLA32/53) Sun-bathers (FLA14/223) Sunday afternoon jaunt (FLK26/166) Sunday Express (FLB13/1) Sunday Times (FLB5/87-88) Sunday Times Mori Poll (FLB14/143-144) Sunday Times poll (FLB5/47) Sunday worships (FLB11/31) Super Bowl winners (FLA33/35-36) Superstar cast (FLA10/119) Supply (of Goods and Services) Act (FLJ16/112) Surplus weight (FLK21/53) Surprise victory (FLB8/12) Surrey player (FLA33/7-8) Sussex university (FLA11/161) Sweet wrappers (FLK23/163) Swift reassessments (FLB12/130) Swing doors (FLK4/237-238) Symmetry group (FLJ21/172) Synchrotron radiation (FLJ1/90) System disease (FLJ17/195) T&G supporters Table tennis Takeoff point Takeover activity Talent pool 6 APPENDIX 296 (FLB5/24) (FLA32/75) (FLB14/92) (FLG59/181) (FLG59/71) Tandem accelerators (FLJ1/42-43) Tangent spaces (FLJ21/62) Tape machine (FLB6/16) Tape recorder (FLB6/14) Tape recordings (FLB6/32) Target atoms (FLJ1/17) Target nucleus (FLJ1/190) Target thickness (FLJ1/20-21) Tax breaks (FLB9/75) Tax dispute (FLJ16/64) Tax profits (FLA16/136-137) Tax rate (FLB12/83) Team captain (FLA33/144-145) Team effort (FLA1/89) Team games (FLA33/93) Techmaster surface grinders (FLA15/21) Technology Group (FLJ78/13) Technology transfer (FLJ78/1) Technology transfer organisation (FLJ78/78-79) Tee-shirts (FLK3/161) Teflon President (FLB5/126) Teflon Prime Minister (FLB5/129-130) Telecommunications company (FLA16/178) Telephone bookings (FLB14/42) Telephone wires (FLK2/184) Television Centre (FLB11/129) Television licenses (FLB9/177) Television news (FLK22/139) Television programmes (FLG59/49) Television services (FLB11/109) Temperature difference (FLJ6/62-63) Temperature excess (FLJ6/67) Temperature rises (FLJ6/210) Tenant (farming) lobby (FLB10/213) Tenant farmers (FLB10/198) Tennis circuit (FLA10/16) Tennis rival (FLA10/112) Tennis star (FLA10/104) Termination duties (FLG57/42) Termination possibilities (FLG57/56) Termination step (FLJ6/225) Teso District (FLG53/110) Test facilities (FLJ77/209) Test flights (FLG51/81) Test market (FLG59/71) Test Match commentary (FLB5/222) Test times (FLB14/42) Textiles distribution (FLA16/64) Thalidomide assay (FLJ17/74) Thalidomide concentrations (FLJ17/84) Thalidomide dose (FLJ17/62) Thalidomide ingestion (FLJ17/64) Thalidomide pharmacokinetics (FLJ17/178) Thalidomide plasma levels (FLJ16/18-19) Thalidomide standard (FLJ17/93) Thalidomide tablet (FLJ17/62) Thalidomide therapy (FLJ17/59) Thalidomide treatment (FLJ17/1) Thames Valley Market (Gardening) Plain (FLG51/45) Thatcher years (FLB8/51) Thornton Heath (FLA24/143) Throat business (FLA33/182) Tiananmen killings (FLA1/204-205) Tiananmen massacre (FLA1/200) Tiananmen Square (FLA1/210) Tiananmen Square democracy movement (FLA1/172) Tie break (FLA33/188) Timber industry (FLG62/71) Time trace (FLJ6/202) Time value (FLA11/199) Timescale clock reaction (FLJ6/170-171) Time-share flat (FLB8/135) Time-Warner (FLG59/179) Tithe Barn Lane (FLG51/33) Torts Act (FLJ16/182-183) Tory chairman (FLA24/52) Tory fold (FLB8/55) Tory hopes (FLB13/3) Tory infusion (FLB12/205) Tory lead (FLB14/143) Tory leader (FLB8/11) Tory malcontents (FLB8/35) Tory ministers (FLA16/120) Tory MP (FLA10/211-212) Tory nonsense (FLB5/29) Tory papers Tory party Tory plans Tory rule Tory victory 6 APPENDIX 297 (FLB5/66) (FLA5/222) (FLA1/17-18) (FLB8/75) (FLB14/202) Touchdown passes (FLA33/27) Tour event (FLA33/114) Tour groups (FLA14/228) Tourist season (FLA14/222) Town plan (FLG62/174) Track measurements (FLJ1/133) Track record (FLJ78/39) Trade area (FLG59/160) Trade package (FLB13/113-114) Trade routes (FLG62/128) Trade union leader (FLG53/53) Trade union reforms (FLB14/65) Trade Unions (FLA1/121-122) Trades Union congress (FLA1/106) Trafalgar square (FLB8/218) Train drivers (FLA11/186) Train journey (FLB7/99) Train set (FLK23/175) Train tunnel terror crash (FLA24/1) Transistor radios (FLK5/171) Transmission factors (FLJ14/115) Transmission gearboxes (FLJ77/200) Transmission parameter (FLJ14/108) Transmission probability (FLJ14/152) Transport correspondent (FLA11/167) Transport minister (FLK26/112) Travel agent (FLK21/16) Treasure house (FLG62/156) Treasury Solicitor (FLG51/149) Tree-trunk legs (FLK21/60) Trench mortar bombs (FLK4/211-212) Trent (Regional) Health Authority (FLG57/76) Trent RHA (FLG57/92) Trent RHA advertisement (FLG57/87-88) Trinity Monastery (FLG62/166-167) Trust fund (FLK23/179) Trust status (FLA1/16) Trusteeship Council (FLG53/162) Tube train (FLA24/96) TUC debate (FLA1/142) Turner Street (FLB11/20) TV chat show (FLA10/64) TV commentators (FLA10/117) TV reporting (FLB6/172) TV studio (FLB5/25) TV workers (FLB6/147) Twin beds (FLK1/153) Uganda schoolmaster (FLG53/55) Uganda-Kenya border (FLG53/86) UK (occupational) pension schemes (FLA15/150) UK corporate sector (FLA15/202-203) UK energy supply (FLB9/68) UK equities (FLA15/140) UK equity strategist (FLA16/44) UK fund manager (FLA15/211) UK funds (FLA15/190) UK inflation (FLA15/209) UK pension fund (FLA15/125) UK pension fund managers (FLA15/116-117) UK pension schemes (FLA15/136) UK programme (FLB9/155) Ultrasound scan (FLK2/182) UN agency (FLB9/19) Undergraduate courses (FLJ6/36) Underground rooms (FLK5/76) Underground station (FLK22/49) Union leaders (FLB14/84) Union members (FLA1/156) Union movement (FLA1/158) Union officials (FLA11/132) Union reform (FLB14/69) Union Treaty (FLA5/47) Unit time (FLJ14/97) (United) Nations forum (FLG53/160) (United) Nations sanctions (FLB12/134) Universities Council (FLA11/153) University inventions (FLJ78/95) University teacher training department (FLA11/149) Urine sample (FLJ16/22) US (democratic) party (FLB14/228) US activities (FLA15/5) US authority (FLJ16/109) US bank (FLA15/54-55) US Congress (FLA1/191) US expansion (FLA15/1-2) US machine tool maker US Masters US Open USSR Navy submarine Valence band (FLJ1/113) 6 APPENDIX 304 Front paragraph (COMM797) Functions problem (COMM797) Fund raising (FACMT97) Fund raising affair (FACMT97) Geometry chapters (COMM797) Geometry formulas (COMM797) Geometry lesson (COMM797) Germany, American and Japanese classroom (COMM797) Glass ceiling (FACMT97) Governance process (FACMT97) Government leaders (FACMT97) Grade inflation (FACMT97) Grade level (COMM797) Grade notifications (FACMT97) Grade point standards (FACMT97) Graduate admissions tests (FACMT97) Graduate course (FACMT97) Graduate education (FACMT97) Graduate mentors (FACMT97) Graduate research mission (FACMT97) Graduate school (COMM797) Graduate student support (FACMT97) Graduate student/mentor (FACMT97) Graduate study (FACMT97) Graduate work (FACMT97) Graduation rates (FACMT97) Graduation weekend (FACMT97) Graham Memorial (FACMT97) Group areas (FACMT97) Group discussions (FACMT97) Group facilitation (FACMT97) Guest speakers (FACMT97) Handicap accesses (FACMT97) Hawthorne effect (FACMT97) Health affairs (FACMT97) Health Affairs component (FACMT97) Health care (FACMT97) Health science fields (FACMT97) Health Sciences Library (FACMT97) Hearings committee (FACMT97) Heart attack (FACMT97) High school graduates (FACMT97) High-tech companies (FACMT97) Histogram order (COMM797) Hog farm (FACMT97) Hogs and hens problem (COMM797) Home page (FACMT97) Honors courses (FACMT97) Honors program (FACMT97) Honors program expertise (FACMT97) Hot dog and bun problem (COMM797) Humanities voice mails (FACMT97) (Human) Resource System (FACMT97) (Human) Resources Division (FACMT97) Ice cream (COMM797) Ice cream flavors (COMM797) Identification numbers (FACMT97) Implementation phase (FACMT97) Implementation steps (FACMT97) Inclusion issues (COMM797) Information content (FACMT97) Information item (FACMT97) Information systems (FACMT97) Information technology (FACMT97) Initiative type (FACMT97) Inquiry track expertise (FACMT97) Institute (for Arts and Humanities) building (FACMT97) Instruction part (COMM797) Internet (marketing) courses (FACMT97) Internet tier (FACMT97) Interpretation issue (COMM797) Item accessibility (COMM797) Item bank (COMM797) Item bias (COMM797) Item bias issue (COMM797) Item development (COMM797) Item measures (COMM797) Item specifications (COMM797) Item story (COMM797) Item type (COMM797) Item writer (COMM797) January meeting (FACMT97) Jazz concert (FACMT97) Job titles (FACMT97) Johnston seminar expertise (FACMT97) 6 APPENDIX 305 Junior type (FACMT97) Kenan Flagler Business School (FACMT97) Kenan Institute (FACMT97) Kenan offers (FACMT97) Kenan Professors (FACMT97) Knowledge base (COMM797) Knowledge cell (COMM797) Knowledge questions (COMM797) Knowledge things (COMM797) Kressge Foundation (FACMT97) Land grant (FACMT97) Language family (FACMT97) Language features (COMM797) Language groups (COMM797) Language minority issues (COMM797) Language version 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Choice option (COMM797) Multiple Choice questions (COMM797) Music students (FACMT97) NAEP bullets (COMM797) NAEP description (COMM797) 6 APPENDIX 306 NAEP discussion (COMM797) NAEP example (COMM797) NAEP framework (COMM797) NAEP instruments (COMM797) NAEP items (COMM797) NAEP list (COMM797) NAEP strand (COMM797) NAEP text (COMM797) NAEP thing (COMM797) NC Live (FACMT97) NCAA Division IA institutions (FACMT97) NCAA regulations (FACMT97) NCN assessment standards (COMM797) New York Times (FACMT97) News articles (FACMT97) News item (FACMT97) News magazines (FACMT97) NIH funding (FACMT97) NIH grants (FACMT97) Nike arrangement (FACMT97) Nike Awareness Campaign (FACMT97) Nike contract (FACMT97) Nike issue (FACMT97) Nike swoosh (FACMT97) Nobel Prize (FACMT97) Non-alcohol bash (FACMT97) Non-routine shape (COMM797) North Carolina Humanities Council (FACMT97) North Carolina State (FACMT97) November meeting (COMM797) NSF (available) data (FACMT97) Number group (COMM797) Number theory (COMM797) Officer Swain case (FACMT97) Officer Swain issue (FACMT97) Opportunity people (FACMT97) Orange County (COMM797) Organization chart (FACMT97) Organization involvement (FACMT97) Outcome research (FACMT97) Pages thing (COMM797) Paper generators (FACMT97) Parameter examples (COMM797) Peach-gold sky (FACMT97) Peer institutions (FACMT97) Peer review (FACMT97) Peer review process (FACMT97) Performance comparisons (FACMT97) Performance platforms (FACMT97) Performance scores (COMM797) Personnel file (FACMT97) Personnel issues (FACMT97) Personnel procedures (FACMT97) Perspective requirements (FACMT97) Pharmacy building (FACMT97) Phoenix University (FACMT97) PID conversion (FACMT97) PID number (FACMT97) Pie charts (FACMT97) Pill Hill (FACMT97) Pit area (FACMT97) Placement test (COMM797) Pledge class competition (FACMT97) Police department (FACMT97) Policy advice (FACMT97) Policy Committee (FACMT97) Policy directions (FACMT97) Policy question (COMM797) Population size (COMM797) Post-Discharge Hearings Procedure Resolution (FACMT97) Post-graduate programs (FACMT97) Post-tenure review (FACMT97) Post-tenure review policy (FACMT97) Post-Tenure Review Policy and Procedures (FACMT97) Press conference (FACMT97) Press Panel (COMM797) Prestige Scholarships (FACMT97) Priority item (FACMT97) Priority list (COMM797) Priority things (FACMT97) Privacy Act (FACMT97) Privacy rights (FACMT97) Probability statement (COMM797) Probability topic (COMM797) Problem areas (FACMT97) Problem or formula list Problem situations Problem solving Problem solving items Process rights 6 APPENDIX 307 (COMM797) (COMM797) (COMM797) (COMM797) (FACMT97) Process statements (COMM797) Production-quality studios and coaches (FACMT97) Proficiency group (COMM797) Program topics (COMM797) Progress report (FACMT97) Proportionality (kind of) test (COMM797) Proportionality item (COMM797) Provost office (FACMT97) (Public) Health degree (FACMT97) (Public) Health officials (FACMT97) (Public) Health (kinds of) sciences (FACMT97) (Public) Service center (FACMT97) Quality (imaginative) thinking (COMM797) Quality control (COMM797) Quality instruction (FACMT97) Quality standards (FACMT97) Question and answer period (FACMT97) Radio shows (FACMT97) Raleigh Area Development Council (FACMT97) Rams Club counterpart (FACMT97) Range size (COMM797) Rate formula (COMM797) (Real)-life circumstance (COMM797) (Real) world problems (COMM797) (Real) world situations (COMM797) Reasonableness aspect (COMM797) Record identifier (FACMT97) Reference frame (COMM797) Registration period (FACMT97) Registration process (FACMT97) Report task (COMM797) Research and graduate mission (FACMT97) Research areas (FACMT97) Research capability (FACMT97) Research dollars (FACMT97) Research excellence (FACMT97) Research funding (FACMT97) Research institution (FACMT97) Research library group (FACMT97) Research literature (FACMT97) Research mission (FACMT97) Research opportunities (FACMT97) Research program (FACMT97) Research responsibilities (FACMT97) Research support (FACMT97) Research topic (FACMT97) Research Triangle Corporations (FACMT97) Research university (FACMT97) Residence area (FACMT97) Residence hall registration contract (FACMT97) Residence halls (FACMT97) Residence life (FACMT97) Resource angle (FACMT97) Resource base (COMM797) Response fashion (COMM797) Response items (COMM797) Response nature (COMM797) Retention efforts (FACMT97) Retirement years (FACMT97) Revenue sports (FACMT97) Reversion position (FACMT97) Review process (FACMT97) Reward structure (FACMT97) Reward system (FACMT97) Rhodes application (FACMT97) Rhodes awardees (FACMT97) Rhodes candidates (FACMT97) Rhodes Scholarships (FACMT97) Rotation schedule (COMM797) Rote way (FACMT97) Routine practice (FACMT97) SACS reaccredidation study (FACMT97) SACS report (FACMT97) Sailplane flights (FACMT97) Salary increases (FACMT97) Salary policies (FACMT97) Salary support (FACMT97) Sample item (COMM797) Sample locket (COMM797) Sample student responses (COMM797) Sample test (COMM797) SAT exams (FACMT97) Scholarship programs (FACMT97) School (of Social Work) building (FACMT97) School development (FACMT97) School district School issues School leadership School libraries School people 6 APPENDIX 308 (COMM797) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) School subjects (FACMT97) School systems (FACMT97) School year (COMM797) Science class (COMM797) Search policy (FACMT97) Selection committee (FACMT97) Self Study (FACMT97) Seminar component (FACMT97) Seminar option (FACMT97) Seminar program (FACMT97) Seminar question (FACMT97) Senior honors programs (FACMT97) Service activities (FACMT97) Service learning (FACMT97) Service learning course (FACMT97) Side table (FACMT97) Size population (COMM797) Slide presentation (FACMT97) (Social) security card number (FACMT97) (Social) security number (FACMT97) Solution sets (COMM797) Sophomore students (FACMT97) Sophomore year (FACMT97) Space group (FACMT97) Space issues (FACMT97) Spangler Family Dinner (FACMT97) Specs book (COMM797) Specs form (COMM797) Spell check (COMM797) Spell checker (COMM797) Spring semester (FACMT97) Staff development (COMM797) Staff members (FACMT97) Standards (Writing) Group (COMM797) Standards Reference Exam (COMM797) State access initiative (FACMT97) State appropriation (FACMT97) State assessment (COMM797) State budget (FACMT97) State Employees Credit Union (FACMT97) State government (FACMT97) State holiday (FACMT97) State laws (COMM797) Steak and lobster dinner (COMM797) Stem and leaf box (COMM797) Stress management skills (FACMT97) Student (financial) aid and facilities (FACMT97) Student (judicial) process (FACMT97) Student affairs (FACMT97) Student affairs area (FACMT97) Student affairs folks (FACMT97) Student Aid (FACMT97) Student applicants (FACMT97) Student body (FACMT97) Student body leadership (FACMT97) Student culture (FACMT97) Student development (kinds of) issues (FACMT97) Student evaluation (FACMT97) Student experience (FACMT97) Student fund raising campaign (FACMT97) Student government (FACMT97) Student honor system (FACMT97) Student learning (FACMT97) Student learning outcomes (FACMT97) Student learning team (FACMT97) Student liaison (FACMT97) Student life (FACMT97) Student organizations (FACMT97) Student population (COMM797) Student questionnaires (FACMT97) Student responses (COMM797) Student satisfaction (FACMT97) Student success (FACMT97) Student union (FACMT97) Student wage increases (FACMT97) Student/faculty fora (FACMT97) Student/faculty interaction (FACMT97) Student/faculty ratio (FACMT97) Student/teacher ratio (FACMT97) Students (prior) experiences (COMM797) Study interests (FACMT97) Study skills (FACMT97) Subject area (COMM797) Substitution resolution (FACMT97) Summary dismissal (FACMT97) Summary statements Summer camps Summer program Summer reading Summer reading program 6 APPENDIX 309 (COMM797) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) Summer sessions (FACMT97) Sunset air (FACMT97) Survey results (FACMT97) Swan Creek Airport (FACMT97) Symbol sets (COMM797) System equations (COMM797) Tanner Award winner (FACMT97) Tar Heel reporters (FACMT97) Task force (FACMT97) Task force committees (FACMT97) Task force group (FACMT97) Task force report (FACMT97) Task force subcommittee (FACMT97) Taste (of the Arts) program (FACMT97) Tat/Turner/Kuralt building (FACMT97) Tax revenue base (FACMT97) Teague Residence Hall (FACMT97) Team meeting (FACMT97) Team members (FACMT97) Technology (advisory) committee (FACMT97) Technology grants (FACMT97) Technology issue (COMM797) Technology transfer (FACMT97) Telephone call (FACMT97) Television cameras (FACMT97) Television shows (FACMT97) Television stations (FACMT97) Tenure and promotion considerations (FACMT97) Tenure and promotion decisions (FACMT97) Tenure process (FACMT97) Tenure promotion (FACMT97) Tenure regulations (FACMT97) Tenure review procedures (FACMT97) Tenure track (FACMT97) Tenure track faculty person (FACMT97) Tenure-track faculty (FACMT97) Test bias (COMM797) Test blueprint (COMM797) Test contractor (COMM797) Test developer (COMM797) Test developer contractor (COMM797) Test development analysis (COMM797) Test development contractor (COMM797) Test development process (COMM797) Test development sites (COMM797) Test grids (COMM797) Test item developer (COMM797) Test items (COMM797) Test maker (COMM797) Test materials (COMM797) Test Panel (COMM797) Test panel document (COMM797) Test program (COMM797) Test publisher (COMM797) Test specification side (COMM797) Test specifications (COMM797) Test specs (COMM797) Test time (COMM797) Threshold statement (COMM797) Time and stress management (FACMT97) Time constraints (COMM797) Time factor (COMM797) Time limit (COMM797) Time line (COMM797) Time management (FACMT97) Time recommendation (COMM797) Time thing (COMM797) Tobacco farm (FACMT97) Topic category (COMM797) Topic sections (COMM797) Topic strands (COMM797) Town and gown relations (FACMT97) Tow-release (FACMT97) Track record (FACMT97) Traffic cop (FACMT97) Transition issues (FACMT97) Transition period (FACMT97) Triangle area (FACMT97) Trick (kind of) choice answer (COMM797) Trustee policies (FACMT97) Trustee policies paragraph (FACMT97) Tuesday exam period (FACMT97) Tuition increases (FACMT97) Tuition revenue increase (FACMT97) Type camera (FACMT97) Umbrella organization UNC community UNC delegation UNC home page UNC-Chapel Hill 6 APPENDIX 310 (COMM797) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) (FACMT97) UNC-Chapel Hill Chapter (FACMT97) Undergraduate (educational) office (FACMT97) Undergraduate Admissions (FACMT97) Undergraduate career (FACMT97) Undergraduate education (FACMT97) Undergraduate enrollment (FACMT97) Undergraduate Excellence (FACMT97) Undergraduate honors thesis research (FACMT97) Undergraduate instruction (FACMT97) Undergraduate library (FACMT97) Undergraduate research experience (FACMT97) Undergraduate research program (FACMT97) Undergraduate work (COMM797) Underline rationale (COMM797) Unit head (FACMT97) Unit headings (COMM797) Unitas program (FACMT97) University (legal) counsel (FACMT97) University (of North Carolina) Fellows (FACMT97) University (of Texas) model (FACMT97) University Access (FACMT97) University administration (FACMT97) University budget (FACMT97) University Budget and Priorities Committee (FACMT97) University chancellors and presidents (FACMT97) University citizenship (FACMT97) University community (FACMT97) University Day (FACMT97) University Day Celebration (FACMT97) University document (FACMT97) University education (FACMT97) University faculty (FACMT97) University faculty members (FACMT97) University Fellow (FACMT97) University Government (FACMT97) University Government Committee (FACMT97) University Housing (FACMT97) University libraries (FACMT97) University President (FACMT97) University Professors (FACMT97) University relations staff (FACMT97) University research (FACMT97) University undergraduate experience (FACMT97) University unit (FACMT97) University-level education (FACMT97) Variety ways (COMM797) Varsity football (FACMT97) Vassar College (FACMT97) Video footage (FACMT97) Voice mail (FACMT97) Wake Forest University (FACMT97) Washington (Higher) Education Commission (FACMT97) Web publishing (FACMT97) Web site (COMM797) Word factor (COMM797) Word matrixes (COMM797) Word processor (COMM797) Work auditorium (FACMT97) Work responsibilities (FACMT97) World experts (FACMT97) World university (FACMT97) World view (FACMT97) X number (COMM797) 6 APPENDIX 311 N+N STRUCTURES IN SPOKEN BRITISH ENGLISH (ICE-GB CORPUS) Aberystwyth grits (s1b6/111) Abortion Act (slb60/17) Acanthus leaves (s2a24/70) Accident book (s2a67/128) Accidents Prevention Unit (slb59/68) Acquisition trail (s2a70/17) Action plan (slb61/118) Action programme (slb55/41) Admission (treating) hospital (slb68/57) Adoption studies (s1b3/181) Advance payments (slb56/58) Affidavit evidence (s2a63/16) Afon Valley elderly people (slb56/37) Alpha Challenge (s2a66/76) Alpha motor neurons (s1b9/73) Alteration work (slb69/116) Angle collisions (s2a28/49) Anti-discrimination legislation (slb62/115) Arbitration award (s2a65/1) Arbitration clause (s2a65/12) Arbitration proceedings (s2a65/33) Architecture room (s1b7/7) Area excavation (s2a26/65) Area manager (slb67/35) Arrangement fee (slb61/98) ASC Consultants (slb61/40) Athens (National) Museum (s2a24/74) Attendance notes (s2a69/60) Autumn expenditure round (slb59/6) Autumn statement (slb58/25) Back injuries (s2a67/174) Back pain (s2a67/176) Background information (s2a29/3) Background paintings (s1b8/167) Back-hander deals (s1b5/39) Bank statements (slb61/20) Bank strategy (slb54/44) Bankruptcy order (s2a69/59) Bankruptcy petition (s2a69/3) Bay Bridge (s2a25/56) Beautician circuit (s2a61/111) Beauty therapist (s2a61/111) Beef intervention (slb56/58) Biopsy business (s1b10/45) Bird song (s1b3/10) Block diagram (s2a30/98) Blood pressure level (s1b4/279) Blood pressure measurement (s1b4/273) Blood pressure reading (s1b4/257) Blood pressures (s1b4/229) Blood vessels (s1b9/132) Body shell (slb68/35) Bone beds (s1b6/137) Bone graft (s2a62/74) Book review (s2a27/115) Boot lights bumper (slb68/19) Border country (s2a61/97) Borders Special (s2a61/95) Breast change (s1b10/133) Brick masonry (s2a25/17) Bumper lights (slb68/20) Bunker mentality (s2a21/54) Business administration (s2a26/6) Business associate (s2a70/4) Business combination (s1b5/24) Business conditions (s1b5/166) Business corporations (s1b5/1) Business dealings (s2a70/16) Business efficiency (s1b5/133) Business interests (s2a26/48) Business men (s1b5/20) Business opinion (s2a23/70) Business organisations (slb57/60) Business security (s1b5/164) Business studies (s2a26/6) Business ties (s1b5/24) Business trips (slb70/30) Bypass schemes (s2a23/92) Cabinet discussions (slb59/21) Caffeine fix (s1b7/36) Cairo area (s2a26/45) Camouflage make-up (s2a62/124) Cannabis plants (s2a68/94) Cannes group (slb53/9) Canon Films Sales (s2a63/42) 6 APPENDIX 312 Capital expenditure plans (s2a23/94) Capital spending (slb52/26) Capital Stock Order (slb54/7) Capital sum (s2a69/27) Carbon dioxide (s1b7/237) Cardinal Archbishop (slb60/1) Career development (slb59/2) Career potential (slb55/90) Carlton Cleaning (slb64/69) Cartilage implant (s2a62/55) Case officer (s2a68/3) Case summary (s2a68/7) Cash flow (s2a23/24) Cash spending (slb52/69) Cast-iron case (s2a69/20) Cat scratch (slb66/23) Cell bodies (s1b9/116) Cell Lung Cancer (s2a29/16) Cell lung cancer patients (s2a29/30) Cell tumours (s2a29/7) Centre lane (slb68/43) Channel Tunnel (s2a23/41) Charge hand (s2a67/42) Charter rate (s2a65/40) Charterparty account (s2a65/53) Cheek bone (s2a62/74) Chief secretary (slb52/8) Christmas island (slb51/90) Church terms (s1b5/177) Circuit board (s2a29/49) Circuit design (s2a29/66) Circuit designers (s2a29/56) Circuit foundry (s2a29/58) Clapham Academy (s2a26/9) Closure motion (slb51/49) Cloud Cuckoo land (slb53/35) Coal mining commission (s2a26/31) Coat hypertension (s1b4/291) Coda exponents (s2a30/101) College paper (s2a27/28) Colour (composite) image (s2a29/86) Colour satellite image (s2a26/77) Colour values (s1b8/184) Column capital (s2a24/55) Community care (slb56/40) Community care proposals (slb56/44) Community document (slb54/13) Community Matters (slb54/28) Community membership (slb54/71) Community ratification (slb54/66) Companies House (slb51/153) Company report (slb62/137) Completion date (slb61/147) Compromise solution (slb53/116) Computer pay-rolls (slb58/34) Concrete slabs (s2a25/27) Consensus thinking (slb57/25) Conservation area (s2a27/120) Consideration shares (s2a70/78) Conspiracy charge (slb63/130) Construction industry (slb55/8) Construction industry inflation index (s2a23/87) Consultant anaesthetist (s1b10/72) Consultant surgeon (slb68/45) Consultation exercise (slb57/60) Coral Sea Enterprises (s2a66/74) Correlation themes (s1b6/199) Cortina car (slb68/33) Council decision (slb54/66) County councils (s2a21/35) Court case (s2a27/149) Court circles (s2a26/19) Court hearing (s2a27/138) Cradle walls (s2a25/23) Cream colour (s1b8/161) Cross claims (s2a69/13) Cross examination (s2a67/94) Cross Hospital (slb68/57) Crossword puzzle (s2a27/141) Crowd reaction (s2a66/11) Crown case (s2a68/16) Crown counsel (s2a68/19) Croydon College (slb62/32) Cup width (s1b4/339) Customs matter (slb63/36) Customs officers (s2a68/4) Customs solicitor (slb63/258) Daddy bed (s1b3/51) Damages claim (s2a64/48) Data tapes (s2a28/73) 6 APPENDIX 313 Day book (s2a67/178) Debt repayment (slb52/15) Deck columns (s2a25/99) Deck freeway (s2a25/94) Defamation cases (s2a63/2) Default judgement (s2a69/24) Defence counsel (s2a68/19) Delivery pattern (slb64/84) Delors report (slb53/90) Depth information (s2a29/106) Deputy (foreign) minister (slb60/99) Deputy Speaker (slb51/2) Design and safety factor (s2a25/45) Design provisions (s2a25/59) Design stages (s2a23/92) Determiner noun (s1b2/244) Development Council (slb57/24) Diary cards (s2a29/25) Diary entry (slb64/94) Digit preference (s1b4/228) Dinner time (s2a67/41) Disc extrusion (slb68/131) Disease patients (s2a29/12) Dispatch box (slb53/48) Distribution list (s2a28/117) District Council (s2a63/41) District health authority (slb56/16) Dose intensity (s2a29/13) Downing Street (s2a23/25) Draft (European) Bank (for Reconstruction and Development) Subscription (slb54/7) Draft Council decision (slb54/82) Draft decision (slb54/73) Draft orders (slb54/30) Dress sense (s2a61/112) Drinamyl tablets (s2a27/32) Drug combination (s2a27/40) Drug smuggling (slb63/28) Drugs run (s2a68/106) Ductility ratio (s2a25/43) Earthquake damage (s2a25/3) Earthquake energy (s2a25/67) Earthquake engineering (s2a25/101) Earthquake Engineering Investigation Team (s2a25/3) Earthquake resistance (s2a25/12) Earthquake resistance design (s2a25/3) EC regulations (slb57/68) Ecu proposal (slb53/20) Edinburgh Festival showing (s2a64/46) Education budget (slb52/25) Education classes (slb62/45) Education service (s2a22/2) Education training (slb62/10) EEC budget (slb54/80) EEC capital subscription (slb54/80) EEC nationals (slb59/40) EEC proposal Document (slb54/8) Egypt Exploration Society (s2a26/3) EIB statute (slb54/70) Election bribes (s2a22/89) Electron collisions (s2a28/4) Electron molecule interaction (s2a28/19) Electron scattering (s2a28/43) Electron scattering information (s2a28/14) Electron spectrometer (s2a28/40) Elevation information (s2a29/103) EMA staff (slb57/82) E-mail links (s2a28/73) E-mail system (s2a28/76) Embryo experimentation (slb60/52) Embryo research (slb60/38) Embryo transfer (slb60/44) Employment (Medical Advisory) Service (slb57/85) Employment (of Handicapped) Report (slb57/8) Employment and education (training) needs (slb62/10) Employment Consultants (slb62/11) Employment training (slb57/52) End (of year) accounts (slb65/120) End customer (s2a29/60) England World Cup football squad (slb59/14) England World Cup team (slb59/18) Enhancement policy (s2a27/122) Enterprise councils (slb59/4) Erskine May (slb51/158) Essay title (s1b7/227) Eucalyptus trees (s2a24/16) 6 APPENDIX 320 United Kingdom government (slb59/51) United States government (slb59/104) University College London (s2a26/34) University side (s2a25/6) Uruguay round (slb53/18) US history (s2a25/82) Vagus nerve (s1b9/46) Vauxhall Bridge (slb68/7) Victory monument (s2a22/62) View point (s2a21/41) Villa estate (s2a26/70) Voice nasalization and aspiration (s2a30/111) Vowel quality (s2a30/92) Wage increases (slb57/43) Wage negotiations (slb57/46) Wages councils (slb55/62) Wall constraints (s2a25/15) War time (slb70/69) Warsaw Pact (s2a23/71) Water data (s2a28/50) Wealth creation (slb59/79) Weather conditions (s2a62/93) Weight loss (s2a62/113) Welcome meeting (slb66/155) Welcome party (slb66/74) Wellhausen hypothesis (s1b1/9) Wenlock limestone (s1b6/123) West coast ports (s2a23/31) Westminster Bank (s2a66/36) Westminster case (s2a65/76) Westminster Chemicals (s2a65/76) Whitney Bay (slb66/124) Window openings (s2a25/90) Winter cold (s2a64/12) Withdrawal signs (s2a27/96) Withdrawal symptoms (s2a27/78) Witness box (s2a61/15) Word processor (slb64/26) Word structure (s2a30/73) Work force (s2a67/124) Work pattern (slb62/162) Work permit (slb59/40) Work permit scheme (slb59/37) Work place (slb55/14) Work record (slb62/152) Workforce work (slb58/51) World authority (s2a62/73) World Class (footballing) skills (slb59/15) World countries (slb53/61) World Cup (slb59/17) World Health Organisation (slb60/44) World trade (slb53/117) World War (slb70/90) Youth (training) budget (slb59/21) Youth training (slb59/15) YTS scheme (slb59/14) YTS trainees (slb59/17) Zero level (s1b4/252) Zero rating (s2a69/20) 6 APPENDIX 321 6.3 APPENDIX III LEXICALISED N+N STRUCTURES LEXICALISED N+N STRUCTURES IN WRITTEN AMERICAN ENGLISH I N+N MODIFICATION COORDINATION SEMANTIC OPACITY ORTHOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION Air Force (BG3/119) + + + - Alpha-beta- gammas (BK27/27) + + - + Baby boy (BK26/81) + + - - Bank accounts (BA2/15) + + - - Battle ground (BG2/21) + + - - Beach-head (BK29/141) + + + + Bermuda shorts (BB16/31) + + + - Bond issue (BA1/125) + + + - Bone marrow (BJ15/31) + + + - Box turtle (BB9/34) + + - - Brush clump (BK2/102) + + - - Button pushers (BG3/32) + + + - Camera film (BA20/19) + + - - Career girl (BA16/91) + + - - Cash register (BA19/32-33) + + + - Chain stores (BB16/74-75) + + + - Christmas bow (BK28/160) + + + - Church fathers (BB12/171) + + + - Cigarette lighters (BA20/108) + - + - City council (BA1/82) + - - - City hat (BK28/61) + - - - City-dweller (BG8/51) + + - + Clover plants (BJ16/25) + - - - Cocktail party (BA17/27) + + - - Conference + + - - 6 APPENDIX 322 house (BK27/158-159) Convenience foods (BA26/59) + + + - Copy writer (BA16/111) + + + - Corn flakes (BK25/19) + + - - Corner group (BK4/38) + + + - Corner markets (BB16/77) + + + - Cotillion gown (BA16/75) + - + - Death penalty (BB26/145) + + - - Death sentence (BB26/154) + + - - Decision making (BG3/144-145) + + - - Desert island (BB8/115) + + - - Dust blanket (BJ7/127-128) + - - - Egg case (BK27/155) + - - - Election ballot (BA1/104) + + - - Election campaign (BA1/184) + + - - Election commissioners (BB16/90) + + - - Emergency room (BB8/167-168) + + + - Enemy land (BK2/21-22) + + + - Entrance hall (BK27/66-67) + + - - Entrance tickets (BG5/55) + + + - Error angle (BJ80/149) + + - - Eye range (BK2/11-12) + + + - Eye sockets (BG4/122) + + + - Fair grounds (BA26/83) + + + - Fallout shelters (BA16/112) + + + - Family physician (BB15/164) + + + - Farm houses + + - - 6 APPENDIX 323 (BA17/123) Fire storm (BB16/18) + - - - Flower gardens (BK4/96) + - - - Fringe benefits (BB12/4) + + + - Funeral parlor (BK3/2) + + - - Gas pedal (BB9/167) + + + - Grab bag (BG9/157-158) + + + - Growth stocks (BA26/56) + + - - Home offices (BA26/126) + + + - Home town (BG1/184) + + + - Ice box (BK26/50) + + + - Ice water (BK26/49) + + - - Index finger (BK25/116) + - - - Iron Curtain (BB11/87) + + + - Jet tankers (BG3/82) + - + - Labor unions (BG11/32) + + + - Land Rover (BG4/81) + + + - Law practice (BG7/124) + + - - Law suits (BA19/70-71) + + + - Life boat (BB17/130) + + + - Light beam (BJ16/55) + + - - Lymph nodes (BJ12/10-11) + - - - Machine gun (BK2/39) + + + - Market crash (BB12/40) + + + - Motel-keepers (BA17/94) - + - + Mother country (BG1/116) + + + - Nation-state (BG2/4) + + - + New York Mets (BA16/164) + + - - New York + + - - 6 APPENDIX 324 Yankees (BA11/100-101) Night club (BA16/118) + + + - Night dress (BK5/60) + + + - Opera House (BA17/41) + + - - Paper work (BA27/125) + + + - Patron saints (BG1/25) + + + - Peace corps (BB16/22) + + + - Peace treaty (BB11/92) + + - - Pension plan (BA1/63) + - - - Picket lines (BG8/79) + + - - Plaster casts (BK29/2) + - - - Post office (BK27/159) + + + - Power plant (BA20/83-84) + + + - Press conference (BB27/77) + + + - Rabbit warren (BK4/91) + + - - Rain cloud (BG4/12) + + - - Rain dance (BG11/121) + + + - Rain squall (BG4/6) + + + - Rat-holes (BK4/60) + + - + Rest home (BB8/166) + + + - River bed (BG5/89-90) + + + - Roller skates (BK25/39-40) + + + - Room temperature (BJ4/161) + + + - Salvation Army (BA17/62) + + + - Saw-horse (BK29/161) + + + + Scar tissue (BJ15/92) + + + - Shower room (BK27/139) + - - - Sports car + - + - 6 APPENDIX 325 (BB9/39) Spring water (BG5/83) + + + - Stag dinner (BA17/31) + + + - Stock exchange (BB11/102) + + + - Stock holdings (BB16/142) + + + - Stock market (BA26/ 42) + + + - Stop lights (BA20/187) + + - - Tea party (BB27/178) + - - - Telephone calls (BA1/185) + + - - Tie dinner (BA17/25) + + + - Toll booths (BB17/96) + - - - Town council (BB15/52) + - - - Track meet (BA11/161-162) + + + - Traffic jam (BB9/151) + + + - Tree-clumps (BG4/51) + - - - Trouser cuffs (BK25/62-63) + - - - Vine bower (BK25/22) + + - - Water rat (BG5/75) + - - - Wedding trip (BA16/19) + + - - Week-end (BA20/27) + + - - Welcome mat (BA17/73-74) + + + - 6 APPENDIX 326 LEXICALISED N+N STRUCTURES IN WRITTEN BRITISH ENGLISH I N+N MODIFICATION COORDINATION SEMANTIC OPACITY ORTHOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION Air Force (LA3/213) + + + - Air mails (LB23/78) + - + - Air Ministry (LA9/29) + - + - Air terminal (LK5/18) + - + - Air transport (LA15/54) + - + - Air-Commodore (LB9/131) + - + + Base line (LJ14/86) + + + - Bird-cherry (LG51/175) + + + + Blood cells (LJ16/182) + + + - Blood pressure (LJ16/32) + + + - Blood suckers (LB5/157) + + + - Board-room (LK1/98) + + - + Boat-train (LB5/32) + - + + Bow tie (LA3/127) + + + - Brain-washing (LG5536) + + + + Bush-telegraph (LK23/154) + + + + Cheek-bones (LK21/176) + - - + Chit-chat (LB5/38) + + + + Church-goers (LB16/86) + + - + Cliff-face (LK21/114) + + - + Coca-Cola (LK2/20) + + + + Coffee bar (LA9/130) + + + - Concentration camps (LA10/131) + + + - Cook boy (LK2/16) + - + - Crash barriers (LA4/86) + + + - 6 APPENDIX 327 Crew-cut (LK5/175) + + + + Deck chair (LK22/35) + + + - Dog-days (LG54/14) + + + + Family doctor (LB14/183) + + + - Father figure (LA3/120) + - - - Field work (LJ14/184) + - + - Field-marshals (LG54/93-94) + + + + Fighter bombers (LB6/49) + + - - Fire brigade (LA12/51) + + + - Football pools (LA22/37) + + + - Gang-plank (LK22/58) + + + + Gas chamber (LJ18/148) - + + - Ghost story (LG77/196) + - + - Glory-hole (LG51/167) + + + + Hand baggage (LK26/15) + - + - Hand basin (LK26/78) + + + - Head-dress (LK3/108) + + + + Health Service (LB9/170) + - + - Health visitor (LJ14/108) + - + - Heart beats (LJ16/33) + + - - Hill-side (LK4/206) + - - + Home Secretary (LB8/18-19) + - + - Home-makers (LA16/212) + + + + Horror story (LG77/196) + - - - Income tax (LB7/51) - - + - Juke box (LA9/124) + + + - Left-winger (LB8/57) + - + + Lobster-pot (LK21/124) + - - + 6 APPENDIX 328 Love affair (LK23/7-8) + + - - Love-play (LK2/142) + + - + Money-spinners (LB8/182) + + + + Mosquito-net (LK2/132) + - - + Music Hall (LK24/155) + - + + Notice-board (LK21/2) + + - + Nut-crackers (LK3/209) + - - + Office hours (LK1/95) + - - - Paper work (LB10/187) + + + - Patron saints (LB5/89) + + + - Police officer (LA12/205) + - - - Post Office (LA16/59) + + + - Punishment cell (LA9/106) + - + - Radio-therapist (LK23/106) + + + + Salt water (LJ16/9) + - - - School leavers (LA12/102) + - + - Shirt cuffs (LK1/8) + - - - Shirt-sleeves (LK3/58) + - - + Shop stewards (LA4/174) + + + - Sickness benefit (LB14/71) + + + - Sight-seeing (LK22/178) + + + + Sledge-hammers (LB5/56) + + + + Space age (LB6/214) + - + - Spin trap (LA22/125) + + + - Sponge cake (LK22/170) + + - - Stock Exchange (LA13/171) + + + - Stock market (LA16/130) + + + - Subject matter (LG77/81) + + + - 6 APPENDIX 329 Swivel armchairs (LA10/188) + - + - Table napkin (LK3/147) + - - - Table tennis (LA9/135) + + + - Tape recordings (LB5/65) + - + - Tape-recorder (LA10/197) + - + - Tax-payers (LA16/57) + + - + Teddy-bear (LG51/15) + + + + Telephone call (LG63/45) + + - - Time-scale (LG58/91) + - - + Tourist office (LK22/61) + - - - Town Council (LB23/88) + - - - Town Hall (LK24/135-136) + - + - Trade unionist (LB5/57) + + + - Trade unions (LB8/143) + + + - Trap-door (LJ18/148) + + + + Trouble-spot (LA13/58) + + - + Union chief (LA12/237) + - + - Union Fellows (LK26/99) + - + - Village green (LB5/92) + + + - Wage pause (LB9/51) + - + - Waste-paper basket (LB9/97) + + + - Wedding cake (LK26/10) + - - - Wedding-dress (LA9/227) + - + + Welfare State (LB14/5) + + + - Window dressing (LB6/208) + + + - Window-sill (LK21/67) + + + + Yard-arm (LK2/69) + + + + 6 APPENDIX 336 Virgin Records (FLG59/110) + - + - Wage earner (FLG56/171) + - - - Wall Street Journal (FLJ16/83) + - + - Wastepaper baskets (FLK24/174) + - + - Water sprinklers (FLA24/227) + - - - Water-wheels (FLG62/114) + + + + Welcome mat (FLB13/206) + + + - Wind chimes (FLK24/141) + - + - World Bank (FLK26/191) + + + - 6 APPENDIX 337 LEXICALISED N+N STRUCTURES IN SPOKEN AMERICAN ENGLISH N+N MODIFICATION COORDINATION SEMANTIC OPACITY ORTHOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION Ballot boxes (FACMT97) + - - - Blood bank (FACMT97) + + + - Board rooms (FACMT97) + + - - Bold face (COMM797) + - + - Bond issues (FACMT97) + + + - Calendar year (FACMT97) + + + - City center (COMM797) + - - - Cross walk (COMM797) + + + - Data bases (FACMT97) + + - - Dinner table (FACMT97) + - - - Fax machine (COMM797) + - - - Fund raising (FACMT97) + + - - Health care (FACMT97) + - - - Heart attack (FACMT97) + + - - Home page (FACMT97) + + + - Ice cream (COMM797) + - + - Lunch table (FACMT97) + - - - New York Times (FACMT97) + + + - Pie charts (FACMT97) + + + - Press conference (FACMT97) + + + - Quality control (COMM797) + - - - Residence halls (FACMT97) + + + - Student union (FACMT97) + - + - Summer camps (FACMT97) + + + - Task force (FACMT97) + + + - Telephone call (FACMT97) + + - - 6 APPENDIX 338 Track record (FACMT97) + + + - Voice mail (FACMT97) + - + - Web site (COMM797) + + + - 6 APPENDIX 339 LEXICALISED N+N STRUCTURES IN SPOKEN BRITISH ENGLISH N+N MODIFICATION COORDINATION SEMANTIC OPACITY ORTHOGRAPHIC REPRESENTATION Cash flow (s2a23/24) + + + - Cheek bone (s2a62/74) + - - - Cross examination (s2a67/94) + + + - Dispatch box (slb53/48) + - + - Eye socket (s2a62/47) + + + - Face value (s1b5/16) + + + - Field day (s2a27/129) + + + - Fire escapes (slb67/43) + + + - Fork lift (s2a67/104) + + + - Forklift truck (s2a67/7) + + + - Front bench (slb51/73) + + + - Gas stations (S1b5/110) + + + - Grammar schools (s2a21/76) + - + - Heart attack (s2a62/109) + + - - Ice packs (s2a62/16) + - + - Junk mail (s2a28/88) + - + - Knee cap (s2a67/81) + + + - Motor cars (slb63/126) + - + - Office hours (s1b7/66) + - + - Petrol stations (s1b5/110) + + + - Phone call (slb69/45) + + - - Poll tax (slb52/50) + + + - Rain forest (s1b7/239) + + + - Richter scale (s2a25/50) + - + - Road junction (s2a29/120) + - - - Seed money + + + - 6 APPENDIX 340 (slb54/59) Side effects (s1b4/276) + + + - Steam roller (s1b8/48) + + + - Sun block (slb66/97) + - - - Taste buds (s1b9/164) + + + - Telephone calls (s2a70/41) + + - - Test tube (slb60/20) + + + - Thumbnail sketches (s2a26/21) + + + - Track record (slb59/81) + + + - Trunk roads (s2a23/91) + - + - Union Jack (slb53/48) + + + - View point (s2a21/41) + + + - Witness box (s2a61/15) + + + - Word processor (slb64/26) + + + - Work force (s2a67/124) + + + - 6 APPENDIX 341 6.4 APPENDIX IV STRESS PATTERNS OF N+N STRUCTURES, BASED ON THE JUDGEMENTS OF EIGHT NATIVE SPEAKERS OF ENGLISH33 NOMINAL GROUPS SPK1 (Leigh) SPK2 (Chris) SPK3 (Phil) SPK4 (Paul) SPK5 (Kathy) SPK6 (Suzie) SPK7 (Eileen) SPK8 (Janice) air crash 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 air raid 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 balance sheet 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 bank accounts 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 blood suckers 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 branch officers 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 bull frog 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 car crash 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 chain reaction 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 cigarette packets 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 coffee shop 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 country folk 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 dance floor 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 desk chair 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 drug addiction 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 fire stations 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 football field 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 football-team 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 gas cooker 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 gold-mines 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 health care 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 heart attack 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 33 Note: 1 indicates main stress on the first constituent, whereas 2 indicates main stress on the second constituent. 6 APPENDIX 342 heart beat 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 hill-side 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 home-town 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 house arrest 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 ice sheet 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 income tax 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 letter box 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 life style 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 light source 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 love affair 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 machine gun 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 mass media 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 mosquito-net 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 news agency 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 office hours 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 opinion polls 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 peace treaty 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 phone-calls 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 phone number 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 place-names 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 press conference 2 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 rain cloud 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 room temperature 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 rubber pad 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 sea level 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 sea waves 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 street lamp 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 trade unions 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 6 APPENDIX 343 6.5 APPENDIX V COMPOUND N+N NOUNS COMPOUND N+N NOUNS IN WRITTEN AMERICAN ENGLISH I Aircraft (BB26/158) Airflow (BJ12/61) Airframe (BJ80/49) Airport (BA1/53) Airways (BJ12/100) Barnyard (BK27/145) Baseman (BA11/23) Bathrobe (BK1/63) Battlefield (BG10/141) Bedrooms (BK5/20) Bookseller (BA20/21) Bridegroom (BA17/137) Bridesmaids (BA17/161) Brushwork (BG9/57) Bunkmate (BK29/35) Businessmen (BB9/141) Butterflies (BB9/48) Caretaker (BK25/48) Chairman (BA11/131) Chambermaid (BK27/60) Chestnuts (BB11/136) Classrooms (BB9/89) Clodhoppers (BK5/33) Clothesbrush (BK28/65) Clotheshorse (BK28/128) Clubhouse (BK5/9) Committeeman (BB11/61) Congressmen (BK3/162) Cornbread (BG8/10) Councilman (BA19/85) Countryside (BG4/50) Dogwood (BK28/102) Doorbell (BK5/12) Doorknob (BB12/22) Driveway (BK25/156) Entranceway (BK29/162) Eyeball (BG4/124) Eyebrow (BA20/151) Eyelids (BG4/121) Eyepiece (BJ16/56) Firemen (BB16/57) Fireplace (BK25/30) Fireworks (BG5/101) Football (BB12/27) Footbridge (BK29/15) Footnotes (BA12/48) Footstep (BG7/17) Foxholes (BG3/16) Grahamstown (BA17/154) Grassroots (BB11/7) Groomsmen (BA17/165) Handlebars (BK2/139) Headline (BA16/117) Homeland (BG8/140) Homemakers (BK26/112) Housewife (BA11/174) Landlord (BG5/72) Landmark (BK4/19) Linebackers (BA12/146) Lipstick (BK1/16) Mountainside (BG5/73) Mouthpieces (BB11/87) Newspaper (BB11/176) Nightfall (BA11/130) Officeholders (BB11/9) Parkhouse (BA2/51) Pathways (BJ12/52) Paycheck (BA20/153) Paymaster (BA20/50) Pineapple (BB10/165) Pocketbook (BB26/42) Policemen (BA20/153-154) Railroad (BA19/15) Riverbanks (BG5/140) Rosebuds (BK3/108) Salesmanship (BA26/161) Scoreboard (BA11/66) Seaports (BG4/71) Searchlight (BK2/88) Shareholders (BA27/136) Shipwreck (BB17/130) Shipyards (BK2/140) Shoelace (BK28/73) Shopkeepers (BK3/11) Showerhead (BK27/150) Showman (BA16/159) Signpost (BK29/159) Skyline (BB17/87) Snowfall (BA19/94) Snowstorm (BB15/126) Soundproof (BK5/119) Speedometer (BG4/94) Sportsman (BA16/150) Springtime (BK3/94) Staircases (BB11/197) Stairway (BK27/68) Statesman (BG2/19) Stockholder (BA27/99) Suitcases (BA17/98) Summerspace (BG9/8) Summertime (BA17/102) Sunlight (BG5/21) Sunrise (BG5/108) Sunset (BG5/108) Sunshield (BB9/29) Taxicab (BB17/83) Taxpayer (BB8/29) Teahouse (BG5/51) Teammates (BA11/120) Teardrop (BA20/83) Tidewater (BG1/102) Typewriter (BA16/107) Viewpoint (BJ12/118) Watersheds (BG2/64) Windbag (BK26/94) 6 APPENDIX 344 Windfall (BK25/35) Wintertime (BA11/116) Woodwork (BB12/47) Workshop (BK25/22) 6 APPENDIX 345 COMPOUND N+N NOUNS IN WRITTEN BRITISH ENGLISH I Aircraft (LB10/126) Airfield (LK22/112) Airline (LA15/21) Airliners (LG54/205) Airmen (LG55/168) Airport (LK22/154) Airway (LJ16/147) Bathrooms (LK23/86) Batsman (LB5/93) Bedjacket (LK3/106) Bedroom (LK2/131) Bedside (LK3/107) Bedstead (LG56/4) Bodyguard (LG54/121) Bookbinder (LK26/54) Bookmakers (LA23/176) Bookseller (LG53/14) Bookshops (LK26/25) Brainwashing (LG55/28) Businessman (LK5/161) Chairman (LB8/202) Charterhouse (LA10/119) Cheekbones (LK3/144) Classmates (LG55/9) Clergyman (LK23/41) Coalfields (LA13/106) Collarbone (LA23/5) Cornflowers (LA10/52) Countrymen (LG56/169) Countryside (LG54/91) Craftsman (LB5/70) Crossman (LB9/123) Daytime (LK26/44) Doorstep (LB16/42) Doorway (LK4/124) Earthquake (LG56/60) Eyebrow (LK2/96) Fireplace (LK3/138) Fishermen (LK21/168) Floodtide (LG51/97) Football (LA22/80) Framework (LG51/124) Gangway (LK22/67) Goalkeeper (LA22/135) Goalmouth (LA22/90) Grapeshot (LB16/15) Guardsman (LB8/203) Hairdresser (LG56/21) Handkerchief (LB23/200) Handshakes (LG5547) Haymarket (LG56/119) Hillside (LG54/67) Honeymoon (LA10/19) Husbandmen (LG51/196) Irishman (LA9/224) Landlady (LK22/146) Landlord (LA9/123) Landmarks (LK24/139) Lawmaking (LG53/181) Lawsuits (LG54/203) Limelight (LB8/42) Linesmen (LG54/63) Loanwords (LG51/72) Loggerheads (LA10/85) Logwood (LG56/51) Mineworkers (LA13/86) Moonlight (LB5/176) Newspaper (LG54/142) Nightdress (LK3/106) Oaktree (LG51/54) Papermakers (LA16/163) Patchwork (LB10/35) Pipelines (LB11/33) Policemen (LA13/65) Postcard (LK24/83) Postman (LG54/55) Postmaster (LB8/185) Queensland (LK22/28) Railwaymen (LB11/55) Railways (LB10/111) Raincoats (LB9/84) Rainfall (LK22/156) Ratepayer (LB23/97) Roommates (LK26/126) Schoolboy (LB8/201) Schooldays (LK23/105) Schoolmaster (LA9/91) Schoolteachers (LB11/75) Seagulls (LK24/194) Seaside (LG54/200) Shareholders (LA16/18) Signpost (LB14/11) Sledgehammers (LK24/111) Snowfalls (LG54/40) Spellbinder (LA3/116) Stablemate (LA23/81) Stardust (LK24/164) Starfighter (LA3/213) Steeplechasers (LA23/148) Suitcase (LK5/53) Sunbeam (LA10/221) Swimsuit (LK26/182) Taxpayer (LB7/15) Teashop (LK26/48) Textbook (LJ13/108) Thunderclap (LK3/64) Toothache ((LK24/2) Typewriter (LK26/15) Viewpoint (LG55/68) Wallpaper (LA12/68) Warehouse (LK24/140) Warhead (LA3/188) Weekend (LB8/41) Woodcuts (LG77/139) Wormwood (LG51/35) 6 APPENDIX 352 (FLG51/197) researchers (FLJ16/170) (FLJ1/8) experiments (FLJ1/100) performance (FLA16/138) Redlands Road (FLB10/113) Results season (FLA16/3) Rights abuses (FLA1/214) Rights issue (FLA16/27) Rovers camp (FLA32/228) Seahawks reporter (FLA32/34) Seventies rock independents (FLG59/109) Singles champion (FLA33/8) Singles sales (FLG59/92) Singles semifinals (FLA33/14) Sixties pop (FLK21/26) Social services committee (FLG17/108) Social services correspondent (FLA11/84) Sports Medicine (FLB11/18) Statistics graduate (FLA16/103) Telecommunications company (FLA16/178) Textiles distribution (FLA16/64) Torts Act (FLJ16/182-183) Trades Union congress (FLA1/106) United Nations forum (FLG53/160) United Nations sanctions (FLB12/134) Universities Council (FLA11/153) Viewers association (FLB11/101) Volvo Masters titles (FLA33/156) Wages bill (FLB8/140) Western Isles council (FLB8/199) Workers party (FLA1/45) Youths section (FLA32/13) 6 APPENDIX 353 PLURAL NOUN MODIFIERS IN SPOKEN AMERICAN ENGLISH Admissions Office (FACMT97) Admissions studies (FACMT97) Affairs Office (FACMT97) Appeals process (FACMT97) Associates degrees (FACMT97) Coaches salaries (FACMT97) College Studies curriculum (FACMT97) Durham Scholars Program (FACMT97) Faculty Athletics Committee (FACMT97) Faculty Hearings Committee (FACMT97) Faculty members time (FACMT97) Faculty Roles and Rewards group (FACMT97) Fellows programs (FACMT97) Formulas list (COMM797) Fractions item (COMM797) Freshmen honors courses (FACMT97) Functions problem (COMM797) Graduate admissions tests (FACMT97) Honors courses (FACMT97) Honors program (FACMT97) Human Resources Division (FACMT97) Humanities voice mails (FACMT97) Lecturers Committee (FACMT97) Liberal arts education (FACMT97) Masters degree (FACMT97) News articles (FACMT97) News item (FACMT97) News magazines (FACMT97) Pages thing (COMM797) Specs book (COMM797) Specs form (COMM797) Standards (Writing) Group (COMM797) Standards Reference Exam (COMM797) Student affairs area (FACMT97) Student affairs folks (FACMT97) Trustee policies paragraph (FACMT97) University Budget and Priorities Committee (FACMT97) University relations staff (FACMT97) PLURAL NOUN MODIFIERS IN SPOKEN BRITISH ENGLISH Accidents Prevention Unit (slb59/68) Boot lights bumper (slb68/19) Borders Special (s2a61/95) Canon Films Sales (s2a63/42) Companies House (slb51/153) Customs matter (slb63/36) Customs officers (s2a68/4) Customs solicitor (slb63/258) Damages claim (s2a64/48) Drugs run (s2a68/106) Law courts building (s2a24/116) Opportunities project (slb62/128) Overseas development and cooperation (slb54/1) Overseas investment (slb55/52) Patients department (s2a62/48) Payments position (slb53/104) Physics department (s2a28/2) Race Relations Act (slb59/56) Regulations circulars (s2a21/25) Shields Road (slb66/124) Trades union power (slb55/52) Trades union reforms (slb55/66) Trades unionism (slb55/57) Wages councils (slb55/62) 6 APPENDIX 355 7 REFERENCES Aarts, Bas. 2007. 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