‘Superfoods’: Reliability of the Information for Consumers Available on the Web

Citation: Cobos, Á.; Díaz, O. ‘Superfoods’: Reliability of the Information for Consumers Available on the Web. Foods 2023,12, 546. https://doi.org/10.3390/ foods12030546 Academic Editors: Nobuyuki Sakai and Han-Seok Seo Received: 21 December 2022 Revised: 21 January 2023 Accepted: 24 January 2023 Published: 26 January 2023 Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). foods Article ‘Superfoods’: Reliability of the Information for Consumers Available on the Web Ángel Cobos and Olga Díaz * Departamento de Química Analítica, Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultade de Ciencias, Campus de Lugo, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain *Correspondence: olga.diaz.r[email protected] Abstract: The term ‘superfoods’, used frequently with marketing purposes, is usually associated with foodstuffs with beneficial health properties. ‘Superfoods’ appears in many information sources, including digital media. The information they provide is easily accessible for consumers through Internet search engines. The objective of this work is to investigate the data that web pages offer to consumers and their accuracy according to current scientific knowledge. The two main search engines were utilized for English language websites search, introducing the term ‘superfoods’. In total, 124 search results were found. After applying the selection criteria, 45 web pages were studied. A total of 136 foods were considered as ‘superfoods’ by sites; 10 of them (kale, spinach, salmon, blueberries, avocado, chia, walnuts, beans, fermented milks and garlic) were mentioned on at least 15 sites. Nutritional and healthy properties displayed on sites were compared to scientific information. In conclusion, websites present the information in a very simplified manner and it is generally not wrong. However, they should offer to consumers comprehensible information without raising false expectations regarding health benefits. In any case, ‘superfoods’ consumption can have salutary effects as part of a balanced diet. Keywords: superfoods; consumers; online information; disease prevention; health 1. Introduction The term ‘superfood’ was introduced in the 1990s to indicate a special category of food with superior nutritional properties [ 1 ]. There are many definitions of ‘superfood’, but it usually names foodstuffs characterized by their richness in macroand micronutrients which have positive effects on human health and are useful for illness prevention [ 2 ]. Besides, these properties are inherent to the product (without any addition). In the concept of ‘superfoods’ is commonly included the idea that they are naturally produced and, frequently, are associated with indigenous populations and traditional agricultural practices [ 3 ]. However, in many cases, these foodstuffs are produced far from the developed regions of the world, and the increase of their demand has consequences in producer countries, such as the displacement of other traditional crops by monoculture and the change from traditional to intensive agricultural practices [1,3]. In fact, there is not a clear and legal definition of ‘superfoods’; nowadays, many foodstuffs are included in this group by the marketing of the food industry. The term is commonly used in informal communication, on social media and by popular influencers, which increases the popularity of a wide variety of foods [ 4 ]. Although the scientific literature endorses the health benefits of ‘superfoods’, other considerations must be contemplated, such as the factors that influence the chemical composition of foods and the potential health risks of consumption of some ‘superfoods’ [5]. Searching for nutrition information has changed in recent decades due to the increase of the use of technologies for communication at the expense of traditional sources [ 6 ]. Search engines are frequently preferred for seeking health information for their convenience and the capability of providing information from multiple sources [ 7 ]. People can Foods 2023,12, 546. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods12030546 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods Foods 2023,12, 546 2 of 24 obtain information rapidly about food through digital technologies (blogs, online lifestyle magazines, cooking web pages, etc.), which has modified the concept of the expert. These facts have made much easier the expansion of misinformation around foodstuffs and nutrition; social media, food influencers or news media do not always provide evidence-based or accurate information [6,8]. The classification of foodstuffs in the category of ‘superfoods’ could affect the demand, the consumption and the attitudes of consumers towards them; many studies related to these effects can be found [ 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 ]. Moreover, a great attention has been paid in recent years to the new digital sources that people use for getting information about health, nutrition and food [8,10–12]. Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies about the accuracy of the information that consumers can find on the Web related to the composition and health benefits of ‘superfoods’. In this regard, the overall objective of this work is to explore the information about ‘superfoods’ that web pages offer and which consumers can find by using search engines. In order to achieve this aim, it was investigated which are the most frequently mentioned ‘superfoods’ on websites, the claims about nutrients and beneficial health effects that they report and finally, the reliability of this information according to the data reported in recent scientific literature. 2. Materials and Methods A Websites search was carried out using two search engines, Google and Bing; according to FrontPage Data and Backlinko [ 13 ], Google is the most commonly used site, by 94% of searchers, while Bing is second, with a share of 2.7%. The computer used in the study was previously cleaned of cookies and trackers applying Spybot Search and Destroy software (version 2.8.67.0; Safer Networking Ltd., Greystone, Ireland). Due to preset profiles created by search engines and websites in previous searches performed on the computer used in the study, the Opera browser and its free virtual private network were used in order to avoid any bias. Furthermore, the identification of the computer’s IP address location was averted, making it possible to get results without any local bias. Another search engine, Startpage, was also used for the purpose of verifying that, in the case of Google search, the responses were free of distortion due to previous profiles associated with the computer’s IP address. Startpage delivers Google search results with additional personal data protection that avoids profile creation. The term searched was ‘superfoods’ and search engines were configurated to give results only in English. Configuration settings in Google were only English pages published in any region, while in Bing, it was necessary to select the United Kingdom (a European location was preferred) to obtain results only in English. In both cases, searches were carried out on 20 May 2022, recovering results corresponding to two periods of time, any time and the past year. The results considered in the study were those found in the first and the second page of the search engines, due to only 1.5% people clicking on the second Google search page or further when looking for terms related to health topics [13]. A total of 124 search results were found by using the three search engines, 65 in the first search pages and 59 in the second ones. Similar figures were found for the two periods of time: 65 results for ‘any time’ and 59 for ‘past year’. The results obtained using Startpage were the same as those achieved with Google, although they gave two different, so the responses were not affected by prior search profiles. The selection of the search results was carried out using the following criteria: purely commercial websites without any information, adds, sites repeated in the same or in different search engines, pages without access, in languages other than English or about other topics were removed. Finally, 45 web pages were selected (29 and 16 in the first and in the second search page, respectively). Figure 1shows the flow diagram of the websites search. The URLs of the selected web pages can be found as supplementary materials (Tables S1 and S2). Foods 2023,12, 546 3 of 24 Figure 1. Flow diagram of the websites search and selection process. VPN: virtual private network. Figure 2shows the selected results obtained using the three search engines in the first and the second search page (Figure 2a) and the number of results per period of time (Figure 2b). Most ‘any time’ results corresponded to pages dated 2021 and 2022 (71.1% of the total). Figure 2. Number of selected web pages found using the three search engines: ( a ) On the first (blue) and the second search page (grey); (b) Per period of time: any time (blue) and past year (grey). Most of the websites selected, 20 corresponded to informative pages about health, medicine, wellness, sports for the general population; 7 to communication media (newspapers, magazines, television channels); 5 to blogs about beauty, recipes, sports; 5 to sites of shops with general information about foods; 5 to pages of medical centers, associations and organizations related to health; and 3 were sites of academic organizations (universities). Figure 3shows the number of selected websites classified according to the type of Foods 2023,12, 546 4 of 24 information they provided. Eighteen websites gave references to scientific articles by direct links and/or indirectly by accessing to other web pages that contained the links. In total, 72.2% of websites that provided these references had updated their sources of information. Figure 3. Number of selected web pages that provided different types of information. The scientific information about health benefits and nutrients of ‘superfoods’ necessary for the discussion was gathered using the Clarivate Web of Science database. The search was carried out using the names of each ‘superfood’ as keywords, limited to review articles published in the last five years and to the Web of Science categories of ‘Food Science and Technology’ and ‘Nutrition Dietetics’. The search concluded on 4 November 2022. 3. Results and Discussion A total of 136 foods were considered as ‘superfoods’ by the selected sites. Table 1 shows the groups of ‘superfoods’ classified according to the number of times that the sites mentioned a food included in each of them. Each food was classified into a group according to the criteria used in many websites, generally based in some common characteristics and way of consumption. Table 1. Classification of the groups of superfoods by the number of times that were mentioned in selected web pages. Group of Superfoods Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Leafy greens and cruciferous vegetables 122 32 108 46 154 Whole grain cereals, seeds and cereals 71 33 67 37 104 Berries 65 25 65 25 90 Fish and seafood 44 17 37 24 61 Other fruits 41 16 33 24 57 Nuts 46 6 34 18 52 Legumes 33 14 25 22 47 Spices and herbs 22 10 20 12 32 Fermented foods 23 6 14 15 29 Teas and infusions 13 5 9 9 18 Fats and oils 12 4 7 9 16 Other vegetables and plant-based foods 187 23 59 51 110 Other animal-based foods and other 214 7 12 9 21 1Miscellaneous group of 19 plant-based foods. 2Miscellaneous group of 7 animal-based foods. The number of times that each food is named in the first and second page of the selected sites and the period of time corresponding to the information date of publishing in the sites (any time and past year) are shown in Tables 2–9. Foods 2023,12, 546 5 of 24 Table 2. Classification of cruciferous vegetables and leafy greens by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Food Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any time Past Year Total Mentions Cruciferous vegetables Kale 21 6 19 8 27 Broccoli 15 6 13 8 21 Collard greens 11 4 9 6 15 Cauliflower 6 3 6 3 9 Arugula 6 1 5 2 7 Brussel sprouts 5 2 3 4 7 Mustard greens 5 1 6 0 6 Cabbage 6 0 4 2 6 Watercress 4 1 3 2 5 Turnip greens 3 0 2 1 3 Bok choy 2 0 2 0 2 Rutabaga 1 0 1 0 1 Leafy greens Spinach 20 5 18 7 25 Swiss chard 12 3 12 3 15 Beet greens 2 0 2 0 2 Dandelion greens 2 0 2 0 2 Lettuce 1 0 1 0 1 Table 3. Classification of fish and seafood by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Fish and Seafood Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Salmon 17 7 15 9 24 Sardines 6 3 6 3 9 Mackerel 4 1 3 2 5 Herring 4 1 4 1 5 Tuna 3 1 2 2 4 Trout 4 0 3 1 4 Anchovies 1 1 1 1 2 Oysters 1 1 1 1 2 Cod 2 0 1 1 2 Shellfish 1 0 0 1 1 Shrimp 1 0 0 1 1 Halibut 0 1 1 0 1 Salmon roe 0 1 0 1 1 The most named group was the cruciferous vegetables that comprised twelve foods of the family Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (Table 2). Leafy greens constitute the second group, with five vegetables (Table 2). Fish and seafood results are displayed in Table 3. Fruits (Table 4) have been divided in two subgroups, berries (12 types) and other fruits (12 types), because berries were mentioned as a separate category of ‘superfoods’ in most websites, while the other fruits were named individually. Berries were the fourth most mentioned group of ‘superfoods’. Eight whole grain cereals, eight seeds and three pseudocereals (Table 5) are grouped due to the most frequent way of consumption and the food products that can be manufactured with them as raw material. Bulgur wheat has been included in this list because it Foods 2023,12, 546 6 of 24 is recognized as a whole grain by the USDA, although it is made from cracked groats of several wheat species [14]. Table 4. Classification of fruits by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Fruit Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Berries Blueberries 16 7 18 5 23 Cranberries 10 3 9 4 13 Raspberries 8 2 7 3 10 Acai berries 6 3 7 2 9 Strawberries 6 3 6 3 9 Blackberries 6 2 6 2 8 Goji berries 4 4 6 2 8 Elderberries 3 1 1 3 4 Tart cherries 2 0 2 0 2 Aronia 2 0 1 1 2 Lingonberries 1 0 1 0 1 Maqui berries 1 0 1 0 1 Other fruits Avocado 14 7 12 9 21 Citrus fruits 5 2 2 5 7 Apples 5 2 5 2 7 Pomegranate 3 2 3 2 5 Watermelon 4 1 3 2 5 Bananas 2 1 1 2 3 Coconut 2 1 2 1 3 Papaya 2 0 1 1 2 Cherries 1 0 1 0 1 Prunes 1 0 1 0 1 Figs 1 0 1 0 1 Pineapple 1 0 1 0 1 Table 5. Classification of whole grain cereals, seeds and pseudocereals by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Whole Grain Cereals, Seeds and Pseudocereals Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Chia 11 6 10 7 17 Oats 11 5 9 7 16 Quinoa 9 6 10 5 15 Flaxseeds 8 5 8 5 13 Hemp seeds 5 2 5 2 7 Brown rice 4 1 3 2 5 Sunflower seeds 4 0 2 2 4 Buckwheat 3 1 4 0 4 Barley 3 1 4 0 4 Farro 2 1 2 1 3 Pumpkin seeds 2 1 1 2 3 Teff 1 2 1 2 3 Amaranth 1 1 1 1 2 Bulgur wheat 2 0 2 0 2 Whole wheat 2 0 1 1 2 Spelt 1 0 1 0 1 Sesame seeds 1 0 1 0 1 Grape seeds 1 0 1 0 1 Sorghum 0 1 1 0 1 Foods 2023,12, 546 7 of 24 Table 6. Classification of nuts, legumes and fermented foods by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Food Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Nuts Walnuts 12 3 8 7 15 Almonds 12 1 9 4 13 Brazil nuts 7 0 5 2 7 Pistachios 2 2 4 0 4 Cashews 4 0 3 1 4 Pecans 3 0 2 1 3 Macadamia nuts 3 0 1 2 3 Peanuts 3 0 2 1 3 Legumes Beans 12 4 8 8 16 Lentils 10 4 6 8 14 Peas 5 2 4 3 7 Chickpea 3 3 4 2 6 Soybeans 3 1 3 1 4 Fermented food Fermented milks (yogurt, kefir) 14 4 8 10 18 Kombucha and kimchi 2 1 2 1 3 Sourdough + other breads 2 0 0 2 2 Sauerkraut 1 0 1 0 1 Vinegar 1 0 0 1 1 Olives 1 0 1 0 1 Table 7. Classification of spices and herbs, teas and infusions, and fats and oils by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Food Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Spices and herbs Turmeric, curcumin 8 4 5 7 12 Ginger 7 3 7 3 10 Cinnamon 3 1 3 1 4 Black pepper 1 1 1 1 2 Peppermint 1 0 1 0 1 Parsley 1 0 1 0 1 Oregano 1 0 1 0 1 Tarragon 0 1 1 0 1 Teas and infusions Green tea 9 3 7 5 12 Matcha 3 2 2 3 5 Coffee 1 0 0 1 1 Fats and oils Olive oil 6 2 4 4 8 Coconut oil 3 1 1 3 4 Other fats (grass-fed butter, ghee, flaxseed oil, fish oil) 3 1 2 2 4 Foods 2023,12, 546 8 of 24 Table 8. Classification of other plant-based foods by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Food Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Garlic 14 2 9 7 16 Seaweed 10 4 10 4 14 Mushrooms 11 2 4 9 13 Sweet potato 8 2 6 4 10 Dark chocolate 6 4 7 3 10 Tomato 7 2 5 4 9 Beet 5 2 3 4 7 Pumpkin 5 1 5 1 6 Peppers 3 1 2 2 4 Carrots 3 0 1 2 3 Artichoke 2 0 2 0 2 Maca 1 1 0 2 2 Onions 2 0 0 2 2 Wheat grass 1 1 2 0 2 Potato 1 0 0 1 1 Eggplant 0 1 0 1 1 Mankai 1 0 0 1 1 Asparagus 1 0 0 1 1 Cucumber 1 0 0 1 1 Table 9. Classification of other animal-based foods and other foods by the number of times that were mentioned on selected web pages. Food Number of Times Mentioned First Page Second Page Any Time Past Year Total Mentions Eggs 9 3 7 5 12 Water 3 0 2 1 3 Raw milk 1 1 1 1 2 Bone broth 0 1 1 0 1 Nutritional yeast 0 1 1 0 1 Liver 0 1 0 1 1 Meat 1 0 0 1 1 Nuts, legumes and fermented food groups results are displayed in Table 6. Fermented foods, a miscellaneous list, were frequently mentioned in sites as a group due to their arising from microbiological activity of the corresponding raw materials. Eight spices and herbs, three types of infusions and seven fats and oils were considered ‘superfoods’ (Table 7). Finally, Tables 8and 9show the results for other plant-based foods (19 types) and for other animal-based (5 types) and other foods (water and nutritional yeast), respectively. One food of each group, provided that it was mentioned by at least 15 sites, was selected to compare its properties, claimed by websites, with those supported by current scientific knowledge (Tables 2–9). According to this, ten foods were studied: kale, spinach, salmon, blueberries, avocado, chia, walnuts, beans, fermented milks and garlic. Healthy and nutritional properties attributed to them are displayed in Tables 10–12. The health effects included in the list of properties have been selected according to those mentioned on websites. Foods 2023,12, 546 9 of 24 Table 10. Macronutrients of ‘superfoods’ and number of selected websites that mentioned each one. Macronutrient Food Kale Spinach Salmon Blueberries Avocado Chia Walnuts Beans Fermented Milks Garlic Protein 1 1 10 - - 10 9 16 11 - Amino acids - - - - - - 1 - - - Fats (healthy) - - 2 - 8 6 10 1 - - Monounsaturated fatty acids - - - - 12 - 1 - - - Polyunsaturated fatty acids - - - 1 4 1 - - - - Linoleic acid - - - - - - - - - - Linolenic acid - 1 - - - 10 7 - - - EPA/DHA - - 25 - - - - - - - Carbohydrates - - - - - - - - - - Fiber 11 12 - 7 7 14 11 17 - 1 Table 11. Micronutrients of ‘superfoods’ and number of selected websites that mentioned each one. Micronutrient Food Kale Spinach Salmon Blueberries Avocado Chia Walnuts Beans Fermented Milks Garlic Vitamins (in general) 2 2 5 4 3 4 3 5 - - Vitamin A/provitamin A 10 9 1 - - - - - - - Vitamin D - 2 3 - - - - - 2 - Vitamin E 2 2 - 1 2 1 3 - - - Vitamin K 6 5 - 2 2 - - - 1 - Vitamins B - - - - - - 1 2 2 - Vitamin B1 (thiamine) - - - - - 1 1 - - - Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) - - - - 2 - 1 - - - Vitamin B3 (niacin) - - - - 2 1 - - - - Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) - - - - 1 - - - - - Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) - 1 - - 1 - 1 - - 2 Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) - - 2 - - - - - - - Biotin - - - - - - - - - - Folic acid /folate 4 6 - - 3 - 1 4 1 - Vitamin C 12 9 - 6 3 1 - - - 3 Minerals (in general) 1 2 1 3 3 6 4 5 - - Calcium 10 6 - - - 1 1 1 10 - Iron 5 6 - - - 2 1 5 - - Phosphorus - - - - - 2 1 - 2 - Iodine - - 1 - - - - - - - Magnesium 3 4 - - 6 5 3 6 1 - Zinc 2 3 - - - 2 1 2 - 1 Selenium - - 4 - - - 1 1 - 3 Copper - - - - 1 - 1 1 - - Manganese 1 - - 2 1 1 2 2 - 2 Potassium 2 3 2 1 6 - 1 4 2 - Table 12. Effects on health and disease prevention of ‘superfoods’ and number of selected web sites that mentioned each one. Effect Food Kale Spinach Salmon Blueberries Avocado Chia Walnuts Beans Fermented Milks Garlic Weight loss/control - 1 - 5 3 3 1 4 - 1 Antioxidant activity 7 6 1 18 4 8 11 2 - 1 Antimicrobial activity 1 1 - 2 - - - - - 10 Cardioprotective effect/cardiovascular diseases protection 8 10 16 14 14 9 11 8 2 11 Cancer risk reduction 9 9 3 8 4 2 2 3 1 8 Anti-inflammatory activity 1 3 7 4 1 3 3 1 3 3 Digestive disorders/digestive health 5 3 - 2 1 2 - - 12 1 Immune-related disorders/immunity improving 2 2 2 4 1 - - 1 8 8 Improving memory and learning skills - 1 7 4 2 1 4 - - - Prevention of neurological or neurodegenerative diseases 1 - 2 5 - - 1 1 - 1 Antidepressant action 1 - 2 - - - - - - - Anti-aging - - - 2 - 1 - - - - Type 2 diabetes risk reduction 3 1 1 4 5 3 2 5 - 2 Prevention of endocrinological and metabolic disorders 1 - - - - - - 1 - - Effect on urinary and genital system - - - - - - - - - - Bone health/osteoporosis 2 5 1 - 1 3 - - 1 - Skin health - 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 - 2 Eyes health 1 3 1 3 4 - - 1 - 1 Foods 2023,12, 546 16 of 24 Besides, chia intake improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, having an impact on lipogenesis. The bioactive compounds and their interactions involved in these effects are still unknown [ 61 ]. Chia also shows hypolipidemic effects [ 67 ]. In a meta-analysis of clinical studies [ 68 ], it is reported that the doses and form of chia seeds and the selection of the participants may influence the results. The improvement of lipid parameters is higher in healthy subjects than in obese/overweight ones. Chia consumed in ground form seems to be more beneficial for blood pressure and glucose, and lipid parameters morethan whole seed. These effects are more significant when chia is taken in high doses. In both animal and human clinical studies, correction of problems in the design and methodology of the trials must be carried out in order to establish clearly the health effects of chia consumption [61,68]. 3.7. Walnuts The most important nutrients of walnuts (Juglans regia L.) cited by sites are protein (mentioned 9 times), health fats (10 times) especially linolenic acid (7 times), and fiber (11 times) (Table 10). Walnuts are a good source of these compounds according to scientific literature [ 69 ]. Moreover, walnuts constitute a source of fiber, iron, zinc, potassium and vitamins E, B 3 and B 5 ; besides, they are high in vitamins B 1 , B 6 , biotin and folate, and in magnesium, manganese, copper and phosphorus [ 70 ]. However, only a few (1 to 4) sites consider walnuts an important resource for these nutrients. According to selected websites, the main effects on health promotion of walnuts are the antioxidant activity and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases; they were mentioned 11 times each (Table 12). Other beneficial effects are the anti-inflammatory activity and the improving of memory and learning skills (cited 3 and 4 times, respectively). All these properties have been related to the high content in bioactive compounds, such as phenolic compounds (quercetin, ellagic acid, ellagitannins, cyanidin and proanthocyanidins), phytosterols, γ -tocopherol, dietary fiber, protein (high L-arginine content), phytomelatonin and α -linolenic fatty acid [ 69 , 71 ]. Walnuts consumption has been associated with significant decreases in triglyceride, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol contents in middle-aged and older adults [ 72 ]; this improvement in lipid profiles is associated with the reduction of cardiovascular diseases risk [70,73]. Some compounds in walnuts have health-promoting effects, although these properties of the isolated components are not always translated into health enhancement or disease risk reduction. PUFA boost brain function and cognitive function improvement has been observed in humans, mainly in long-term walnut consumption [ 71 , 74 ]. Ellagitannins release ellagic acid, which shows antioxidant properties and thus provides anti-inflammatory protection; after, it is metabolized by intestinal bacteria to urolithins, which also have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [ 69 ]. However, walnuts consumption appears not to be associated with inflammatory markers and glucose homeostasis in clinical studies [ 72 ], albeit their inclusion in diets produces modifications in human gastrointestinal microbiota and reduces proinflammatory factors derived from the microbial activity [74]. Disease prevention and health promotion of walnuts intake in clinical trials seem to be prone to some bias, due to the wide dosage range, differences in diets among participants from different geographical regions and other defects in studies’ design and methodology. For these reasons, including walnuts in one’s diet probably has positive effects on health, although more investigations are needed [72,73]. 3.8. Beans The main nutrients provided by beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), in accordance with websites, are protein (cited 16 times), fiber (17 times), vitamins (in general, 5 times) and minerals (in general, 5 times), particularly iron (5 times) and magnesium (6 times) (Tables 10 and 11). Beans contain high amounts of protein, comparable, in quantitative terms, to meat, although the content of some essential amino acids (methionine and tryp- Foods 2023,12, 546 17 of 24 tophan) is not very elevated. The digestibility of their protein is impaired by protease inhibitors and tannins, but an adequate cooking increases its bioavailability [75]. Beans are a very good source of folate, but only 4 sites mentioned this vitamin. Regarding minerals, they contain amounts of iron, magnesium and potassium, as is reflected in 4 to 6 sites, but also of calcium, phosphorus, copper, manganese, selenium and zinc [ 75 ], which are not mentioned at all. Phytochemicals content, and as a result, the potential effects of beans consumption on health, is affected by genetic factors (higher content in pigmented coat varieties), environmental growing conditions, storage, processing methods and the specific bioaccessibility and bioavailability of each component. Fermentation, germination, extrusion and roasting increase polyphenol content [76–78]. There is no information on the selected websites about beans phytochemical compounds that may interfere in the bioavailability of some nutrients or may produce health problems under specific conditions. As stated above, beans contain trypsin inhibitors, but also the α -amylase inhibitor, which decrease the digestibility of starch, and phytic acid and oxalate, which disfavor the absorption of minerals. Besides, beans also contain lectins, which can cause health problems [ 75 ]. Fortunately, most antinutritional factors can be reduced significatively by thermal processing, storage, milling, fermentation and germination [ 78 ]. An adequate cooking process includes soaking (discarding the soaking water) and a sufficiently long cooking at high temperature [79]. Beans have two main positive effects on health with regard to cardiovascular diseases protection and type 2 diabetes risk reduction (cited 8 and 5 times, respectively) according to websites information (Table 12). Secondarily, weight control and cancer risk reduction are also mentioned (4 and 3 times, respectively). Beans are a rich source of bioactive components such as carbohydrates (polysaccharides and oligosaccharides), proteins, phenolic compounds (phenolic acids, flavonoids and proanthocyanidins) and various minerals and vitamins that have the potential to improve human health [75,76]. With respect to cardiovascular protection, common beans reduce LDL cholesterol values and the risk of disease in variable percentage of reduction depending on the studies [ 80 ]. Several studies have demonstrated that bean intake decreases postprandial glucose levels, but frequently, the results are not significative. Benefits related to type 2 diabetes amelioration have been associated with the high insoluble fiber content of beans and some minerals, mainly iron and zinc [ 80 ]. The high quantity of resistant starch of beans may enhance glycemic and blood pressure control and helps to maintain healthy gut microbiota. Short-chain fatty acids, products of intestinal bacteria metabolism, seem to be involved in the improvement of glucose tolerance and have anti-obesity effects [ 75 , 81 ]. Beans peptides, released by gastrointestinal proteases during digestion, may also provide antithrombotic and antihypertensive effects and prevent hyperglycemia [ 81 ]. At least at present, there is no clear evidence that beans consumption reduces the probability of developing cancer, including colorectal cancer [80]. As has been observed in meta-analysis of other food products, the clinical studies showed differences in bean variety, growing conditions, the characteristics and number of participants evaluated, and the form of administration (the whole seed or as an extract). These aspects, together with the lack of measurements standardization, make it difficult to determine the health effects of bean consumption [80]. 3.9. Fermented Milks Information in selected sites highlights the protein and calcium contents of fermented milks (Tables 10 and 11). They are a good source of these nutrients; protein content in yogurt is higher than that of milk due to the addition of milk protein or skimmed milk powder. Moreover, milk proteins are a great source of essential amino acids. The acidic pH value of yogurt increases calcium absorption and its bioavailability. Fermented milks are also a source of vitamins (D, A, E, B 2 , B 3 , B 12 and folates), and minerals other than Foods 2023,12, 546 18 of 24 calcium (phosphorus, zinc, magnesium, potassium) [ 82 ]. Most of these nutrients are not cited by websites. Digestive health and immunity improvement are the leading health effects of fermented milks (mainly, yogurt and kefir) according to selected websites, with 12 and 8 mentions, respectively (Table 12). Traditional yogurt, the product of fermenting milk with symbiotic bacteria Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, is considered probiotic because its starter cultures are able to survive in the gastrointestinal tract and exhibit health benefits. However, not all yogurt cultures possess the same characteristics, and their growing is also influenced by the temperature and fermentation period, which has consequences in sensory properties of the product. Yogurt has also been used as a carrier of other probiotic cultures, by total or partial substitution on the traditional cultures [ 83 ]. Kefir natural microbiota are lactic acid bacteria, yeasts and Acetobacter, the most abundant being the microorganisms of the genus Lactobacillus. The composition of this microbiota is different depending on the geographical region, but the interactions among kefir microorganisms from different locations and their functions are very similar [84]. Regarding digestive disorders amelioration and digestive health, human clinical studies refer to significant findings in diarrhea and inflammatory bowel disease (by gut microbiota modulation), gastroesophageal reflux disorder and peptic ulcer disease (through eradication of the infection by Helicobacter pylori) after the consumption of yogurt with prebiotics, kefir and fermented milks with diverse probiotics [ 85 ]. Gut microbiota appears to be modified preferentially in subjects with gut health alterations [86]. Fermented milks enhance immunity response against viruses and pathogen bacteria in humans; they also seem to reduce some allergic disorders by gut microbiome modulation, but this requires more investigation [ 85 ]. It is believed that kefir intake and the metabolites of its microbiota (short-chain fatty acids, extracellular polysaccharide kefiran, polypeptides, lactic acid) may regulate the physiological functions of the gastrointestinal immune system and can promote secretory immunoglobulin A (the main antibody of intestinal mucosa immunity) production. Nevertheless, this effect on immunity has not been able to be demonstrated through experimental studies using laboratory animals fed with Kefir. Besides, the gut colonization capability of Kefir microbiota has not been determined [84]. Other health benefits of fermented milks intake have been reported in the literature; however, they are hardly ever mentioned in sites. These are cardioprotective properties (reduction of LDL cholesterol and blood pressure), anti-obesity and anti-diabetes effects, and bone health and cognitive improvement [85]. Health-promoting effects of fermented milks may be partly caused by the microbial synthesis and release of bioactive compounds, such as peptides, bacteriocins, exopolysaccharides, conjugated linoleic acid and B complex vitamins (folate, B 2 , B 12 ). Bioactive peptides have shown antimicrobial, antioxidative and immune-modulatory properties [ 87 ]. Regular yogurt intake has been related to lower cardiovascular disease risk and linked with peptides content; these peptides may have originated during fermentation or digestion of yogurt. Bioactive peptides have also been detected in kefir. Cardioprotective effects of fermented milk peptides have been mainly studied in laboratory animals, with the oral administration of isolated compounds [ 88 ]. Kefir has a wide range of probiotic health effects based on the metabolites produced by microbial cultures, which includes hypoglycemic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities [ 84 ]. Milk calcium improves the HDL:LDL cholesterol ratio, and caseins and whey proteins could also regulate blood pressure. Yogurt consumption is associated with a type 2 diabetes risk decrease due to its content of vitamin K2[89]. Some human health benefits of fermented milks consumption have been experimentally established, but, in other cases, a disparity between the results of animal and human trials has been observed. This discrepancy is probably due to the variety of diets and lifestyles of human participants, the differences in gut microbiome and the type of controls (milk or nonmilk) used in the studies [85,87]. Foods 2023,12, 546 19 of 24 3.10. Garlic Regarding the nutritional composition of garlic (Allium sativum L.), none of the nutrients was mentioned more than 3 times by selected sites (Tables 10 and 11). All of them are listed in the scientific literature. Garlic contains fiber, minerals (zinc, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron, selenium, magnesium and manganese) and vitamins (A, C and B complex) [90]. Garlic, according to the information provided by websites, gives cardiovascular diseases protection, has antimicrobial properties, anti-cancer activity, and improves immunity (cited 11, 10, 8 and 8 times, respectively) (Table 12). Garlic contains a wide variety of bioactive chemicals, such as organosulfur compounds, phenolic compounds (polyphenols, flavonoids, flavanols, tannins), saponins and polysaccharides [ 90 ], which are responsible for its beneficial effects on health. Nevertheless, bioactive compounds composition and concentration change depending on the production process applied to raw cloves to obtain derivatives and extracts. Many factors affect the bioactivity of these compounds: preparation, extraction conditions, temperature or storage [ 91 ]. Organosulfur compounds are responsible for many of the health properties attributed to garlic and are strongly influenced by processing. The non-volatile organosulfur compound alliin is only detected in undamaged bulbs and is transformed into other chemicals by maceration or crushing, for example, in allicin, a volatile organosulfur, which decomposes in various diallyl sulfides. Due to the chemical reactions of these compounds, garlic extracts show higher biological properties than other derivatives. Whole raw garlic bulbs are also transformed into black garlic by heating at a high temperature under controlled humidity conditions and for a period of time longer than one month. In the course of the treatment, several fresh garlic components are converted by means of the Maillard reaction into more bioactive compounds. Due to this treatment, the polysaccharide is degraded, while S-allyl cysteine, total polyphenols and flavonoids contents increase compared with the raw material, among other changes [91–93]. Garlic has antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities, probably due to its organosulfur compounds. Allicin administration reduces the severity and duration of respiratory infections in both adults and children [ 92 ]. Garlic may promote cardiovascular health by the improvement of lipid profile (reduction of triglycerides and cholesterol levels, increase of HDL values), blood pressure and endothelial function. Regular raw garlic consumption may decrease pre-hypertension risk. Again, allicin has an important role by means of platelet aggregation inhibition and antihypertensive effect. The intensity of the antiplatelet effect can depend on the garlic-derived product used in trials, being negligible in some clinical studies that used garlic oil or tablets. Antioxidant activity of phenolic and organosulfur compounds of garlic and the prebiotic effect of garlic extracts on gut microbiota may also participate in these benefits [90,92,94]. With respect to cancer risk reduction, garlic seems to show effectivity against breast, ovarian, renal, liver, esophageal, colorectal and gastric cancers and produces symptomatic relief. Organosulfur compounds have been associated with this effect. The mechanisms comprise inhibition of angiogenesis, cell growth and migration, regulation of carcinogen metabolism and induction to apoptosis [ 91 , 92 ]. However, more clinical studies are needed in order to draw firm conclusions about the effects of garlic intake on cancer [95]. Polysaccharides seem to be the principal garlic compounds with immunomodulatory effects, although allicin also appears to be important. Polysaccharides activity is higher in fresh garlic than in black garlic and depends on the dose of garlic and the type of derivatives administered. Enhancing of immune function by allicin has been reported as a factor for the elimination of cancer metastasis. Besides, the protective effect of garlic compounds against infections has also been related with their capability of activating the immune system [91,92,96]. It is important to note that the experimental research using laboratory animals and the clinical studies about the effect of garlic on health frequently use garlic extracts or some purified bioactive compounds in the trials, and rarely unprocessed garlic. It is difficult to Foods 2023,12, 546 20 of 24 extrapolate the results to a normal form of garlic intake as meal seasoning or as raw clove by consumers. 4. Conclusions In general terms, the information provided by websites about the health benefits associated with the consumption of most cited ‘superfoods’ is quite correct according to scientific literature, but with nuances. These beneficial actions are based, on many occasions, with those of bioactive compounds contained in foods that have been checked in vitro and in experiments using laboratory animals. The clinical studies evaluating the health effects of pure bioactive compounds or extracts are limited, and even more, those in which direct ‘superfood’ intake has been assessed. Besides, human trials vary in design, methodology, participants characteristics (diet, lifestyle), the form and serving size of the food administered, duration and markers measured, among others. All these factors make it difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of ‘superfoods’ on health. Moreover, many factors can influence the presence and concentration of bioactive components in these ‘superfoods’. In plant-based foods, they are related with growing conditions, storage and varieties; in animal foods, the variations may stem from feeding or way of living (e.g., farmed or wild). Bioactive chemicals are also affected by processing and cooking methods, and their bioavailability depends on interactions among them and with other food compounds. It may be concluded that the information provided by websites is presented in a very simplified form, although in general, it is not incorrect. Information needs to be easy to understand by consumers but, at the same time, it should avoid creating false expectations about health improvements. In any case, the consumption of these foods as a part of a balanced and varied diet can be beneficial to human health. Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/foods12030546/s1, Table S1: List of selected web pages found in the first page of search engines; Table S2: List of selected web pages found in the second page of search engines. Author Contributions: Conceptualization, O.D.; methodology, Á.C. and O.D.; investigation, O.D.; writing—original draft preparation, O.D.; writing—review and editing, Á.C. and O.D.; visualization, Á.C. and O.D.; funding acquisition, Á.C. and O.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by Xunta de Galicia, grant number GPC ED431B 2019/13. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article or supplementary materials. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. References 1. Singh, M.P.; Soni, K.; Bhamra, R.; Mittal, R.K. Superfood: Value and need. Curr. Nutr. Food Sci. 2022,18, 65–68. [CrossRef] 2. Franco Lucas, B.; Vieira Costa, J.A.; Brunner, T.A. Superfoods: Drivers for consumption. J. Food Prod. Mark. 2021 ,27, 1–9. [CrossRef] 3. Margrach, A.; Sanz, M.J. 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