Post-fire ecological restoration in Latin American forest ecosystems: insights and lessons from the last two decades

Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 Available online 10 February 2022 0378-1127/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Post-fire ecological restoration in Latin American forest ecosystems: Insights and lessons from the last two decades Pablo Souza-Alonso a , b , c , * , Gustavo Saiz b , Rafael A. García c , Aníbal Pauchard c , d , Ant´ onio Ferreira e , f , Agustín Merino a a University of Santiago de Compostela, Escuela Polit´ ecnica Superior, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Lugo, Spain b Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Cat´ olica de la Santísima Concepci´ on, Concepci´ on, Chile c Laboratorio de Invasiones Biol´ ogicas (LIB), Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad de Concepci´ on, Concepci´ on, Chile d Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Santiago, Chile e CERNAS—Study Center for Natural Resources, Environment and Society, Agricultural School-Escola Superior Agr´ aria de Coimbra (ESAC), 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal f Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra (IPC), Agricultural School (ESAC), 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Wildfires Forest degradation Postfire restoration Natural/assisted restoration Social participation Socio-economic limitations ABSTRACT Wildfires are responsible for a substantial loss of forest ecosystem services globally and represent a major driving force of forest degradation across Latin American and the Caribbean (LAC). The detrimental effect of forest fires is particularly relevant in regions where fire has been historically absent or has rarely occurred. Nowadays, there is an increasing interest to promote and develop ecological restoration (ER) following fire. LAC constitutes a hotspot where work and interest in ER has been steadily increasing over the last decades, mainly due to the drive of a new generation of young and experienced ecologists and foresters. Despite the increasing attention in post-fire restoration in the region, there is a dearth of initiatives compiling and organizing all the available information on this topic. This work aims to address such constraint, providing current information on post-fire ER in LAC forests. After a brief contextualization of environmental and social consequences of wildfires, we collect and discuss recent advances on restoring degraded forests. From the conifer Mexican ecosystems to the Southern Patagonian evergreen forests, we look back over the last two decades (2000–2020) mainly discussing experiences of success and failure, as well as limitations of implementing approaches based on passive/natural restoration or active/assisted restoration. Furthermore, we also explore other aspects of the restoration process, including those related to social participation and community engagement (e. g. education in restored areas), the use of fire regulation and management to reduce fire risks and increase ecosystem resilience, educational aspects and intermediate approaches as agroforestry and silviculture practices. In the last sections, we identify three major categories of specific constraints that condition ER, including environmental limitations (biotic and abiotic factors), technical/management factors and the socio-economic challenge of restoration. Finally, we briefly discuss future perspectives for ER in LAC. 1. Introduction From the mixed conifer ecosystems in the highlands of Mexico to the Southern Patagonian evergreen stands, forests cover nearly a billion hectares across Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), making up a significant share of Earth’s aboveground biodiversity, providing essential functions and natural resources and playing an essential role on climate regulation at the regional and global scale. We are currently witnessing a progressive degradation of virtually all biomes on Earth that is mainly caused by human-driven factors (Bradshaw et al., 2021). Specifically, anthropogenic wildfires are responsible for a substantial loss on global forest areas. Acting alone or synergistically with deforestation, agricultural and livestock pressure, invasive species introduction, forestry plantations, habitat fragmentation, or climate change, wildfires represent a driving force of forest loss through LAC. It is also worth noting that, even in those environments where fire has naturally shaped the landscape, human intervention in the form of fire suppression may also have serious consequences on ecosystem services and their * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (P. Souza-Alonso). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Forest Ecology and Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foreco https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2022.120083 Received 3 September 2021; Received in revised form 23 January 2022; Accepted 2 February 2022 Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 2 own functioning. Considering that causes, triggers, and their intricate interrelationship represent a complex field of study and that the variables are specific to each particular biome or region, our work will focus on post-fire stages and discuss the different strategies that have been applied for the different scenarios of postfire restoration. However, this effort requires a short overview of the historic and current scenario, and the problem of forest fires, together with the causes and consequences across different biomes in LAC. Then, we aim to collect and disentangle recent advances on restoring degraded forest ecosystems after wildfires in LAC following the precepts of ecological restoration (ER). We consider all aspects of natural or assisted restoration but also those aspects related to social participation and community engagement to provide a general vision of how the discipline has moved forward in different parts of the continent. To do so, we put special emphasis on those works published in the last two decades (2000–2020) since ER during this time has witnessed a significant increase in global attention. Finally, we identify some deficiencies that may compromise restoration outcomes and discuss them along with environmental, ecological, and socioeconomic constraints that may limit its widespread use. 2. Fires in LAC forest ecosystems 2.1. Forests in LAC The complexity of forests goes beyond a mere population of trees growing on the land. Forests represent the habitat of a substantial portion of the terrestrial flora, fauna, and microorganisms, which make them key environments for biodiversity conservation. Forests are also critical in the regulation of global climate and provide a myriad of other essential functions, which include the provision of natural resources, regulation of the hydrological cycle, watershed protection, air quality, and recreational purposes (FAO and UNEP, 2020). Coinciding with the vast biogeographic realm Neotropic defined by Olson et al. (2001), Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) conform a vast territory in which forests make up about half of its total area (FAO, 2020). LAC forests cover nearly a billion hectares and stretch from the mixed conifer ecosystems in the highlands of Mexico to the Southern Patagonian evergreen forests, the most meridional forest ecosystem in the world. Altogether, LAC forests represent about a quarter of the world’s forest area (FAO, 2020). Administratively, LAC includes megadiverse countries with the greatest biological forest diversity on Earth and hosts 57% of the primary forests globally (FAO and UNEP, 2020). The Neotropic encompasses several biomes, which include humid tropical forests (evergreen broadleaf, semi-humid broadleaf), dry tropical forests (deciduous, semi-deciduous, and semi-deciduous transitional), and temperate forests (evergreen broadleaf, evergreen mixed, and deciduous), distributed into lowland, premontane and montane ranges (Eva et al., 2004). The carbon (C) stored in the biomass in LAC forests is over 100 gigatons, which makes these ecosystems highly significant in terms of their contribution to the global C cycle (UNEP-WCMC, 2016). 2.2. Recent trends in forest cover in LAC Environmental conditions and soil properties play a fundamental role in the type, structure, and geographical distribution of forest vegetation (Holdridge, 1947; Saiz et al., 2012; Veenendaal et al., 2015). Since the onset of the Holocene, variations in forest cover in LAC have not just responded to climate-related forcing (Maksic et al., 2019), but to ever-increasing anthropogenic pressures that have led to massive landscape transformations in the region, particularly over the past few centuries (Armesto et al., 2010). Indeed, anthropogenic-related factors are greatly responsible for the broad variation in forest surface through the region, where the area currently covered with forest ranges from 9.5% in Uruguay to 96.5% in the French Guiana (Giri and Long, 2014). Deforestation in LAC during the first decade of the 21st century was ~5.20 million ha, which is equivalent to an area slightly larger than the size of Spain. While this trend is still negative, the rate of forest loss in LAC has declined to ~2.6 million ha during the second decade of this century (FAO, 2020). Causes of deforestation are often multiple and complexly interlinked. These include agricultural expansion, particularly in the form of pasture and feed crops grown to meet the increasing global demand for meat, wood procurement, population growth, land tenure insecurity, and poor governance (Aide et al., 2013; Manners and Varela-Ortega, 2017). While deforestation has been the major force behind changes in woody cover in LAC, particularly in moist and dry forests as well as in savanna/shrubland ecosystems, there have also been regions that have experienced a recovery in woody vegetation as a result of reduced anthropogenic pressure, increased precipitation, and CO 2 fertilization (Aide et al., 2013). Besides natural forest regeneration, land-use changes in the form of forest plantations also contribute to the total forest cover, accounting for about 2% of the total forest area in South America. However, 99% of these forest plantations in the region are fast-growing monocultures intensively managed for commercial purposes (FAO, 2020). While highly productive, the forestry species typically chosen are non-native species commonly associated with the occurrence of wildfires (Úbeda and Sarricolea, 2016). 2.3. Fires in LAC forests 2.3.1. Historical occurrence of fire in LAC forests Fire has occurred on the Earth’s surface ever since there has been a combination of biomass, atmospheric oxygen levels above the 16–19% threshold, episodically low moisture conditions, and an ignition source such as lighting (Scott et al., 2013). These environmental conditions have been met for millions of years and have certainly contributed to shaping all terrestrial landscapes. The fossil record shows that there have been very large fluctuations in fire occurrences throughout geological times (Scott et al., 2013). Charcoal records from tropical South America show relatively low numbers of fire events during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 18–24 cal ka BP) (Mayle et al., 2009). Besides promoting an overall reduction in biomass, the inherent cool conditions of this period would have also limited the occurrence and spread of fires. The archaeological record also shows an augmented presence of fire events as soon as humans populate any region, which in the case of tropical South America seem to date back to the late (terminal) Pleistocene period that followed the LGM (Arroyo-Kalin, 2012). This is well reflected in the overall increase in the abundance of pyrogenic C in numerous sedimentary records that reflects the increasing use of fire by humans (Bird et al., 2015). The onset and gradual increase of human populations in the LAC region led to the widespread use of fire for agricultural practices, but also to the establishment of settlements, procurement of timber, hunting, etc. Indeed, it was through these activities that humans achieved increasing control over fuel loads and landscape connectivity (Archibald et al., 2012). Therefore, human-induced fires have been a considerable force shaping the landscape in LAC, even in some of its most undisturbed ecosystems, the Amazonian forest (Mayle et al., 2009; Arroyo-Kalin, 2012). Furthermore, the sheer scale of land use changes occurring in LAC has effectively altered the burning frequency and severity of ecosystems where the presence of fire has been fairly uncommon (e.g., temperate Araucaria forest; Gonz´ alez, 2005). Large fires have also played a significant ecological role in shaping even the wettest Southern LAC forests in the past centuries (Veblen et al., 2008). Charcoal material deposited during the Holocene indicates large spatial heterogeneity across the South American continent, but in general, it could be inferred a shift toward higher fire occurrences over time (Power et al., 2008). Nevertheless, as is the case in many other aspects in LAC, its broad biocultural diversity underlies large differential patterns in the way landscapes are managed throughout this vast region (Armesto et al., 2010). P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 3 2.3.2. Current scenario and future prospects of forest fires in LAC Wildfires alone have been responsible for nearly one-fourth of the global forest loss reported for the 1990–2015 period (Curtis et al., 2018). Nearly 100 million ha of forest burned in the year 2015 alone, which is about 4% of the global forest area, affecting tropical ecosystems (2/3 of the total), particularly in Africa and South America (FAO, 2020). While these are highly concerning figures, up until very recently the burned area in LAC was not increasing as much as in other world regions (i.e. Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, or Australia) (Giglio et al., 2013). However, the calamitous Amazonian fires in 2019 (Lizundia-Loiola et al., 2020) are solid proof of low fire regions being transformed into fire-prone areas (Davidson et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2019). Three broad types of fires can be distinguished in the Amazon: deforestation fires (fire after clearing), fires in previously cleared areas, and fires affecting standing forests (Barlow et al., 2020). Spatially tied to human land use, deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and climate change act synergistically through the Amazon basin to increase fire risk (Cochrane and Barber, 2009). Outside the tropical realm, recent trends in forest fires in LAC have not been much better. For instance, the number of wildfires in Chile has increased significantly in the past 30 years (Úbeda and Sarricolea, 2016). More recently, over 500,000 ha burned in the central regions of Chile in just over a month during the austral summer of 2017, in what was considered the biggest wildfires in the country’s history. The proportion of forest cover affected in those mega-fires was 60%, including both native forests and commercial forest plantations (de la Barrera et al., 2018). In the northern tip of LAC, the heterogeneous landscape of Mexico also presents numerous fire events in forest ecosystems, particularly in mid-elevation coniferous forests (Zú˜ niga-V´ asquez and Pompa- García, 2019). 2.3.3. Causes of forest fires in LAC Within the current context of global environmental change, both human pressure (through land cover and land use) and global warming are playing a growing role in determining wildfire regimes with future climate variability expected to enhance the risk and severity of wildfires in many biomes (Liu and Wimberly, 2016; Jia et al., 2019). Indeed, changes in land cover, lightning activity, and meteorology contribute to increasing fire occurrence, projecting a dramatic scenario of higher fire frequency under the 2050 conditions (Huang et al, 2015). In addition to fire frequency, virtually all forests ecosystems have experienced a significant increase in the length of fire weather season (Jolly et al., 2015). Wildfires may be considered the result of social, economic, and biophysical factors operating with feedbacks and interactions across spatial scales (Sorrensen, 2009). The combination of recurrent droughts, promotion of fire-prone vegetation (i.e. forestry plantations), and increasing anthropogenic land pressure promote the occurrence and spread of forest fires in temperate regions of Chile and Mexico (Úbeda and Sarricolea, 2016; Zú˜ niga-V´ asquez and Pompa-García, 2019). Furthermore, tropical forests are also suffering from altered fire regimes, which pose a fundamental threat not only to the many environmental functions they serve but to their very existence (FAO 2020; FAO and UNEP, 2020). However, there is still great uncertainty about how climate change and increasing anthropogenic pressure will exactly affect fire regimes across the various forest biomes, and the likely enhanced detrimental impacts that these burns will cause on the different ecosystems (Krawchuk et al., 2009). Besides climate-related factors, other factors that dramatically increase the occurrence of forest fires include land clearing for agricultural purposes, proximity to human settlements, land tenure disputes, and forestry practices that promote the accumulation and connectivity of high fuel loads. The fires raging across the Brazilian Amazon and surrounding areas accumulate the highest rates of fire events for the last decade in South America (Chen et al., 2013) and capture a substantial part of the world’s attention. Here, fire represents a traditional tool for forest clearing and land preparation, with decisions about when and how to use it being taken locally by landowners. The use of fire to convert dry and humid forest areas for agriculture is concentrated in the ‘arc of deforestation’ along the southern and eastern edges of the Amazon in Brazil and Bolivia, increasing the likelihood of fire escape into standing forests (Chen et al., 2013), and allowing fire expansion into historically intact areas (Barlow et al. 2020). Serving as a direct footprint of land-use change, Cardil et al. (2020) recently evidenced a widespread sequence of fire events in tropical moist forests immediately after deforestation. Without the same media relevance, agricultural and livestock pressure have transformed the dry tropical forests of the Chaco, one of the last large contiguous areas of dry tropical forest in the world (Kernan et al. 2010), into one of the regions with the highest rate of deforestation linked to agriculture expansion (Hansen et al., 2013). On a much smaller scale, fire also represents a source of tension within communities with ongoing competing interests. Furthermore, intentional wildfires are occasionally related to conflicts between the local population and those interested in resource exploitation (Celentano et al., 2018). The structure and type of woodland cover are also strong determinants affecting forest fire regimes regionally (Úbeda and Sarricolea, 2016). Currently, the expansion of tree cover in the central provinces of Chile is primarily the result of large monoculture plantations, mainly composed of flammable species that have been associated with fire severity and propagation (Gonz´ alez et al., 2020), which have resulted in a dramatic increase in wildfire events (de la Barrera et al., 2018). Fires affecting understory forest vegetation are also common in tropical LAC and depend on multiple variables that strongly determine its flammability and ignition exposure. These include the size of the forest stand, proximity to the forest edge, and distance to charcoal pits, agricultural settlements, and cleared paths (Alencar et al., 2004). 3. Post-fire effects/consequences on forest ecosystems It is important to distinguish between two main concepts routinely used in wildfire research: fire intensity and severity. Used as synonyms for a long time, there is a clear difference between both concepts with important consequences on post-fire assessment. While fire intensity describes the physical combustion process of energy release from organic matter, fire severity (or more properly, burn severity) describes how the burning process affects ecosystems, mainly based on soil organic matter (SOM) loss and aboveground OM conversion to ash (Keeley, 2009). Although both terms usually correlate in the field, many restoration studies refer to a wildfire intensity classification when dealing with fire consequences. For the purposes of this work -and restoration in generalfire consequences in terms of burn severity appears more relevant than intensity. Therefore, we will refer hereon to fire severity. 3.1. Soil conservation after wildfires The characteristically high temperatures and heat transfer caused by biomass combustion during wildfires affect all levels of soil organization, including its structure, porosity, infiltration, thermal regime, water storage, pH, OM content, and nutrient availability (Neary et al., 1999, 2005; Gonz´ alez-P´ erez et al., 2004; Certini, 2005; Saiz et al., 2018). The impact of temperature varies with soil depth (temperature effects dissipates after a few centimeters) and with soil moisture (water acts as a buffer) (Ferreira et al., 2008). Soil temperatures experienced during biomass burning strongly determine the post-fire evolution of forest ecosystems. Post-fire impacts include the significant alteration of soil properties (key for soil conservation), the death of seeds and rhizomes, and potentially strong impacts on the composition of the soil microbiome. Furthermore, soil erosion rates may be high in burned forest ecosystems, particularly in mountainous ranges and areas with pronounced slopes. These losses are the result of soil structural changes, a decrease in infiltration capacity, water repellence, and the enhancement P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 4 of detrimental hydrological processes. Soil burn severity (SBS), defined as the degree of SOM loss, is dependent on the type of forest ecosystem. Forest typology poses a strong influence not only on fire categorization and behavior but also on soil moisture and thickness of the soil organic horizon. These factors determine the degree of perturbation in soil properties, thus greatly influencing soil conservation and the subsequent evolution of vegetation. However, despite the direct influence of soil properties on forest resilience and the large diversity and extent of LAC forest ecosystems, post-fire variations in soil physical and chemical properties have not been explored in much detail compared to fire-prone areas of Europe, Australia, or the USA (Meira-Castro et al., 2015, Muqaddas et al., 2015, Pingree and DeLuca, 2018). Research work conducted in LAC shows that wildfire impacts on soils of temperate and subtropical forests with a moderately developed organic horizon are highly variable, as revealed by studies carried out in stands dominated by Pinus and Quercus (Capulin-Grande et al., 2018; Hern´ andez Vallecillo et al., 2020), Araucaria (Santana et al., 2020a), or Austrocedrus and Nothofagus (Urretavizcaya, 2010; Urretavizcaya et al., 2018). A similar situation can be seen in fire-prone tropical forests (Quintero-Gradilla et al. 2020) or in the gallery forests of Cerrado (Gomes et al., 2018; Pivello et al., 2010). The high variability in fire temperature across ecosystems is strongly determined by a combination of season, fire behavior, and fuel load (Saiz et al., 2015). While in the dry season both moderate and high levels of SBS cause substantial negative impacts on soils, fires tend to be cooler during the rainy season and the beneficial fertilizing effects of ashes become more apparent. In tropical rainforests, notwithstanding the massive clearance of land that occurred over the past few years, most of the fires are the consequence of the slash-and-burn agricultural practices widely employed across relatively small areas. Due to their typical wet conditions (abundant precipitation and high humidity both in biomass and soil), rainforest fires are usually of low intensity (Cochrane et al., 1999), and therefore changes in soil properties are low to moderate (B´ eliveau et al., 2015; Ju´ arez-Orozco et al., 2017). Similarly, tropical mountain forests hosting peatlands show high soil humidity levels, which usually limits any strong perturbations in their soil physicochemical properties (Rom´ an-Cuesta et al., 2011), and edaphic microbiota (Torres Vargas et al., 2004). Forest stands recently burned present harsher soil conditions (increased light intensity, soil temperature, and enhanced evaporation) for sustaining life compared to unaffected areas (Lippok et al., 2013). Once the forest is fragmented, the density and the average height of the leaf canopy is reduced, which favours rapid evaporation of soil surface water, increasing fire susceptibility, particularly if the vegetation is not fire-adapted (e.g. tropical rainforest, Ray et al., 2005). This progressive loss of forest cover promotes drought events at regional scale, which together with the increasing anthropogenic ignition sources, have caused widespread tree mortality and forest degradation across southeastern Amazon rainforests (Brando et al., 2014). Humid tropical forests (evergreen rainforests) are resilient to initial disturbances, but if these are sustained, forest structure and nutrient dynamics may get significantly altered, potentially leading to long-term changes in vegetation composition (Davidson et al., 2012). The linkage between fire trends and the hydrological cycle is reflected in the recent Amazonian droughts that have been shown to fuel wildfires (Arag˜ ao et al., 2007, 2018). Also, it has been reported that widespread fires in Nothofagus forests depend on drought at monthly, seasonal, annual, and supraannual time scales (Veblen et al., 2008). Fire effects on soil properties depend on many factors such as the type and intensity of the burn, soil moisture conditions, soil type, and the nature of burned biomass (Gonz´ alez-P´ erez et al., 2004; Certini, 2005; Santín and Doerr, 2016). On the one hand, short-term increases in SOC and nutrient content have been reported in savannas and evergreen seasonal forests (Nardoto and Bustamante, 2003; Ivanauskas et al., 2003; Saiz et al., 2015), attributed to the partial combustion and degradation of litter and biomass. Although positive, the rapid increase in nutrient availability also makes them more prone to potential volatilization and export, diminishing soil nutrient stocks and ecosystem resilience to future disturbances. On the other hand, medium and longterm reduction in soil moisture and nutrient pools (mainly C, N, and P) has been observed following fire events in temperate (Alauzis et al., 2004; Nave et al., 2011) and tropical forests (Ivanauskas et al., 2003). In other cases, such as in tropical or subtropical dry forests (Cerrado, Caatinga), their low and sparse vegetation presumably prevent high values of SBS (Roscoe et al., 2000; Pivello et al., 2010). Forest fires are responsible for a substantial loss of C in LAC (Van der Werf et al., 2017; Arag˜ ao et al., 2018) and can produce a vicious cycle, induced by positive feedbacks, where a high release of C and other greenhouse gases as a result of combustion and ash erosion may represent a significant increase in overall C emissions. These losses reduce environmental services provided by forest ecosystems, namely in their ability to act as net C sinks. Typically, the new equilibrium following severe and frequent fires occurs in the form of degraded ecosystems with much less capacity to retain C in both the soil and the aboveground vegetation. While a significant share of aboveground C biomass may get transferred to the atmosphere during combustion, fires also promote C shifts between terrestrial pools and alter the physicochemical nature of thermally-affected C compounds, which impact the quantity and quality of C stored in the soil (Gonz´ alez-P´ erez et al., 2004; Merino et al., 2014; Saiz et al., 2015). Besides the direct effect on SOC stocks, recurrent fire events also limit the capacity of soils to be restored. Zarin et al. (2005) analyzed 93 stands across the Amazonian region burned in the last 30 years and showed that stands that suffered ≥5 fire events showed a significant reduction (>50%) in C accumulation. These authors forecast a scenario of increasingly degraded fire-prone landscapes in case no intervention is implemented. The time needed for forest ecosystems to regain C losses following a fire event depends on their capacity to recover and re-establish vegetation structure (resilience). For instance, using estimations of losses and C stocks for the central region of the Andean Patagonia, Bertolin et al. (2015) projected an interval of 100–200 years to recover former C stocks in fire-affected forests. Finally, the negative impacts caused by forest fires do get exacerbated when other detrimental activities take place shortly after. Recurrent fires followed by intense heavy cattle browsing have led to a new type of disturbance regime in the otherwise stable ecosystems like those of Northern Patagonia (Blackhall et al., 2008; Raffaele et al., 2011). In the mesic, high-mountain rangelands of C´ ordoba (Argentina), the common presence of livestock increased 50% soil loss after fire, driving this system into a rocky desert (Cingolani et al., 2013). The combined presence of fire and cattle has created a new scenario whereby variations in vegetation structure and composition pose a strong potential to hamper the stability of forest ecosystems (Blackhall et al., 2015). 3.2. Changes in the plant community Intrinsic fuel properties of vegetation, namely moisture, ignitability, and the heat released during combustion, affect fire frequency, intensity, seasonality, and SBS (Mandle et al., 2011). Reciprocally, woodland and forest structure are largely controlled by fire history. In addition to the charred appearance, changes in vegetation structure and composition are the first evidence of recently burned ecosystems. In general, fire promotes the herbaceous layer by increasing plant density and species richness, thus creating a more divergent matrix of vegetation in terms of species composition, abundance, and secondary forest specialists (Ribeiro et al., 2010). Also, fire recurrence favours the presence of plant populations with small-sized stems (Cesca et al., 2014). The revegetation rate will depend on the SBS and fire history. In this sense, there is an important distinction between fire-adapted (e.g. gallery forest in the Cerrado) and non-adapted ecosystems (e,g. tropical rainforest). In fire-adapted ecosystems (dry forest, Mediterranean P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 5 forests) low severity fires maintain beneficial plant ecological attributes -fire adaptationsthat evolved in accordance: e.g. the genus Pinus (Rodríguez-Trejo and Ful´ e, 2003), Quercus (Rodriguez-Trejo and Myers, 2010) or species from the Cerrado (Simon and Pennington, 2012) or the Chaco Serrano Forest (Torres and Renison, 2017). In addition, the availability of seeds is crucial to ensure revegetation. The capacity of the seed bank to resist fire severity also vary across LAC forests reflecting their degree of adaptation to fire events. These range from adapted seed banks in the Chaco forests (Jaureguiberry and Díaz, 2015; Lipoma et al., 2018), to intermediate in the Chilean matorral (G´ omez-Gonz´ alez et al., 2017), up to sensitive seedbanks in the Amazonian rainforest (Cochrane et al., 1999) or the Atlantic Forest (de Silva and Matos, 2006). The current increase in wildfire incidence produces changes at the ecosystem level in regions where fire is occasional, or it has been historically absent (tropical, temperate forests). Here, plant communities are more vulnerable to postfire degradation and invasion by invasive alien plants (IAPs). In many cases, light and nutrient availability in burned areas create novel niches rapidly occupied by pioneer species, as IAPs (see also Section 5.1). When the fire frequency, intensity, or severity exceeds historical regimes, native vegetation tends to be displaced, since fire selectively excludes sensitive species (Hoffmann and Moreira, 2002; Brooks et al. 2004; Gomes et al., 2014; Urrutia-Estrada et al., 2018). This fact generates favourable conditions for the colonization and establishment of exotics (Zouhar et al., 2008), progressively reducing species diversity and promoting ecosystem homogenization (Libano and Felfili, 2006). Even resilient forests are experiencing changes in their structure, composition, and dynamics as a result of increasing wildfire frequencies. Such is the case of Nothofagus forests in Chile, where environmental proxies spanning over 3,200 years reveal that the persistence of dense forest stands has been largely unaffected by lower frequency wildfires (Simi et al., 2017). Lack of adaptation to new fire regimes (natural or human-induced) or the occurrence of major disturbances (logging, windthrows, etc) favours the presence of transitional stages (secondgrowth forest) dominated by a mix of different species (Gonz´ alez et al., 2015). Synergistic trends between economy, agriculture, forests, and climate in the Amazon Basin could lead to the replacement or severe degradation of a significant proportion of the closed-canopy forests, promoting a large-scale substitution by savanna-like vegetation (Nepstad et al., 2008). Considered as a transitional state in ecological succession or a degraded state from original evergreen sclerophyllous vegetation, more open savannas represented by early successional species (e.g. Acacia caven) dominate secondary forests in South America (Schulz et al., 2010). In extreme cases, fire-promoted Acacia-dominated savannas may be further threatened if fires become recurrent, leading to barren landscapes eventually (Van de Wouw et al., 2011). 3.3. Effects on soil fauna and terrestrial biota biodiversity Forest fires affect soil biota directly through impacts derived from high temperatures, burning, or gases produced during combustion, as well as indirectly as a result of secondary post-fire changes (Cochrane et al., 1999; Neary et al., 2005). Although fires can eliminate every living organism above a temperature threshold, the topsoil microbial activity generally increases due to the rapid release of nutrients from SOM (Fuentes-Ramirez et al., 2018). Nevertheless, belowground changes on key ecosystem elements, e.g. mycorrhiza, will promote different plant growth responses (Allen et al., 2003) and therefore, community assemblage and succession during post-fire restoration. While the type of disturbance affects the rate of change in the soil community, it is also important to consider the scale, intensity, and severity of such disturbance, as well as any potential vegetation replacement (Allen et al., 2005). Although aboveground fauna is not as physically constrained as plants or soil biota, they are affected by fireinduced changes. For instance, changes in plant species composition reduce large frugivores and other vertebrates, promoting a transition between primary forest specialists to species associated with secondgrowth forests and other disturbed habitats (Barlow and Peres, 2006). In non-adapted forest ecosystems of Southern Chile, fire reduces diversity and disrupt the assemblage of trophic networks of rodents (Zú˜ niga et al., 2021), carnivorous mammals (Zú˜ niga et al., 2020), or saproxylic beetles (Tello et al., 2020). Nevertheless, ecosystems with a long history of fire disturbance are also exposed to fire consequences. In the Serrano Forest in Argentina, high-severity fire regimes transformed original forests into dense grasslands which resulted in a severe reduction in the species present (70%), and causing structural changes in the avifauna community (Albanesi et al., 2014). Fire modified the community composition of fruit-feeding butterflies in a South-eastern Amazon Forest in Mato Grosso (Brazil) (de Andrade et al., 2017). Here, a single fire event altered the community composition, increasing the presence of drought-tolerant savanna specialists in contrast to forest specialists. In the Iber´ a Natural Reserve, a mosaic of habitats in Northern Argentina, high-intensity fires had a modest and short-lived negative effect on the abundance of ant species with some functional groups being affected (Calcaterra et al., 2014). 4. Soil protection and ecological restoration after wildfire 4.1. First steps in post-fire management 4.1.1. Preliminary damage assessment and local considerations Following a wildfire, the early evaluation of SBS in soil and vegetation will condition restoration. Also, the estimation of erosion risk, threatened resources, and prioritization of action areas complement the set of immediate actions to be considered. Such needs will be further refined considering local information like land-use history, environmental context, restoration goals, and available resources, which should all be clarified before any restoration effort (Holl and Aide, 2011; Bannister et al., 2016). The selection between active or passive/assisted restoration depends on the balance between ecological needs and available resources. Urgent intervention is often necessary in cases where of pronounced slopes, high SBSs, and/or imminent rains threaten with the occurrence of extremely high soil erosion rates. However, these interventions usually represent costly operations, which are rarely budgeted for. Economic investment in ER makes a difference in relatively short periods (Blignaut and Aronson, 2020), but each intervention relies on evaluating the necessity and feasibility. Moreover, the level of intervention is often questioned since ecosystems have the capacity for self-recovery (Chazdon and Guariguata, 2016). While passive restoration may be preferable in many instances for ecological, practical and economic reasons, it is mainly effective if soils have not been degraded, abiotic limitations are not severe, or where biotic support is available. 4.1.2. Urgent interventions required to protect soil against erosion Soil degradation and high erosion rates following wildfires, particularly if SBS is high, require urgent measures to protect soil against an irreversible degradation that hampers ecosystem resilience and future restoration efforts (Vega et al., 2013a). SBS can be assessed in situ by visual indicators (Vega et al., 2013a), through remote sensing imagery (Holden et al., 2010), or by analyzing field-collected samples through elemental analysis coupled with isotope ratio mass spectrometry (EAIRMS), pyrolysis-gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS), or nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) (Santoiemma, 2018; De la Rosa et al., 2019). Mulching, erosion barriers, soil scarification, slash spreading, or seeding exemplify urgent interventions to stabilize burned areas and prevent or reduce fire adverse effects (USDA Forest Service, 2012; Vega et al., 2013b; Ferreira et al., 2015). These urgent field interventions generally start by preventing soil erosion and promoting the accumulation of SOM (Alanís-Rodríguez et al., 2015). Emergency post-fire erosion control is often reported alone, without an overall strategy P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 6 that implements complementary ecological schemes. Precisely because of its nature, emergency actions are not usually considered as part of restoration, which requires a planned long-term vision. Consequently, the scientific literature addressing the effects of rapid interventions on restoration is not abundant in LAC. 4.2. Situation is stabilized. Now what? The basics of ecological restoration While in art disciplines restoration involves recapturing an object’s aesthetic value, this concept has much broader implications in ecology. ER can be defined as the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed, and returning it to its historical trajectory (SER, 2004). In the last decades, we have witnessed large efforts promoting and developing ER as a permanent part of our conception of long-term sustainability (Aronson and Alexander, 2013). This has led to the declaration of 2021–2030 as the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (United Nations, 2019), or to striking statements claiming that “the future of the planet depends on the maturation of ER” (Roberts et al., 2009). From an intuitive point of view, ER represents the application of ecological principles to restoration. Simple to enunciate, complex to describe. ER aims to restore the structure, content and functioning of the degraded ecosystem, not necessarily to its previous state but to the fullest possible extent (Blignaut and Aronson, 2020). This is based on principles that must be constantly adjusted according to the level of disturbance and local conditions (Clewell and Aronson, 2013). On a global scale, it seems clear that restoration in different biomes demands different strategies (Clewell and Aronson, 2013). Nevertheless, recovering forests is not just about planting trees. Indeed, our capability depends on the understanding of local ecological processes, the analysis of the potential for natural recovery, and foreseeing the outcomes of different restoration options (Bannister, 2015). Then, based on available information and after the identification of SBS, restoration efforts could be theoretically implemented to return ecosystems to their normal successional paths (Fig. 1). 4.3. Ecological restoration in LAC In the last decades, the growing interest in restoring degraded ecosystems -including those affected by firethroughout LAC has significantly increased the number of publications (Fig. 2). Furthermore, this interest has led to the creation of restoration networks that promote research, exchange experiences, develop capacities and communicate advances on ER as REPARA (Red Mexicana para la Restauraci´ on Ambiental), REDCRE (Red Colombiana de Restauraci´ on Ecol´ ogica), Restauremos Chile (Red Chilena de Restauraci´ on Ecol´ ogica), REA (Red de Restauraci´ on Ecol´ ogica de la Argentina), SOBRADE (Sociedade Brasileira de Recuperaci´ on de ´ areas degradadas), or international societies as the SIACRE (Sociedad Ibero-Americana y del Caribe para la Restauraci´ on Ecol´ ogica) (Echeverría et al., 2015). Recent progress and innovations in national ER projects have been compiled in Colombia (Murcia and Guariguata, 2014), Mexico (Calva- Soto and Pav´ on Hern´ andez, 2018; M´ endez-Toribio et al., 2018) or Chile (Smith-Ramírez et al., 2015). Although these works pointed out that efforts to protect natural values are increasing and ER is gaining attention, information concerning post-fire restoration is still scarce. In a recent study, Mexican managers recognized fire as a limitation for ER, but it was not identified as a disturbing agent in restoration projects (M´ endez-Toribio et al., 2018). 4.3.1. The importance of assessing fire ecological restoration in LACs The presence of contrasting socio-economic realities, land degradation scenarios, or the existence of highly valuable pristine or semipristine environments illustrate a different scenario for ER in LAC compared to Europe or North America, where most restoration activities are carried out (Armesto et al., 2007). The large area represented by LAC forests (1/4 of the world’s forest area), the wide variety of biomes and forest types covered in the Neotropic realm, the large pool of C stored, the increasing perception of vulnerability to fires, and the need to preserve community resources and maintain or promote ecosystem resilience, justify the study of the current state of ER in LAC. As far as we know, works summarizing ER in this vast and highly diverse region are still absent. Therefore, we performed a literature search in SCOPUS, Web of Science (WOS), and Google Scholar using the terms forest and fire and restoration, and selected those articles based on the match between title and abstract information and the subject of the study. A significant proportion of information originated from 4 countries: Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and Argentina, which accounted for over 80% of the papers consulted. We included works aimed at restoring (insofar as possible) the characteristics of natural ecosystems (SER, 2004, Clewell and Aronson, 2013; Gann et al., 2019), collecting information on ER sensu stricto, but also information on related aspects exploring the ecology of restoration. Some initiatives were focused on returning ecosystems to predisturbance conditions whereas others tried to restore specific Fig. 1. Schematic diagram representing factors conditioning the implementation of ecosystem restoration. The identification of factors and processes are partially based on those identified by Holl and Aide (2011). **Perception refers to the uncertain stage of some ecosystems that can resemble an appearance of degradation Hobbs (2016). P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 7 attributes or ecosystem services and thus, would classify better as rehabilitation (Table S1). Hence, single biophysical interventions as soil amendment or tree transplantation can be hardly considered ER. However, interventions often are limited by economic funding, political agenda or other aspects. As such, these actions can still be important pieces of ongoing processes or larger projects. Therefore, we included works that can be generally assigned to the family of restorative activities (Gann et al., 2019). Since it is important to separate restoration, afforestation, or reforestation programs, we focused on the restoration of native forest ecosystems excluding information on new stands or single-species plantations. 4.4. Natural regeneration to allow ecological restoration. For many of us, it is not uncommon to contemplate a degraded landscape and think that something should be done to revert the situation. However, in the case of fire-affected landscapes, experiences show that passive restoration may be as effective as active restoration, provided that soils are not severely affected (low SBSs) and present low erosion risks (Holl and Aide, 2011; Crouzeilles et al., 2017). A recent meta-analysis including 133 studies focused on restoration of tropical forests suggested that the benefits of natural regeneration surpassed active restoration for different biodiversity groups and vegetation structure parameters (Crouzeilles et al., 2017). In fire-prone habitats, as in pine-oak forests of the National Park Cumbres de Monterrey (Mexico), passive recovery showed higher plant diversity than active restoration (Alanís-Rodríguez et al., 2008), demonstrating that natural regeneration can be rapid, obtaining similar pre-fire woody species composition after 60 years of plant succession (Gonz´ alez-Tagle et al., 2008). Fragments of sclerophyllous forests dominated by Nothofagus glauca in central Chile present a great post-fire regeneration potential (Litton and Santelices, 2002; Promis et al. 2019). However, woody species recruitment in degraded areas where fires have been historically absent, as in tropical mountain rainforests, can be strongly affected by vegetation and landuse history (Palomeque et al., 2017). The maintenance of forest remnants or fire refugia is critical to allow natural ecosystem recovery. Appearing as individuals or small forest patches, fire refugia promote re-population and ecosystem recovery. Fire refugia are left unburned or get less affected by fire severity (or frequency) than contiguous areas for several reasons, which include topography, isolation, or vegetation composition (Meddens et al., 2018). In the case of post-fire colonization of fire-sensitive trees, such as Austrocedrus chilensis that occur in Chilean and Argentinian temperate forests, the identification, protection, and maintenance of fire refugia is crucial and should be prioritized for conservation. In the first steps of colonization, light attenuation facilitates the survival and growth of shade-tolerant species, as A. chilensis seedlings (Urretavizcaya et al., 2017), allowing nearby tree recruitment and long-distance seed dispersal (Landesmann and Morales, 2018). The preservation of fire refugia is even more important in species with slow growth rates and low regeneration capacity as Fitzroya cupressoides (Lara et al., 2008). On a small scale, fire refugia are also of great importance due to their capacity to improve microhabitat conditions. In a fragmented 50-year- old post-fire successional area in the Valdivian and North-Patagonian evergreen temperate forests, Albornoz et al. (2013) associated the increase in plant richness and the abundance of woody species to the size of remnant vegetation patches, suggesting higher tree regeneration compared to open areas. Vegetation patches were progressively expanding due to the modification of their immediate surroundings (e. g., reduced waterlogging) that facilitate plant recruitment. Additionally, the perch effect of large patches and higher trees enhanced birdmediated seed rain. Here, both facilitation and the perch effect seem to act in combination to favor nucleation. Although fire refugia benefit seed dispersal contributing to passive restoration (Holl and Aide, 2011), forest recovery is especially difficult under harsh environmental conditions (i.e., hot and dry microclimates) or in areas with frequent fires. In tropical montane habitats of the Bolivian Andes (the altiplano), Lippok et al. (2013) propose an oriented selection favoring certain species, such as Myrsine coriacea (a bird-dispersed small-seeded forest species), that facilitate forest recovery due to their ability for long-distance dispersion. Fire refugia are also fundamental to maintain genetic diversity since they act as reservoirs to preserve species variability. Although fires reduce the size of plant populations, C´ espedes et al. (2003) found high levels of gene flow between separated populations of Swietenia macrophylla (big leaf mahogany) in successional post-fire sites in a moist transition dry forest in Santa Rosa National Park (Costa Rica). To protect Fig. 2. Publications (n) on fire restoration based on the search in SCOPUS using the terms Fire AND forest AND restoration. The percentage of publications from LAC countries has progressively increased in the last years, reaching its maximum (11.06%) for the 2015–2020 period. P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 8 the endemic and threatened Austrocedrus forests (IUCN, 2010), Souto et al. (2012) identified genetic patterns of diversity, inbreeding, and divergence, indicating that Austrocedrus-dominated dryland forests of northern Patagonia harbour genetic diversity and have the potential to be relatively resilient to climate disturbances. In any case, even if fire refugia are reduced to small patches or individuals, their preservation is critical since their reproductive capacity may be intact (Torres and Renison, 2017). Remnant trees (alive or dead) can be maintained following a multipurpose vision that encompasses many aspects of restoration. Standing Araucaria or Nothofagus individuals after a large fire event in the Tolhuaca National Park (Araucanía, Chile), serve as propagule sources, shelter for native species establishment, barriers to protect biodiversity, or fauna refugia (Gonz´ alez and Veblen, 2007). Besides the benefits of maintaining living trees, other non-visual aspects are of key importance. Remnant living trees serve as a source of propagule for fungal networks, facilitating the establishment and growth of non-pioneer plants. Bannister et al. (2020) argued that besides the increase of direct light and the absence of shelter, the removal of standing vegetation eliminates mycorrhiza, hindering nutrient uptake in an environment (Northern Patagonia) where most soil nutrients are present in an organic form, whose mineralization is greatly impaired by the naturally harsh environmental conditions of the region. Finally, it should be noted that the possibility of taking advantage of fire refugia in LAC is quite variable, and greatly relates to the scale and heterogeneity of the ecosystem. Also, contrasting land uses across regions limit the presence, and thus the relevance of fire refugia in ER. For instance, extensive agriculture areas replacing dry tropical forests in South-eastern Brazil have restricted access to fire refugia (limiting the potential for passive restoration) in contrast to patchy, small-scale forestry or agroforestry areas of Central America. Topography is another key factor that needs to be considered in the restoration of heterogeneous habitats since environmental conditions change rapidly with altitude favoring the presence of a greater variety of ecosystems. Taking advantage of specific local conditions may benefit the natural regeneration of the Atlantic Forest, a large area of special conservation interest that contains high biodiversity and several endemic species (Myers et al., 2000). Here, pronounced slopes, aspect, low solar radiation, and proximity to forest fragments favour natural regeneration, whereas the proximity to urban areas, roads, or highways inhibits natural regeneration and increases the possibility of subsequent wildfires (dos Santos et al., 2019). In the Cerrado, environmental factors, soil properties, and land use shape a wide (~2 ×10 6 km 2 ) and complex mosaic that range from open grasslands to scleromorphic forests. Within this heterogeneity, stable formations from rocky outcrops serving as plant refugia (the Cerrado rupestre) are particularly resilient to fires in comparison with open areas (Gomes et al., 2014). Elevation must be also considered in ER. Although it is generally assumed that high temperatures favor rapid plant growth, Lippok et al. (2013) indicated that forest recovery was facilitated with elevation. They observed that species density increased with altitude, suggesting a compensatory effect between the harsh microclimate conditions at deforested sites (warmer and drier) with the temperature drop observed with increasing elevation. These findings evidence that the relationship between species traits (growth rate, shade tolerance, water requirements) and elevation gradient (light irradiance, precipitation, temperature) is fundamental, and influences the capacity of forest recovery in mountain ecosystems. 4.4.1. Someone does the work for us. Attracting seed dispersers The maintenance of fire refugia or standing burned woody vegetation favors passive restoration by providing structural components that attract frugivorous birds, therefore promoting seed dispersal during early post-fire regeneration (Cavallero et al., 2013). The multipurpose use of remnant Araucaria or Nothofagus trees mentioned above can also serve to attract flying visitors increasing bird-mediated seed rain (Albornoz et al., 2013). Flying vertebrates act as seed dispersers for a variety of fleshy-fruited broadleaf species from undisturbed cloud forest patches into burned Pinus areas located nearby or even to less connected patches in the Sierra de Manantl´ an Biosphere Reserve (Mexico), promoting cloud-forest regeneration (Rost et al., 2015). An imaginative approach consisted in the attraction of frugivorous bats from preserved forests to burned areas (Preciado-Benítez et al., 2015). Using tropical fruits as a reward, they increased frugivorous visits to degraded areas and consequently seed raining, serving as an initial restoration strategy that may be further complemented with more active interventions, such as the planting of successional tree species. After experimental burns in the south-eastern Amazonia, Paolucci et al (2019) indicated that the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) has the potential to collaborate in natural forest regeneration by dispersing a variety of seeds over long distances through disturbed forests. Probably attracted by the presence of more palatable leaves and higher temperatures in open areas, the number of propagules (seeds per ha/year) collected in tapir dungs from disturbed forest tripled those from undisturbed forest. Despite the potential capacity of herbivores as seed dispersers, the use of cattle is controversial since it is generally perceived as a limitation for restoration, and grazing control is commonly implemented to protect tree plantings and promote secondary forest recovery (Weaver and Schwagerl, 2008). Nevertheless, in subtropical dry forests, cattle can also eliminate grass competition and benefit tree recruitment (Braasch et al., 2017) or serve as dispersal agents that help tropical woody plant recovery (Miceli-M´ endez et al., 2008). 4.5. Assisted / active restoration While passive restoration may be adequate in some cases, fire severity together with ecological (seed bank or propagules depletion, SOM consumption, erosion rates) or environmental variables (changes in regional climate, flood, or drought risk) may limit the capacity of the ecosystem to naturally recover after fire. In these cases, passive restoration may be insufficient, and so active interventions are necessary (USDA Forest Service, 2012). Nevertheless, although passive and active restoration are generally distinguished, the reality resembles more a palette of colors where multiple shades are intermingled. The use of remnant trees or nurse shrubs (passive restoration) as facilitating agents in active restoration activities is well documented (Castro et al. 2002; G´ omez-Aparicio et al. 2004), also in LAC (Galindo et al. 2017). Nurse plants modify their surroundings (Fig. 3), augmenting light interference, increasing water availability, and diminishing grass competition, which is expected to benefit shade-tolerant species more than pioneer ones (Galindo et al., 2017; Blanco-García et al., 2011). The establishment of nurse shrubs can serve to prevent fire incidence in areas under ongoing restoration; in a fire occurred during a subtropical dry forest restoration (Sierra Bermeja, Puerto Rico), Santiago-García et al. (2008) registered lower immediate and delayed mortality of functional groups in areas hosting nurse trees compared to more open sites. This was probably due to differences in fuel load that resulted in contrasting fire intensities. After severe fire events, Bannister et al. (2013, 2020) compared the responses and growth under different planting conditions of the vulnerable and fire-sensitive Pilgerodendron uviferum - the Worlds southernmost distributed conifer (Martinez, 1981; Bannister et al., 2012). Two years after planting, tree seedlings suffered water stress in open areas but tolerated humid conditions provided by nurse shrubs. Beneath the protective canopy P. uviferum seedlings showed lower mortality and higher shoot growth, foliar nutrients, and better photosynthetic performance than unsheltered seedlings (Bannister et al., 2013). After 4 years of growth protected P. uviferum seedlings reached higher lengths and showed a superior photosynthetic performance (higher F v /F m values) (Bannister et al., 2020). However, natural recovery might be insufficient to efficiently restore degraded areas, since P. uviferum recruitment is limited by seed availability (Bannister et al., P. Souza-Alonso et al. Forest Ecology and Management 509 (2022) 120083 9 2013). A mixed strategy based on the complementary use of remnant trees with the plantation of individuals in groups (cluster plantation) would be preferable to restore P. uviferum forests in Northern Patagonia (Bannister, 2015). Variations in water availability also conditioned seedling establishment and growth of Austrocedrus chilensis, Nothofagus pumilio, and N. dombeyi seedlings in fire-affected sites (Tercero-Bucardo et al., 2007). In the case of the shade-tolerant Abies religiosa in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (Mexico), 5-year individuals significantly increased survival rates from 18% to 72% when planted contiguously to a native nurse species (Carbajal-Navarro et al. 2019). The successful implementation of native and fire-sensitive species such as Nothofagus pumilio or Fitzroya cupressoides has also been improved due to the amelioration of site conditions e.g., the direct application of organic amendments to create fertile islands (Varela et al., 2006, 2011) or from more elaborated strategies. Isolated individuals can be mixed with abiotic structures as shelters to ameliorate soil physicochemical conditions and plant performance (Urretavizcaya and Defoss´ e, 2013), also protecting plants from grazing. After a fire event in the Torres del Paine National Park (Chile), active restoration by planting N. pumilio individuals was constantly influenced by strong biotic and abiotic constraints, and it was shown that plant survival depended on nucleated planting, protection against herbivores, and microsite facilitation (Vidal et al 2015; Valenzuela et al., 2016, 2018). Microsite facilitation using native shrubs or logs increased the survival rate and height of N. pumilio seedlings, even in comparison with plants protected with polyethylene shelters (Valenzuela et al., 2018). In temperate Argentinian forests (Subantarctic or Patagonic-Andean forests), Urretavizcaya et al. (2018) indicated that N. pumilio regeneration is highly constrained if protective measures are not implemented. Several aspects considering Nothofagus restoration projects (beyond post-fire restoration) across the Southern hemisphere have been recently reviewed (van Galen et al., 2021). In the Cerrado, Pellizzaro et al. (2017) selected a mixture of 75 species with different lifeforms (trees, shrubs, and grasses) in different proportions for a field experiment. After 2 years, >80% of the planted species were observed in areas formerly dominated by invasive grasses. Although often considered as a degraded state, the ability of secondgrowth forests to provide ecosystem services is significant, but these fireprone structures attract less attention -in ecological termsthan oldgrowth forests. Studying how different land-uses in the past affected the recovery of vegetation structure, richness, and species composition in a lowland Brazilian Atlantic Forest, Sansevero et al. (2017) indicated that low values of vegetation recovery in the secondary forests suggested a pattern of arrested succession related to the dominance of fire-resistant species. Thus, they recommended interventions like enrichment plantings, nucleation techniques, and assisted natural regeneration to accelerate forest restoration. Ecologically-oriented proposals promoting forest transformation to ecosystems more similar to the natural range of structural and compositional variability represent better options for increasing forest resilience. In these cases, alternatives favoring the transition from secondary to old-growth forests exist but mainly depend on species dominance (Gonz´ alez et al., 2015). Here, it is important to pay attention to what ecological attributes are selected to evaluate our knowledge of ecosystem recovery. For instance, some old-growth forest attributes (large trees) would be rapidly acquired in Nothofagus-dominated forests, whereas other attributes (high diversity) would be acquired quickly in mixed evergreen forests (Gonz´ alez et al., 2015). 4.6. Social aspects of restoration 4.6.1. The social challenge of postfire restoration actions in LAC A good understanding of the ecological and technical aspects of fire is necessary but social aspects of fire restoration -and restoration in generalare less explored. The social relevance of forests in LAC is paradigmatic and so are the actions aimed to restore them. This importance is perfectly exemplified in South America where a significant proportion of total forest area (>20% vs 7% rest of the world) is designated primarily for social services (FAO-Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2020). Consequently, most ER projects in LAC are framed in the social dimension (Ceccon and Martínez-Garza, 2016) and thus, developing initiatives to effectively address the complex nature of restoration should include socioeconomic aspects to fulfill stakeholder needs, integrating multidisciplinarity into the restoration experience, and consider the diversification of subjects and capabilities (Bloomfield et al., 2019). To this end, acquiring a deep knowledge of the socioecological context where forest fires occur is essential not only in terms of biological conservation or sustainable forestry operations but to design locally adapted, effective management practices (Jardel et al., 2006; Blignaut and Aronson, 2020). 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