Interaction in computer supported collaborative learning: an analysis of the implementation phase

RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access Interaction in computer supported collaborative learning: an analysis of the implementation phase Núria Hernández-Sellés 1* , Pablo-César Muñoz-Carril 2 and Mercedes González-Sanmamed 3 * Correspondence: nuria@ lasallecampus.es 1 Transmedia project management and design at La Salle Campus Madrid. Facultad de Educación y Ciencias Sociales, C/La Salle, 10, 28023 Madrid, Spain Full list of author information is available at the end of the article Abstract There is extensive research on interaction frameworks in distance education and studies in Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) have also focused on establishing interaction models. There is still research to be done, though, in order to identify the elements that configure interaction to build up a framework for their integration, aligned with the learning goals. The purpose of this study is to understand the key elements that configure effective interaction in the implementation phase of CSCL and to analyze the different types of interactions that occur during collaborative learning processes. The study was designed under a nonexperimental quantitative methodology and 106 learners answered a questionnaire after participating in 5 different higher education subjects implementing CSCL. A factorial analysis of results prove that students identify three types of interaction to be necessary during the implementation phase of collaboration in order to reach knowledge convergence: cognitive, social and organizational interaction. Therefore, instructors and institutions who wish to promote effective CSCL should bear in mind the learning goals together with the social and organizational aspects interwoven in the design, implementation and assessment phases of collaborative learning. Keywords: Collaborative learning, Higher education, Teaching/learning strategies, Computer-mediated communication, Interactive learning Introduction Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) refers to learning situations mediated by technologies where small groups of 3 to 5 students are exposed to interaction in order to solve a complex unstructured problem or are required to design a project (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000). In order to solve the challenge, the group needs to engage in an intense process of cooperation and negotiation which entails, as stated by the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework, the interrelation of teaching presence, cognitive presence and social presence (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). If collaboration is effectively designed and facilitated through teaching presence, students engage in processes that trigger cognitive presence and knowledge convergence through the construction of shared meaning (Borge, Ong, & Rosé, 2018; Puntambekar, 2006; © The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00202-5 Weinberger, Stegmann, & Fischer, 2007). The process needs to be grounded on social presence, that is on personal recognition and intra group emotional support (Garrison, Cleveland-Innes, & Fung, 2010; Näykki, Isohätälä, Järvelä, Pöysä-Tarhonen, & Häkkinen, 2017; Onrubia & Engel, 2012).Well-structured collaboration improves individual learning and has a significant influence on students’satisfaction (Johnson et al., 2000; King, 2007; Kwon, Liu, & Johnson, 2014; Medina & Suthers, 2008). The challenge in CSCL situations is to design a fruitful interaction process, since, even though the abilities to cooperate are naturally applied to personal, learning and professional contexts, effective interaction should not be taken for granted when a group of people get together to reach a common goal (Kozlowski & Ilgen, 2006; Näykki et al., 2017; Pachler, Daly, Mor, & Mellar, 2010). Conceptual framework Interaction frameworks in distance education identify different types of interaction: learner-instructor interaction, learner-learner interaction, and learner-content interaction (Moore, 1989); interactions among teachers (Garrison & Shale, 1990); and learner-interface interaction (Hillman, Willis, & Gunawardena, 1994). Research in CSCL has also established interaction models that connect its complex dimensions (Hernández-Sellés, Muñoz-Carril, & González-Sanmamed, 2019; Molinillo, Aguilar-Illescas, Anaya-Sánchez, & Vallespín-Arán, 2018), identifying a positive and significant influence between: teacher-student interaction and students’interaction in their work groups; student interaction in work groups and intra-group emotional support; student interaction in work groups and collaborative learning; online collaborative tools and students’interaction in their work groups. Learning through collaboration means, therefore, learning through interaction, that explains why interaction is one of the most focal research streams in collaborative learning, and is related to representation, discourse and pattern (Tang, Tsai, & Lin, 2014). In order to promote effective and positive interactions, it is necessary to establish a careful design phase, where the teacher has the leading role, an implementation phase where students are protagonists and teachers have a facilitating role, and an assessment phase which wraps the process in a coherent evaluation and feedback, scaffolding group work and shared by teachers and students (Garrison et al., 2010; Hernández-Sellés, González-Sanmamed, & Muñoz-Carril, 2014; Onrubia & Engel, 2012; Sims, 2003; Stahl, Koschmann, & Suthers, 2006). We developed the following table summary (Table 1) by collecting the proposals in the literature related to interaction frameworks in distance education (Hillman et al., 1994; Moore, 1989), taking into account the CSCL proposals from Sims (2003), Stahl et al. (2006), Garrison et al. (2010), Onrubia and Engel (2012), and Hernández-Sellés et al. (2014). We highlight the interaction processes in the three phases of the teachinglearning process: the design, implementation and assessment phases. Next, we present each phase outlined in the table above, explaining the most significant research results from the perspective of CSCL interaction processes. Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 2 of 13 Table 1 Design, Implementation and Assessment phases associated with interaction frameworks. Source: Designed by authors based on the literature review Design phase Implementation phase Assessment phase Instructorcontent interaction Designing/selecting problem/project connected to course competences Revises student’s reactions to course contents Associates learning outcomes to course goals/contents Addresses to new content or clarifications when necessarySelects documentation/ sources of information Associates expected learning outcomes to task Defines formative collaborative assessment Scripts collaboration, defining expected group exchange and group formation process Instructor -interface interaction Selects tools to promote teacher-student and studentstudent exchanges Makes sure tools are promoting the expected kind of interaction Makes sure tools allow for peer and process assessment as well as for final product display Makes sure tools allow observation of group processes Instructor –learner interaction Feeds the design/redesign process based on student’s course assessment Instructor makes sure collaboration script, documentation and interface are understood Instructor: Promotes peer-assessment and processassessment, individually and in groups Observes interaction Offers support (cognitive/social levels) Integrates process and peer assessment with task results Learner expects instructor to be observing and to intervene when necessary Integrates cognitive and social competences Asks for support (cognitive/social levels) Learner returns peer and group assessment; evaluates course design and course experience Learnercontent interaction Feeds the redesign process through course assessment Analyzes collaboration script, documentation Links the problem to course contents and competences Associates assessment description to interaction expectations and learning outcomes Makes an effort to understand task goal and expectations Analyzes what is expected of students in the assessment process Learnerinterface Interaction Feeds the redesign process through course assessment Familiarizes with course structure Makes sure tools allow for peer and process assessment as well as for final product display Figures out how tools will sustain teacher-student and studentstudent exchanges Learnerlearner interaction Feeds the redesign process through course assessment Group formation process Informal exchange on the perceived process Feeds the redesign process, based on instructor’s analysis of learner-learner interaction Establish a social contact Define strategies to solve the problem Peer-assessment return Interact to reach the goal (organization) Interact to provide an answer (cognitive) Interact as peers (social) Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 3 of 13 Design phase Fruitful interaction needs to be carefully planned and structured considering the pedagogical, curricular and technological elements connected to the learning process that’s being designed (Hernández-Sellés et al., 2014; Medina & Suthers, 2008; Pineda, Hennig, & Segovia, 2013). Research suggests the selection of problem/project-based learning or at least complex tasks that allow for the incorporation of generic, transversal and course competences associated to CSCL (Bell, 2010; Prichard, Bizo, & Stratford, 2006; Williams, Morgan, & Cameron, 2011). The election of technologies should be aligned with these objectives, promoting a fluent interaction both at the cognitive and the social level, to sustain problem solving through collaboration and effective teacher-student and student-student communication (Lu, Lajoie, & Wiseman, 2010; Strijbos, Martens, & Jochems, 2004). Scripting collaboration implies the design of a model to guide students to an understanding of the philosophy of collaboration: why and how they are going to interact, how this will lead them to different learning outcomes, what kind of exchanges are expected of them and how they will form the group and plan the task resolution (Dillenbourg & Hong, 2008; Haake & Pfister, 2010; Onrubia & Engel, 2012; Sobreira & Tchounikine, 2012; Strijbos et al., 2004). Implementation phase In collaborative processes each individual re-structures previous knowledge and learns to cooperate with others through socio-cognitive negotiation; therefore interaction is established at these three levels, the social, cognitive and organizational level that directs the flow of group exchange to reach the established goals (Borge et al., 2018; King, 2007; Stahl, 2004). Research is conclusive on the need for social interaction, to promote emotional intragroup support and to recognize individuals at a personal level (Akyol, Garrison, & Ozden, 2009; Capdeferro & Romero, 2012; King, 2007; Kwon et al., 2014; Vuopala, Hyvönen, & Järvelä, 2016). To strengthen the commitment of the group towards the resolution of the common goal, students need to establish a sense of community which cares for emotions and motivation, leading to a more fluent communication and to feelings of belonging (Garrison et al., 2000; Kreijns, Kirschner, & Jochems, 2003; Rovai, 2002). Indeed, the lack of social interaction results in poor cognitive exchange and academic failure, associated to the feelings of isolation (Garrison et al., 2010; Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2005; Onrubia & Engel, 2012). In this sense, teacher-student interaction should focus on motivation and support, as well as on immediate quality feedback (Kuo, Walker, Schroder, & Belland, 2014; Packham, Brychan, & Miller, 2006). Cognitive interaction occurs through the negotiation of a shared meaning or knowledge convergence, where the group makes an effort to integrate every individual contribution into a common construct and group members are exposed to knowledge convergence and divergence (Borge et al., 2018; King, 2007; Stahl, 2004; Stahl, 2006; Weinberger et al., 2007). Research highlights that even at well-designed processes students often fail to establish a fruitful learning exchange, since group organization is often a challenge. That’s why teachers should support students and redirect to a consistent socio-cognitive Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 4 of 13 process leading to what is called the socio-metacognitive expertise (Strijbos et al., 2004, King, 2007; Weinberger et al., 2007; Prichard et al., 2006; Borge et al., 2018). It is important to note that at the implementation phase, group organization will highly rely on students. Self-regulation will allow for the building of the group identity and will promote the training on the associated competences as well as the opportunities for free cognitive divergence and convergence. At this stage, teacher presence needs to be very active and alert, to avoid feelings of isolation associated to online learning with poor teacher-student and studentstudent interaction, as well as to ground the basis for cognitive and social presence (Akyol et al., 2009;Garrisonetal.,2010;Kwonetal.,2014; Strijbos et al., 2004; Vuopala et al., 2016). Assessment phase In any learning process, assessment should establish a coherence with learning methods and inform students of the type of achievements expected individually. In CSCL the learning process is articulated through cognitive and social interaction; that’s why assessment in CSCL should integrate both the process of interaction and the result of interaction, assessing student’s competencies linked to collaboration as well as task results (Balderas, Palomo-Duarte, Dodero, et al., 2018; Evans, 2013; Gikandi, Morrow, & Davis, 2011; Lee, Chan, & Van Aalst, 2006; Macdonald, 2003; Pachler et al., 2010). In order to keep a more coherent framework, if learning has occurred during interaction, assessment should also involve students in peer assessment, integrating the cognitive and social elements in the process (Pachler et al., 2010; Pérez-Mateo & Guitert, 2012; Strijbos et al., 2004). Considering the literature review and the importance of the implementation phase, we designed a study to determine the learners’perceptions about the aspects that shape the interactions that occur in the CSCL implementation phase. Methodology Objectives We present here the analysis of the interactions that occur in the implementation phase based on a CSCL experience. The specific objectives of this study are to: 1. evaluate the importance of the aspects that shape the interactions in the CSCL implementation phase; 2. identify the types of interactions that occur in the implementation phase in a CSCL process. Procedure and participants The research context involves five online university subjects from a Spanish University. Two subjects are part of a primary education degree and the other three subjects are part of a pre-primary education degree. These subjects implemented CSCL projects during three months. Teachers collaborated in the instructional design in order to guarantee consistency. The collaboration Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 5 of 13 was structured in the following steps: 1) Task communication through a collaboration script that suggested the drafting of group agreements, suggestions for project planning, role assignment, describing the media suggested for group exchange and a background on collaborative competences, focusing on organizational, social and cognitive skills; 2) Spontaneous group formation; 3) Drafting of group agreements; 4) Instructor revision of group agreements and feedback to groups; 5) Project implementation with instructor supervision and feedback; 6) Intergroup contrasting of results; 7) Online self- and peerassessment of process and results; 8) Instructor group assessment and individual adjusted assessment. Data collection instrument An ex post facto design based on the questionnaire method was used to collect data (McMillan & Schumacher, 2005), carried out with an ad hoc questionnaire. In the questionnaire design process, we verified key psychometric conditions such as validity and reliability. To ensure validity, the questionnaire was reviewed by five experts in research methodology, collaborative work and educational technology, who analyzed aspects such as the uniqueness, relevance and importance of each item. A pilot study was also carried out with 25 students whose comments allowed us to optimize the questionnaire. After the completion of both validation processes, the final questionnaire was set up. It included a section related to the analysis of interaction in the implementation phase of CSCL. Table 5shows the 16 items that were analyzed in the study. To ensure reliability, we applied Cronbach’s alpha. As McMillan and Schumacher (2010) point out, this index is the most widely used to evaluate the internal consistency of the items in a survey. It also allows to identify and delete from the scale those items that contribute little or nothing to the overall internal consistency of the questionnaire. The high result of .921 confirmed the internal consistency of the questionnaire. The questionnaires were answered anonymously. Participants were informed of the purposes of the study and gave their consent to participate in the research. The sample included 106 questionnaires, which represents 83.46% of the students enrolled in the degrees. The sampling technique was non-probabilistic, accidental or convenience (Cohen & Manion, 1990; McMillan & Schumacher, 2005). Statistical analyses were carried out with the SPSS 20 program. Results To fulfil the second objective, we carried out an exploratory factor analysis. This allowed us to identify three types of interactions that occur in CSCL environments: cognitive, social and organizational interactions. In order to check the applicability conditions of the principal component factor analysis, we used Bartlett’s sphericity test and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) sample adequacy measure. The Barlett test contrasts the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix, in which case there would be no significant correlations between the variables and the factorial model would not be relevant. On the other hand, the KMO test contrast the fact that partial correlations are small. If the KMO statistic, which ranges between the values 0 and 1, is high (greater than 0.4), it is Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 6 of 13 appropriate to develop a factor analysis, but if the value is low, it is inappropriate to carry out a factor analysis (Crespín, 2016). As we can see in Table 2, the results of Bartlett’s sphericity test (p-value = 0.000) show that it is possible to apply the factor analysis. In addition, the KMO statistic obtains a score of 0.872, a value very close to the unit, which indicates that the data adapt well to a factor analysis model. The factor analysis carried out with varimax rotation (Table 3) identified a total of three components with a total percentage of explained variance of 62.26%. Factor 1 explains 46.37% of the variance, factor 2 explains 8.30%, and factor 3 explains 7.58%. Table 4shows the rotated component matrix. The distribution of the variables in the CSCL interaction processes are organized based on the three identified components. The first component refers to aspects of cognitive interaction, the second component refers to aspects related to social interaction processes, while the last component refers to aspects of organizational interaction. Cognitive interactions are those linked to cognition (task resolution in collaboration); social interactions are those at a social level (emotional intra-group support and personal recognition); and organizational interactions are those linked to group selfregulation and organization to work effectively throughout the process (in this phase teachers transfer leadership to students). To fulfil objective 1, we used descriptive statistics involving frequencies and percentages as well as measures of central tendency (average) and dispersion (standard deviations). As Table 5shows, the average scores obtained by the items belonging to the three types of interactions in CSCL environments are, in general, high, since all items obtained percentages in the “high”and “very high”categories. In relation to cognitive interaction, learners consider the most important aspects for carrying out group tasks in virtual environments to be “develop the capacity for criticism and self-criticism”and “the ability to make consensual decisions”(mean of 4.51 in both cases); while the item “make contributions to the team outside the task (knowledge, experience or information)”(mean of 4.20) has the lowest mean compared to the rest. In terms of social interaction, learners identify that “treating teammates with respect” (mean 4.70) is one of the most important elements to take into account for carrying out collaborative work online. “Sharing experiences related to the task”(mean of 4.40) is the item with the lowest mean score in this factor. Finally, for organizational interaction, the item that has the highest mean is “help other team members to learn”(average of 4.23), while the item with the lowest mean score is “establish times in which the effectiveness of the team organization is assessed” (mean 3.96). Regarding the correlations (Table 6), there is a significant positive relationship between cognitive interaction and social interaction (r = .709; p< .001), as well as between Table 2 KMO measure and Bartlett’s sphericity test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin sample adequacy measure .872 Bartlett’s sphericity test Chi-square approximate test 892,054 df 120 Sig. .000 Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 7 of 13 Table 3 Total variance explained by the principal component analysis Component Eigenvalues Sums of the squared saturations of the extraction Sum of the squared saturations of the rotation Total % of variance % accumulated Total % of variance % accumulated Total % of variance % accumulated 1 7.419 46.371 46.371 7.419 46.371 46.371 3.984 24.900 24.900 2 1.329 8.308 54.680 1.329 8.308 54.680 3.520 22.002 46.902 3 1.213 7.584 62.264 1.213 7.584 62.264 2.458 15.361 62.264 4 .929 5.806 68.070 5 .764 4.776 72.845 6 .727 4.542 77.388 7 .650 4.060 81.448 8 .554 3.461 84.909 9 .521 3.253 88.162 10 .399 2.495 90.657 11 .376 2.348 93.005 12 .305 1.903 94.909 13 .289 1.806 96.715 14 .240 1.501 98.216 15 .152 .951 99.167 16 .133 .833 100.000 Table 4 Rotated component matrix and reliability Component Cronbach’s alpha 123 Face uncertainties within the team .841 .046 .219 .886 Manage criticism and self-criticism constructively .756 .210 .075 Make consensual decisions .740 .280 .165 Develop group analysis guidelines .638 .409 .300 Show initiative .581 .304 .233 Make contributions to the team outside the task (knowledge, experience or information) .534 .342 .254 Encourage participation .506 .323 .343 Exchange information sources .482 .425 .337 Value the contributions of other team members .213 .835 .230 .855 Tolerate points of view that are different from your own .235 .808 .297 Express personal ideas and opinions freely .190 .736 .171 Treat teammates with respect .368 .677 −.056 Share experiences related to the task .486 .503 .130 Establish times in which the effectiveness of the team organization is assessed .252 .127 .798 .753 Leadership by the coordinator to mediate in the organization .225 .060 .776 Help other team members to learn .132 .333 .713 Note: 1 = Cognitive component; 2 = Social component; 3 = Organizational component Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 8 of 13 social and organizational interaction (r = .434; p< .001), and also between cognitive and organizational interaction (r = .572; p< .001). Discussion The purpose of this study was to understand the key elements that configure effective interaction in the implementation phase of CSCL and to analyze the different types of interactions that occur during collaborative learning processes. Table 5 Descriptive statistics, means and standard deviations of the items that make up the three types of interactions in CSCL environments DK/ NA Very low Low Medium High Very high n % n % n % n % n % n % Mean SD Cognitive interaction Face uncertainties within the team 0 .00 0 .00 0 .00 15 14.29 42 40.00 48 45.71 4.31 .71 Manage criticism and self-criticism constructively 0 .00 0 .00 1 .95 6 5.71 36 34.29 62 59.05 4.51 .65 Make consensual decisions 1 .95 0 .00 0 .00 7 6.67 32 30.48 65 61.90 4.51 .76 Develop group analysis guidelines 0 .00 0 .00 1 .95 9 8.57 40 38.10 55 52.38 4.42 .69 Show initiative 0 .00 0 .00 1 .95 10 9.52 37 35.24 57 54.29 4.43 .71 Make contributions to the team outside the task (knowledge, experience or information) 1 .95 0 .00 1 .95 15 14.29 46 43.81 42 40.00 4.20 .84 Encourage participation 1 .95 0 .00 1 .95 8 7.62 33 31.43 62 59.05 4.46 .81 Exchange information sources 0 .00 1 .95 1 .95 6 5.71 39 37.14 58 55.24 4.45 .73 Social interaction Value the contributions of other team members 0 .00 1 .95 0 .00 3 2.86 35 33.33 66 62.86 4.57 .65 Tolerate points of view that are different from your own 0 .00 0 .00 2 1.90 3 2.86 32 30.48 68 64.76 4.58 .65 Express personal ideas and opinions freely. 0 .00 0 .00 1 .95 9 8.57 28 26.67 67 63.81 4.53 .69 Treat teammates with respect 1 .95 0 .00 0 .00 3 2.86 21 20.00 80 76.19 4.70 .68 Share experiences related to the task 1 .95 0 .00 2 1.90 7 6.67 38 36.19 57 54.29 4.40 .83 Organizational interaction Establish times in which the effectiveness of the team organization is assessed 0 .00 3 2.86 3 2.86 20 19.05 48 45.71 31 29.52 3.96 .93 Leadership by the coordinator to mediate in the organization 0 .00 0 .00 4 3.81 16 15.24 41 39.05 44 41.90 4.19 .83 Help other team members to learn 0 .00 0 .00 5 4.76 13 12.38 40 38.10 47 44.76 4.23 .85 Table 6 Spearman correlation matrix for the three types of interactions identified in CSCL 123 1. Cognitive interaction – 2. Social interaction .709** – 3. Organizational interaction .572** .434** – M 4.42 4.57 4.12 SD .51 .50 .71 **p< .001 Hernández-Sellés et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2020) 17:23 Page 9 of 13