Scope and limitations of airborne LiDAR technology for the detection and analysis of Roman military sites in Northwest Iberia

ARCHAEOLOGY & GEOMATICS 9789088 904516 ISBN 978-90-8890-451-6 ISBN: 978-90-8890-451-6 Sidestone Press Digital technologies have numerous applications in archaeology ranging from the documentation of the archaeological evidence and the analysis of research data to the presentation of results for a wider audience. This volume consists of various studies on the use of methods such as LiDAR (light detection and ranging), archaeological prospection, visibility, mobility and the analysis of the spatial distribution of archaeological objects, applied in various contexts. The case studies vary widely and include the Late Pleistocene in the Northern Iberian Peninsula, the Roman Republican period in Southern Italy, the Formative period in the Andes and the 1936-39 Spanish Civil War. In 2005 a (then) pioneering postgraduate course on the applicability of digital geospatial technologies for archaeology was launched in Spain. Quite unexpectedly, the course has been alive annually for more than 10 years so far, having trained around 300 young archaeologists from Spain, Portugal, and Latin America in the critical use of nowadays popular tools such as GIS, GPS, remote sensing and LiDAR for the documentation and analysis of the archaeological record. To commemorate the first 10 years of the course, a conference was organized in Mérida (Spain) in October 2015. Former students were invited to present and discuss their research in which these technologies were used intensively; this edited book is a selection of those contributions. Through a series of widely varying casestudies, both technically sophisticated and theoretically informed applications of such digital technologies are presented. All the contributors are young researchers, either young doctors or doctorate students, coming from fairly varied archaeological contexts and approaches. HARVESTING THE BENEFITS OF 10 YEARS OF TRAINING IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA (2006-2015) edited by Victorino Mayoral Herrera César Parcero-Oubiña Pastor Fábrega-Álvarez Archaeology and Geomatics Sidestone Archaeology and Geomatics Mayoral Herrera, Parcero-Oubiña & Fábrega-Álvarez (eds) Source Reference Mayoral Herrera, V., C. Parcero-Oubiña & P. Fábrega-Álvarez 2017| ARCHAEOLOGY & GEOMATICS, Harvesting the benefits of 10 years of training in the Iberian Peninsula (2006-2015). Leiden: Sidestone Press. This is a free offprint – as with all our publications the entire book is freely accessible on our website, where you can also buy a printed copy or pdf E-book. WWW.SIDESTONE.COM SIDESTONE PRESS © 2017 Individual authors Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden www.sidestone.com Lay-out & cover design: Sidestone Press Photograph cover: Visualization of LIDAR data, by João Fonte and José Manuel Costa. ISBN 978-90-8890-451-6 (softback) ISBN 978-90-8890-452-3 (hardcover) ISBN 978-90-8890-453-0 (PDF e-book) Contents Unboxing the black box. Some reflections after ten years of teaching geospatial technologies to archaeologists 7 Victorino Mayoral Herrera, César Parcero-Oubiña and Pastor Fábrega-Álvarez SECTION 1: SHAPES AND LOCATIONS. DOCUMENTING AND CHARACTERISING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD 19 Pursuing ancient rural life through surface survey: composition and diversity of artifact distributions 21 Luis Antonio Sevillano Perea Experiments on Roman surface scatters through digital survey methods. Study cases from Odra-Pisuerga region (Burgos, Spain) 37 Jesús García Sánchez Scope and limitations of airborne LiDAR technology for the detection and analysis of Roman military sites in Northwest Iberia 55 José Manuel Costa-García and João Fonte Making Visible the Invisible: Low Cost Methodologies for the Study of Ancient Carvings 73 Miguel Carrero-Pazos, Benito Vilas-Estévez and Alia Vázquez-Martínez SECTION 2: TOOLS AND METHODS. PROCEDURAL APPROACHES 91 Methods for the evaluation of the visualisation of archaeological sites 93 Pablo Paniego Díaz Landscapes on the move. Digitally exploring the relationship between megaliths and mobility in Northern Cáceres (Spain) 107 Jose M. Señorán Martín The answer is blowing in the wind. A method for measuring wind-protection as a criterion for settlement in the past 121 Marcos García García SECTION 3: PATTERNS, BEHAVIOUR, DECISIONS. ANALYSING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 131 The Application of GIS to flint management studies during the Pleistocene to Holocene transition: the case of Baltzola (Dima, Bizkaia, Spain) 133 Maite García-Rojas, Alejandro Prieto, Aitor Sánchez, Cristina Camarero and Lydia Zapata (†) The Archaeology of Rock Art as Archaeology of the Mediterranean Landscape 149 María Sebastián López Building landscapes: a landform approach for the Iron Age sites in the Upper Duero River 171 Raquel Liceras-Garrido, Enrique Cerrillo-Cuenca and Alfredo Jimeno-Martínez1 The contribution of GIS to the analysis of the distribution of Roman caves between the Ebro River and the Pyrenees 189 Leticia Tobalina Pulido, Benoît Pace and Alain Campo The potential of the Geographic Information Techniques for the of the morphology and settlement patterns of the Roman military sites of early imperial era in Iberia 207 José Manuel Costa-García Rethinking Tafí: a political approach to the landscape of a Southern Andean Formative community 225 Jordi A. López Lillo Landscapes of War. GIS applications in the study of the Spanish Civil War 247 Manuel Antonio Franco Fernández and Pedro Rodríguez Simón SECTION 4: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE PUBLIC. DISSEMINATING TO A WIDER AUDIENCE 261 Geographic Information Systems: an effective tool for the management of the Cultural Heritage of Cantabria 263 Gustavo Sanz Palomera A map for Gondar. Cartographic system for the touristic development of the Amhara Region (Ethiopia) 283 Cristina Charro Lobato, Eduardo Martín Agúndez and Agustín Cabria Ramos Concluding discussion 299 P. M. van Leusen 55 costa-garcía and fonte Scope and limitations of airborne LiDAR technology for the detection and analysis of Roman military sites in Northwest Iberia José Manuel Costa-García1 and João Fonte2 Remote sensing: towards a new cost-effective methodology The Roman military sites are frequently characterised by the perishable nature of their structures and material culture. This situation can easily become extreme in the particular case of the marching camps (castra aestiva) (Peralta Labrador 2002; Jones 2012). Since these sites are almost invisible in the modern landscape, the use of remote sensing techniques for their detection and study has proved fundamental. Although the integration of some of these tools -i.e. aerial photographyinto the archaeological studies of the Iberian Peninsula started several decades ago, the development of the Roman military archaeology as an autonomous discipline demanded a significant renovation and adaptation of the common methodological approaches. More recently, we have contributed through the Romanarmy.eu3 research project to the development of a cost-effective methodology for the detection and analysis of Roman military sites in Northwest Iberia. This method combines remote sensing techniques (historical and modern aerial photography, satellite imagery, airborne LiDAR), and GIS with more conventional archaeological field survey techniques, alongside place-names distribution and ethnography (Menéndez Blanco et al. 2013; Menéndez Blanco et al. 2016b). All these tools provide a new and qualitatively 1 Departamento de Historia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Praza da Universidade, s/n 15703 Santiago de Compostela (Spain) [email protected]. 2 Instituto de Ciencias del Patrimonio (Incipit), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas (CSIC). Avenida de Vigo, s/n. 15705 Santiago de Compostela (Spain) [email protected]. 3 Romanarmy.eu is an independent and self-financed project formed by several researchers particularly interested on the archaeological study of the Roman conquest of the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula: http://romanarmy.eu/en/. 56 archaeology and geomatics differential approach to the sites, allowing us to study their spatial, locational and morphological characteristics. They lead thus to a more integrated approach, since each technique could potentially reveal different features (Crutchley 2009). Within this context, airborne LiDAR allows us to see and understand landscapes from a different perspective. We understand the landscape as a result of the co-evolution of natural and cultural processes. In this way, each period of activity generates its own concrete landscape forms, partly based on the footprints left by the different physical remains that once existed in a particular space. However, a landscape is not just a messy amount of archaeological features, but rather a palimpsest of elements with different temporality and spatiality we need to read and understand (Mlekuž 2013a, 2013b). By picking those little pieces of information we can try to individualise and reconstruct ancient landscapes. For that reason, we need to develop different strategies to increase the visibility of more faint topographic evidence, or what we might call “archaeological topographies” (Opitz and Cowley 2013). Airborne LiDAR is indeed a very powerful tool for mapping the different traces that are engraved on the terrain. Finally, we must stress that the north-western area of the Iberian Peninsula is not topographically uniform. The vast plains of the Northern Spanish Plateau are dominated by large states and cereal farming. The mountainous areas of Asturias, western León, eastern Galicia and north-eastern Portugal are frequently forested if not dedicated to pastures. The central and western areas of Galicia as well as northern Portugal are occupied by smallholdings with diversified crops, meadows and forests covering valleys, hills and low mountains. This requires the use of a diversified methodology. By analysing the response of every single technique to different landscapes, terrain types and vegetation canopies, we can outline its potential and limitations. Historical aerial photography and Roman military archaeology The use of remote sensing techniques is not new in Roman military archaeology, including in Iberia. Indeed, several ad hoc flights over Roman military sites were made before World War II, also in Spain (e.g. Almagro Basch 1943; González Reguero 2007). Besides that, a large amount of aerial photographs commisioned for different purposes have also been extensively used by archaeologists: the aerial photos from historical flights -mainly from the 1930s onwards- and satellite imagery archives are good examples of that (Hanson and Oltean 2013). Any user can access these materials easily today. Consequently, it is possible not only to adopt an important diachronic perspective of the sites and landscapes, but also to digitally reconstruct nowadays lost archaeological landscapes by using photogrammetric software (Cerrillo-Cuenca and Sanjosé 2013, Charro Lobato 2015; Risbøl et al. 2015). In the Iberian Peninsula there have been ad hoc photographic flights over Roman republican military sites such as Numantia (González Reguero 2007: 239) and Cáceres el Viejo (Almagro Basch 1943). The archaeological use of the “Vuelo General de España Serie B” (USAF AST6 54-AM-78), commissioned by the Spanish government to the United States Air Force (USAF), also led to the discovery of new camps as those of Castrocalbón (Loewinsohn 1965), Valdemeda (Sánchez Palencia 1986), O Cornado (Gago Mariño and Fernández Malde 2015), 57 costa-garcía and fonte Monte dos Trollos (Costa-García et al. 2015b) or A Chá da de Santa Marta (Costa- García et al. 2015b; Orejas et al. 2015). More recently we have used Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry (Verhoeven et al. 2012) to orthorectify and georeference historical aerial photos from several historical flights (SPLAL, RAF and USAF4) from the 1940s and the 1950s in Portugal (Redweik et al. 2010). This allowed us to obtain new cartographic data, namely Digital Surface Models (DSM) and orthophotos. We have also used historical aerial photos taken by the USAF during the 1940s and the 1950s in Spain: series A (1945-46) and B (1956-57) (Pérez Álvarez et al. 2013; Pérez Álvarez et al. 2014), recently made available by the Spanish Geographic Institute (IGN) through web-mapping services. Roman military sites such as Campos (Blanco- Rotea et al. 2016) and Alto da Cerca (Fonte and Costa-García 2016) were analysed doing an intensive use of these tools. Modern aerial photography and satellite imagery Aerial photography also played an important -though frequently underestimatedrole in the awakening of the Roman military archaeology as a discipline in Spain. The planning of flights with an archaeological aim during the decades of 1990 and 2000 allowed not only the discovery of new camps but also the detailed study of other sites previously known (Del Olmo Martín 1995; García Merino 1996; Peralta Labrador 2011). In the last years, the popularity of multi-purpose aerial photography and satellite imagery has increased at an exponential rate. The possibility of locating traces of hidden structures determined their extensive use in archaeology (Ceraudo 2013). The open access to data granted by the Spanish National Plan of Aerial Orthophotography (PNOA) or Google Inc. -among othershas allowed the development of a systematic survey method (Menéndez Blanco et al. 2013). This is especially effective in mountainous areas without dense vegetation canopy or in plain regions covered with crops. In some cases the ancient earth ramparts are still surviving; in others the trenches were tracked due to the differential accumulation of moisture in the topsoil. The planning of field surveys focused on those potential sites led to the discovery of many castra aestiua in the northern areas of Iberia (González Álvarez et al. 2008, 2011; Menéndez Blanco et al. 2011a, 2011b; Celís Sánchez et al. 2015; Hierro Gárate et al. 2015). Airborne LiDAR In forested areas with dense vegetation cover, the identification of archaeological features is still very problematic (Doneus et al. 2008). The introduction of airborne LiDAR has helped to overcome this problem because of its unique capability to penetrate vegetation canopies, making it possible to document the underlying topographic surface and identify any cultural remains on it (Opitz and Cowley 2013). 4 Sociedade Portuguesa de Levantamentos Aéreos Limitada (SPLAL) from between 1937 and 1952; British Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1947; United States Air Force (USAF) from 1958. The photos have to be purchased to the Portuguese Army Geospatial Information Center (CIGeoE). 64 archaeology and geomatics The enclosures of Monte da Chá and Monte dos Trollos (Lugo, Spain) show a different degree of deterioration in the same geographical area (Costa-García et al. 2015b). Both Roman camps are perfectly distinguishable in the historical aerial photos of the 1950s. The former has been almost obliterated by reforestation and re-parcelling activities. Still, LiDAR visualisations show at least some additional traces which we could not observe on the field until 2014. Regarding the latter, its defences are surprisingly well preserved in the areas covered with trees, while the modern paths have practically wiped out the ancient trenches in the western sector (fig. 5). In this way, the enclosure detected in LiDAR visualisations shows almost the entire shape and limits documented in the aerial photography six decades ago. In this case, we can clearly appreciate the dissimilarities between a traditional reforestation plan and another one which introduces heavy machinery. The situation of O Cornado (A Coruña, Spain) (Gago Mariño and Fernández Malde 2015) is quite different due to the smallholding: some parcels have been reforested, while others are ploughed (fig. 5). The LiDAR-based DTM outperform modern aerial photography and satellite imagery, and reveal how the constant ploughing have soften the relief of the ancient ramparts and trenches (Costa- García et al. 2015, 2015b). On the contrary, they still preserve a good size in several areas below the tree canopy. LiDAR in upland areas The upland regions have been generally less affected by anthropogenic activities than the plains or the valleys, so several of the best preserved Roman military camps are located in such areas. That is the case of enclosures like El Chao de Carrubeiro, Moyapán or El Mouru, among others (González Álvarez and Menéndez Blanco 2007; González Álvarez et al. 2011, 2012; Martín Hernández 2015; Menéndez Blanco et al. 2014). These sites were detected by using modern aerial photography, but the application of LiDAR technology has helped not only to better define their defences but also to detect new archaeological features previously unknown, such as clauiculae-type entrances or new ramparts (Costa-García 2015, Costa-García et al. 2015b) (fig. 6). Moreover, the systematic use of LiDAR-based DEMs in archaeological survey has allowed the discovery of new sites in areas where the review of aerial photography and satellite imagery was unsuccessful.7 But the archaeological structures of these regions are not free from human aggressions. The reforestation, the building of roads, the opening of firebreak or the installation of TV and radio masts are concentrated in the same mountain ranges where the Romans established their camps about two thousand years ago. The site of El Pico El Outeiro (Asturias, Spain) (Menéndez Blanco et al. 2014) perfectly exemplifies this situation and the traces of the ancient ramparts are only partially distinguishable in LiDAR visualisations (fig. 6). Fortunately, it was possible to 7 The discovery of sites such as A Penaparda (Lugo, Spain), El Xuegu la Bola (fig. 6), El Cueiru, El Chao or Resieḷḷa (Asturias, Spain) has been reported to the Regional Cultural Heritage authorities of those territories between the years 2015 and 2016. They are also included in some forthcoming papers. 65 costa-garcía and fonte detect a small castellum here thanks to the combined use of this technology and the USAF aerial photos of 1946 (Costa-García et al. 2015b). Grazing activities can also make LiDAR-based remote sensing technology difficult in these areas. If in the lowlands the presence of “false friends” usually derives from the regular parcelling of modern times, the existence of livestock enclosures can usually lead to the incorrect identification of Roman military sites in mountainous landscapes. The grazing and opening of pastures continuously erodes the soil, destroying the remains of earth banks and trenches. Paradoxically, these activities allowed us to partially observe the defences of the Roman camp of Serra da Casiña (León, Spain) by using aerial photography (Menéndez Blanco et al. 2016). However, it was thanks to the LiDAR-based DTM that we could reconstruct the whole perimeter of the site and also attest its poor preservation. Other enclosures such as A Pena Dereta (Asturias, Spain) are in a very similar situation (Menéndez Blanco et al. 2014). Conclusions The reason why airborne laser scanning is being increasingly used in archaeological research is no longer a secret: it allows the generation of high-resolution topographic maps, even under a dense vegetation cover. Nevertheless, we must remember that airborne LiDAR has a specific temporal nature, since it documents the surface conditions at the time of data collection. In this way, its potential dramatically increases when combined with other geospatial datasets that can better contextualise ancient practices and post-depositional processes (Randall 2014). In addition, field validation of the digital data interpretation is also very important in order to reduce the risk of “false friends”. Nonetheless, we also tried to demonstrate here that there are different variables (time of data collection, point density, classification of the point cloud, interpolation quality and DTMs spatial resolution, terrain type and vegetation cover and size and shape of the archaeological features) that could Figure 6: The enclosures of El Xuegu La Bola (Slope visualisation) (1) and El Pico El Outeiro (PNOA aerial orthophoto and Resampling Filter visualisation) (2). 66 archaeology and geomatics influence the quality of LiDAR data and the derived products. Therefore, this technique is not the definitive answer to every research question that deal with a Landscape Archaeology perspective. It is simply a new way to see and understand archaeological landscapes from topography: it enables the detailed recording and new interpretation of the archaeological topography (Opitz and Cowley 2013). Regarding the detection and study of Roman military sites in Northwest Iberia, airborne LiDAR has proved to be a powerful archaeological tool. Is has clearly contributed to the exponential increasing of discoveries in the last years and its potential is far from being run out. Moreover, the announcement of new LiDAR flights in Spain to be commissioned by the IGN through the PNOA project looks very promising. Yet, several studies have demonstrated that this tool cannot be used as a standalone technique and let alone replace the field survey. This is a key principle that should be extended to every remote sensing technique in order to avoid future misinterpretations. Acknowledgements We would like to thank César Parcero Oubiña, Victorino Mayoral Herrera and Pastor Fábrega Álvarez for their kind invitation to participate in this publication and for all their contribution to the education of a new generation of archaeologists in the field of geographic information technologies. Also, to the other members of the RomanArmy.eu project for their efforts in the discovery of new Roman military sites in Northwest Iberia. To Ioana Oltean for the help with the English language revision and insightful comments. Finally, to the Incipit-CSIC and the research group Síncrisis of the University of Santiago de Compostela for their support during the completion of this work. References Almagro Basch, M. 1943. La colaboración de la aviación española en el campo de la arqueología. Revista Ampurias 5, 247-249. Bennett, R., Welham, K., Hill, R. and Ford, A. 2012. A Comparison of Visualization Techniques for Models Created from Airborne Laser Scanned Data. Archaeological Prospection 19, 41-48. Challis, K., Forlin, P. and Kincey, M. 2011. A Generic Toolkit for the Visualization of Archaeological Features on Airborne LiDAR Elevation Data. Archaeological Prospection 18, 279-289. Bollandsås, O.M., Risbøl, O, Ene, L.T., Nesbakken, A., Gobakken, T. and Næsset, E. 2012. 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Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 3354-3360. 71 costa-garcía and fonte Verhoeven, G., Doneus, M., Briese, C. and Vermeulen, F. 2012. Mapping by matching: a computer vision-based approach to fast and accurate georeferencing of archaeological aerial photographs. Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 2060-2070. Zakšek, K., Oštir, K., Kokalj, Ž. 2011. Sky-View Factor as a Relief Visualization Technique. Remote Sensing 3: 398-415. Notes on contributors José Manuel Costa-García has a PhD in Archaeology (2013) and BA in History (2006) with an honours degree from the University of Santiago de Compostela. He obtained an Advanced Studies Diploma in Archaeology from the same university (2008). He also got a FPU predoctoral grant (2008-12) and a postdoctoral grant of the Galician Regional Government (2016-2019). Active member of the archaeological research team in the Roman fort of A Cidadela (Sobrado dos Monxes, A Coruña) (2007-2010 and 2016). His specialization area is the study the Roman military presence by combining specific methodologies coming from archaeology, ancient history, epigraphy and new technologies. João Fonte has a PhD in Archaeology from the University of Santiago de Compostela (2015), having enjoyed a doctoral fellowship from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT). Advanced Studies Diploma in Archaeology from the University of Santiago de Compostela (2009), with recognition to the master degree by the Faculty of Arts, University of Coimbra (2010). Master in Geographic Information Systems from the Faculty of Arts, University Porto (2009). BA in History, specialization Archaeology from the University of Minho (2006). Now he holds a postdoctoral grant from the Galician Regional Government (2016-2019). Areas of expertise: Landscape Archaeology, geospatial technologies and Late Iron Age-Roman transition in Northwest Iberia. ARCHAEOLOGY & GEOMATICS 9789088 904516 ISBN 978-90-8890-451-6 ISBN: 978-90-8890-451-6 Sidestone Press Digital technologies have numerous applications in archaeology ranging from the documentation of the archaeological evidence and the analysis of research data to the presentation of results for a wider audience. This volume consists of various studies on the use of methods such as LiDAR (light detection and ranging), archaeological prospection, visibility, mobility and the analysis of the spatial distribution of archaeological objects, applied in various contexts. The case studies vary widely and include the Late Pleistocene in the Northern Iberian Peninsula, the Roman Republican period in Southern Italy, the Formative period in the Andes and the 1936-39 Spanish Civil War. In 2005 a (then) pioneering postgraduate course on the applicability of digital geospatial technologies for archaeology was launched in Spain. Quite unexpectedly, the course has been alive annually for more than 10 years so far, having trained around 300 young archaeologists from Spain, Portugal, and Latin America in the critical use of nowadays popular tools such as GIS, GPS, remote sensing and LiDAR for the documentation and analysis of the archaeological record. To commemorate the first 10 years of the course, a conference was organized in Mérida (Spain) in October 2015. Former students were invited to present and discuss their research in which these technologies were used intensively; this edited book is a selection of those contributions. Through a series of widely varying casestudies, both technically sophisticated and theoretically informed applications of such digital technologies are presented. All the contributors are young researchers, either young doctors or doctorate students, coming from fairly varied archaeological contexts and approaches. HARVESTING THE BENEFITS OF 10 YEARS OF TRAINING IN THE IBERIAN PENINSULA (2006-2015) edited by Victorino Mayoral Herrera César Parcero-Oubiña Pastor Fábrega-Álvarez Archaeology and Geomatics Sidestone Archaeology and Geomatics Mayoral Herrera, Parcero-Oubiña & Fábrega-Álvarez (eds)