A Lexical Description of English for Architecture: A Corpus-based Approach

Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Facultade de Filoloxía Departamento de Filoloxía Inglesa e Alemá A Lexical Description of English for Architecture: A Corpus-based Approach Tese de doutoramento realizada por Begoña Soneira Beloso dirixida polo Dr. Ignacio M. Palacios Martínez Santiago de Compostela, 2013 Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Facultade de Filoloxía Departamento de Filoloxía Inglesa e Alemá Tese de doutoramento A Lexical Description of English for Architecture: A Corpus-Based Approach Vº P rce D o u t o r a n d a Do Director Dr. Ignacio Palacios Martínez Begoña Soneira Beloso Santiago de Compostela 2013 IGNACIO M. PALACIOS MARTÍNEZ , Profesor Titular de Filoloxía Inglesa do Departamento de Filolo xía Inglesa e Alem á da Universidade de Santiago de Compostela e Director da tese de d outoramento realizada por Dn a Begoña Soneira Beloso, co título A Lexical Description of E nglis h for Architecture: a Corpus-based Approach do programa de dout oramento de Filoloxía Inglesa e Alemá desta Universidade, INFORMA FAVORABLEMENTE a devandita tese posto que, na súa opinión, se trata dun estudo orixinal, que cumpre cos requisitos de fondo e forma dun traballo destas características e onde se realizan achegas de moita relevancia no campo do inglés con fins específicos e da lexicoloxía, má is concretamente, na caracterización do inglés da arquite ctura dende o punto de vista léxico. O que fago constar aos efectos de admisi ón previa a trámite da devandita tese. Santiago de Compostela a dous de abril de dous mil trece. Asdo.: Ignacio M. Palacios Martínez vii AKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, I would like to thank my PhD supervisor, Dr. Ignacio M. Pala cios Martínez, for his guidance, support and advice since I started my PhD studies, in particular for the corrections and supervi sion of this work that is now being submitted. I owe gratitude to several institut ions besides the Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, namely Universi dade de Vigo, Manchester Univer sity, Brown University, Essex University, Columbia Univ ersity, Domus Academy Milan, Colexio de Arquitectos de Galicia, Delegac ión do Colexio de Arquitectos de A Coruña and Faculties of Architectu re and Arts of the Universidade do Porto. I am also grateful to the In stituto Galego de In formación, Ediciós do Castro, Museo Carlos Maside, Seminar io de Sargadelos and Laboratorio de Formas de Galicia. I also would like to thank all those scholars, researchers and ar chitects who contributed to enlarging my kno wledge on the topic thanks to their comments, feedback, advice and lectures. As regards the financial s upport that made possible part of my PhD, I thank the Secretaría Xeral de Investi gación e Desenvolvemento e da Dirección Xeral de Universidades (Xunta de Gali cia) for the scholars hips awarded, namely, Bolsa de Terceiro Ciclo and Bolsa Predoutoral . I am also indebted to the Vicerreitoría de Invest igación, Universidade de S antiago de Compostela, for the award of a research grant at the University of Essex, UK. I would like s how my gratitude to my beloved family, the cornerstone of my life (my parents, my brothers, my nephew, my cousin, and my grandparents) and to Ramón for his love and support. viii I dedicate this work with my deepes t gratitude to my m entor and friend, Isaac Díaz Pardo, who had a lifelong devotion to architectture and whose support and wisdom guided me during the completion of this thesis and, abov e all, in life. His memory will stay with me forever. ix 1. Introduction …………………… ………………………………………...…………. 1 2. Background of the study …………………………………………………………. 2 2.1. Professional and academic languages ……………………..................... 2 2.1.1. Knowledge communities and discourse communities …………............ 2 2.1.2. Specialized languages: concepts and terminology. Le vels of technicality in the lexicon ………………………………..….. …………………… 12 2.1.3. Main features of professional languages. A word on existing professional language studies …………………………….……………………... 16 3. The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language ……………………..…..…………………………………………............ 21 3.1. Some notes on the development of the Architecture discourse through history …………………………………………… ….….......................... 26 3.2. Language and architecture writings ……………………………………… 28 3.3. The interdisciplinary character of architecture and its actors ………. 32 3.4. Architects and their print on vocabulary ………………………………… 36 4. Some basic concepts regarding the organization of the lexicon …………. 40 4.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………..…………. 40 4.2. Neology, productivity and creativity ……………………………………… 40 4.3. Word-formation processes ……………………………………………….… 48 4.4. Some further remarks on compounding ………………………..……….. 55 4.5. Neologisms by borrowing ………………………… …………….…………. 61 4.6. Semantic neology: some remarks on metaphor ……………………….. 66 4.6.1. Metaphor function s ……………………………..………...……………….. 67 4.6.2. Metaphor classification ……………………………………………………. 68 4.6.3. Metaphor and word-formation ……………………………………………. 69 4.6.4. The role of metaphor in the lexicon of prof essional lan guages …......... 70 4.7. Terminology and term-formation …….……………………………………. 72 5. The study ………………… ……………………………………………………......... 78 5.1. Introduction …………………………...………………………….……........... 78 5.2. General objectives …..………………………………...………………..…… 78 5.3. Methodology …...……………………………………………………………… 80 5.3.1. Why a corpus-driven approach? ……………...…………..………..……. 82 5.3.2. Which corpus should be used? ………………..……..…………..... ........ 82 5.3.3. A preliminary pilot corpus ………………………………..……….…… …. 83 5.3.4. Criteria for corpus design ……………………………..……………… ….. 84 5.3.4.1. Representativeness and contemporariness …………..……………. 85 5.3.4.2. Accessibility ……………..…………………………… ………..………. 86 5.3.5. Collecting the data …………………………...………… …………………. 88 5.3.6. Creating a database for corpus analysis ………….………...…….......... 95 5.3.6.1. Notes on the data base design …………….…………………… ……. 100 5.3.6.2. Difficulties found when applying the dat abase scheme …………… 110 6. Main results ………………… …………………………… ……………..…………. 116 Introduction 1 1. Introduction Every knowledge community has a distin ct type of discourse and a linguistic identity which brings together the ideas of that discipl ine. These are expressed through characteristic linguistic realiz ations, and are of considerable interest in the study of English for Specific Pu rposes (ESP) from many different perspectives. Despite the fact that ESP is a recent ar ea of linguistic research, there is already a varied literature on academic and professional languages: English for law, business, computer and technology, advertising, marketing and engineering, just to ment ion a few. According to Dudley-Evans (1998:19), the development of ESP arose as a result of general improvem ents in the world economy in the 1960’s, along with the expansion of science and technology. Other relevant factors were the growi ng use of English as the international language of science, technology and bus i ness, and the increasing flow of exchange students to and from t he UK, US and Australia. However, not all disciplines hav e received the same degree of attention from an ESP perspective, and th e discourse of architects in English is one such case where comparatively little work has been done. Today architects as a broad group enjoy significant social influence, and the i r publically defined image is expressed through the language they us e. There are some studies on the role of metaphor (Caballero 2002-2005) in the professional discourse o f architects or on the socio-cognitive di mension of learning the language of Architecture and Civil Engineering (Roldán et al 2011); however, to my Introduction  2 knowledge no work looking ex clusively at the English le xicon has thus far been carried out. The current study, then, is inten ded to fill this gap, and to do so as a new contribution to the field of ESP in the particular context of the Spanish university system; it is a ssumed that this professi onal language will display specific lexical features whic h will help in its detailed characterization, especially in comparison to discourses in other knowledge communities. Apart from this new contribution to research in ESP, other factors hav e made the approach taken here of interest. As noted by Piqué and Andreu-Besó (1998:173), in most studies devoted to la nguages for specific purposes, three sub-areas are seen to be interconnected: the theoretical approach taken, the pedagogical interest by associated la nguage teachers, and a professional perspective resulting from a professi onal and instrumental attitude towards language within the field. In my case the theoretical approach to ESP issues derives from my prior experience in teachi ng ESP, specifically business English, during the first part of my PhD progr amme; an additional motivation is an occupational interest in architecture fo llowing my research into the history of design and architecture in the Instituto Galego de Información under the supervision of Isaac Díaz Pardo 1 which resulted in several publications and conferences: during this perio d I could have regular access to the library of a rt, design and architecture of the Seminario de Sargadelos and I could also interview important figures of industrial design and arch itecture such as Tomás Maldonado, Andrea Branzi and Enzo Mari among others; I also became more familiar with the importance of terminol ogical sources when translating into 1 Isaac Díaz Pardo (1920- 2012), Galician intellectual, desi gner, ceramist, painter, editor and businessma n, was a leading figure in the Recovery of the historical memor y in Spanish exile w ho prom oted all sorts of research and p ublications on Galicia n culture throug h the Laboratorio d e Formas de Galic ia , wi th a special interest in art, design, and architecture. Introduction  3 English a publication on the most embl ematic buildings of Santiago de Compostela old town 2 ; finally, there is also a pedagogical interest, in that I am an English language teacher and as such I am interested in improving my skills in a specific area of la nguage pedagogy and in creating materials that can help students to expand their know ledge in English here. I also agree with with Helmersen et al ’s (2008:20-21) content ion that universitie s now have a great opportunity to assume an important role as trainers of language specialists, if they adapt to rapid economic and techno logical changes and to the resulting demands and pressures, including te rminology creation and the production of language learning materials for prof essional purposes. As claimed by Helmersen et al (2008:20-21), the shifting professional situation and the necessary skills arising from this are not c overed by the traditional academic undertakings of universities: I believe t hat there is a need to reassess university programs and fine-tune the t eaching on offer there in accordance with the requirements of the labor market. The final, and most wide-ranging, fact or to be borne in mind when doing research in the European university context is that of the effects of the Bologne reforms on the teaching and learning of ESP. According to Fortanet (2008:11), the state of ESP in Western European high er education after Bologna brought about the predominance of the English language in a contex t of the high mobility of students and the work force th roughout the world, and this continues to grow through exchange progr ams, international degr ees, in departments and faculties where English is the languag e of instruction, and with a tendency towards the use of more English in non-English environments. There is, 2 Simal, Jesús. Láminas de Co mpostela . 2010. Santiago de Com postela: Universidade de Santiag o de Compostela Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico. Introduction  4 therefore, an ongoing academic internationalization process (Fortanet, 2010:18) where English exercises its power as the lingua franca (Mauranen, 2005:269). As a consequence of this situation, there is an urgent need to encourage English learning and teaching at a university level, and indeed many schools and departments in Spain already offer disciplines in Englis h in their study programs, mostly business, economics, tourism, engineer ing, etc.; this need is even more marked in architecture since according to Knox and Taylor (2005:23, 31) the fact that architectural practice has a significant global dimension has deep implications in terms of architects’ educat ion regarding linguistic knowledge. However, as claimed by Fortanet (2008:46), there is still little collaboration between scienc e teachers and language teachers in Spain, and this will have to be addressed if a predisposition towards a more student- centered approach is to be embraced. Bearing all these aspects in mind, the present study has been structured according to one goal: the description of th e lexical pr ofile of the professional language of architecture. There are two ma in parts to the study. The first of these is a preliminary se ction which present s a noti onal framework and includes descriptions of the most important concepts to be used. Concepts in ESP such as knowledge communities and disc ou rse communities, the increasing importance of English as a worldwide lingua franca , the phenomenon of gate- keeping in discourse communities, the leve ls of technicality of specialized languages, etc. will be outli ned. A brief summary of t he current liter ature will also be given, looking at works dealing wi th different academic and professional languages, including scientific and tec hnical language, the language of business and marketing, t he language of advertising, and law; from a more Introduction  5 specific perspective, notions relati ng to the English language used in architectural practice and the broader discourse of ar chitecture will als o be introduced. In addition, I will p resent an overview of the development of architecture discourse through history as a means of introduc ing the importance of communication in the fiel d of architecture, the si gnificance of language and the influence of architecture in vocabul ary, together with t he interdisciplinary nature of architecture over time, all of these being features that will certainly have a bearing on linguistic structure. This conceptual introduction will be foll owed by a brief outline of the main devices used to coin new words in Eng lish, and which are ex pected to be found in English for architecture . To begin with, I will cons ider neology, productivity and creativity in general, befor e moving on to look in detail at word-formation processes such as compounding, deriv ation, conversion, back-formation, clipping, acronyms and ex-nihilo formations; in this respect, I will essentially be following Bauer (1978, 1983, 1998, 2001). Special att ention will be given to compounding, which has been i dentified as a very productive device in certain ESP languages, and which Leech (19 72:136) has called “compounding propensity”. The next device for coining wo rds in English to be analyzed will be loanword neology: her e I will describe ideas such as the definition of loanwords, degrees of foreign st atus, necessary l oanwords versus luxury loanwords, and technical loanwords; semantic neology will then be discussed, paying special attention to metaphor and, more specific ally, to the role of metaphors in the lexis of professional languages , for instance, in the terminology of engineering and architecture. A brief section will t hen be devoted to term-formation, as a Introduction  6 means of providing a more specific pers pective on the production of new words in the context of terminological studies. The study itself will then be pres ented. This research is mainly descriptive and synchronic in nature. It deals with a specific professional discourse, the discourse of architects in Modern English, and it will be based exclusively on written materials. Follo wing Conrad’s (2002:83) observation that one area in which corpus lin guistics has proven usef ul is in characterizing the vocabulary of a specific domain, I will use a corpus de signed and compiled by myself to describe and analyze the main lexical features of Architecture Discourse (henceforth AD); this self-c ompiled corpus constitutes one of the principal achievements of the current research, and has made it possible to carry out a qualitative and quantitative ana lysis of a sample of 500,000 words from highly respected online architectu re publications. The specialized texts used in the corpus were carefully sele cted according to a number of scientific criteria, and include reviews, articles and monographs by experts; the texts were intended largely for ex perts or those with a worki ng knowledge of the field. Following Saorín’s (2003:341) claim that “the new technology is changing our lives in many ways and it is als o c hanging the way the English language is taught”, I have worked with materials whic h meet three funda mental criteria: representativeness (including si ze, topic, source and level of technicality), contemporariness (since I will be dealing with current, real, and up-to-date samples) and accessibility (all are from free, online publications). The corpus will help in the description of the lexi s of architecture from the perspective of word-formation, loanwor d neology and semantic neology. Wit h this goal in mind, I have produced a databa se of almost three thousand entries, Introduction  7 including a description and classificati on of every word from the corpus considered relevant for the analysis. Usin g this database I will be able t o examine the main lexical aspects of AD here and thus produce a thorough description of this language. This study has also led to th e production of a trilingual glossary (English/Spanish/Galician) containing more than 1300 entries of architectural terminology together with terms from discipl ines which are intimately associated to architecture (engineeri ng, mathematics, physics, chemistry, material science, interior design, etc.). This is a significant developm ent for the acquis ition of architecture terminology in English, most specifically from t he perspective of the Galician language, and it is something that, to my knowledge, has not been done before. Developing such a resource in the context of this study will also illustrate the potential use of lexical res earch in the field of ESP. Clearly, this glossary is also intended to be of use fo r professionals working in the fields of architecture and construction, as well as for teachers and students involved in the teaching and study of architecture in English in Spain, bearing in mind t he undeniable globalized character of arch itecture nowadays. Translators may also profit from the glo ssary, whether translating Gali cian texts on architecture into English or vice versa. 2. Background of the study 2.1. Professional and academic Languages 2.1.1. Knowledge communiti es and discourse communities In order to carry out a specific study on the language used in the field of architecture, it seems necessary to cont extualize it by defining several related Background of the study  8 concepts. To start with, attention shou ld be paid to the circumstances and the generators of professional l anguage codes, that is, the groups or communities who produce and feed them. Accordin g to Alcaraz Varó (2007:5), the circumstances surrounding the so-called “society of knowledge” have brought about the term “knowledge communities”, that is, the communities that bring together the knowledge of a given disci pline thanks to t heir history and spreading activities. They have also acquir ed certain identifying features and at the same time are responsible for the cr eation of a dist inct way of expression. According to Douglas (2000:7) , there are lexic al, sema ntic, syntactic and even phonological features of language which are intrinsic to a given field, and they allow for specialists to handle language in a more precise way in that given discipline which is not available to outsi ders. They also disp lay the capacity to coin new technical terms, this is precis ely the area of intere st of the current study: how words are coined in the field of architecture and what builds its lexical identity with respect to other specific languages since, as pointed out by Fox (1999:262), language is a v ital aspect of social identity of any group, in t his case a professional group, and it is undou btedly used for the purpose of self- identification. One of the most salient characterist ics regarding these epist emological communities once established is the obs ervance of their orthodoxy; Alcaraz (2007:5) mentions the term gatekeeping to refer to such a control, a tendency where he would include the standardiza tion of the language used by the community as a tool for differentiating members from non-members, that is, a given linguistic code w ould be used to mark t he community’s boundaries . Swales (2001:21) explains this concept in similar terms by quoting Herzberg Background of the study  9 (1986:1) who claims that discourse c onvent ions are defined by the discourse communities, a concept that also includes professional groups, in o ur case, architecture professionals. Taking such context into account, it could be argued that a specialized discourse is a m eans of maintaining and extending the group’s knowledge and of initiating new members into the group and, consequently, that discourse is constituti ve of the group’s knowledge. According to Swales (2001:24-7), these discourse co mmunities ar e said to have a number of common features: a discourse comm unity has an agreed set of common public goals and mechanisms of intercommunication among its members which provide information and feedback. The co mmunity uses one or more genres when communicating its aims and acquires its own lexis: that is the case for architects as we will see later on in th is study. Such specialization may involve using lexical items known to the wi der s peech communities in special and technical ways (examples regarding the spec ific case of architecture terms will be provided in the section dev oted to sem antic neology within t his study), or using highly technical terminology (a phenomenon also acknowledged in the corpus used). Discourse communities members also display an appropriate degree of relevant content and di scourse proficiency. Becher (1993:23) also deals with the concept of professional discourse: It is, however, through the m ediu m of language that some of the m ore funda mental distinctions emerge. A detailed analysis of disciplinary discourse (…) can help not only to bring out characteristic cultural features of disciplines but also to highlig ht various aspects of the knowledge domains to which they re late. According to Swales (2001:26), the prof essional language and th e literature of a discourse community is crucial in order to portray its cultural identity and provide evidences of its expertise. This fact is more t han evident when the professional language disp lays its own s ymbolism or an important bulk of Background of the study  16 2.1.3. Main features of professiona l Languages. A word on existing professional language studies Despite being a relatively recent topi c, there are some areas of knowledge which have been highly developed withi n the domain of professional languages and ESP. Halliday and Mart in (1993) analy ze scientific language in general, a kind of language that in their opinion so m e people find futile and liturgical, thinking that scientific c oncepts could perfectly be expressed in “plain English”. However, according to them, it could also be argued that science is totally dependent on scientific language and thus we may not separate science from the way it is expressed, or rephrase scientific discourse in any ot her way, and thus “learning science” would always entail learning the language of science. If such language is hard to understand, it is due to the difficulty that is intrinsic in the nature of science itself, not because of the terminology it uses. Some of the characteristics of scientific language giv en by Halliday and Martin (1993:71) are the use of interwoven definitions, tec hnical taxonomies, special expressions, lexical density, syntact ic ambiguity, grammatical metaphor and semantic discontinuity. Scientific-technical Englis h, a label that joins to gether the language used in pure theoretical texts and that of app lied resear ch, is also portrayed by Boquera Matarredona (2005:121); she claims that these texts may be portrayed according to the topic that is being treated, the type of language used and the communicative intention behind it. The kind of language displa yed in scientific- technical texts has to be accurate and shows certain stylistic features: mathematical formulae, percentages, stat istics, quantities, charts, diagrams, etc. and other graphic signs such as hyphens, numbers and so on. The main Background of the study  17 goal would be objectivity and thus t he absence of rhetoric figures or connotations. Other characterist ics are the use of the royal we , imperatives and impersonal style. There is also a cl ear preference for simple syntactic structures. Terminology or technical vo cabulary in these te xts tends to be mono-referential with a high number of Greek and Latin words. Other morphosyntactic devices are abbreviations , acronyms and symbols. It is also frequent to find new words coined thanks to the affixation of Greek and Latin sources. In the introduction to the Diccionario de términos de marketing, publicidad y medios de comunicación , Alcaraz et al (1999:VIII) define three concepts: marketing deals with the study and an alysis of strategies and activities designed for selling products and services, and its main elements, called marketing mix , are product, price, place and promotion; advertising is a crucial element within the domain of marketing. However, it can also be described from other perspec tives such as sociology, lin guistics, semiotics, arts, etc.; mass media represent an important role in the modernization of daily life, even superior to that of advertising sinc e press, radio, televis ion, cinema and the internet have exerted an influence that is progressively modifying communication, business and research pr actices. More than fifty percent of words used in marketing are of a Latin origin, and their meanings are rather transparent as in cost decisio n or net profit . Although there are also highly expressive terms with An glo-Saxon roots, e.g. cash cow , harvest strategy ; i n advertising and mass media, however, the main bulk of words are Anglo-Saxon. On the one hand, as far as morphological neology is concerned, Alcaraz et al (1999:IX) highlight the most common processes, such as clipping ( bus, pop, Background of the study  18 demo , tech , etc.), composition ( storyboard, software , etc.), blends ( brunch, camcorder, sitcom , biopic , etc.), analogy ( ins ert, chiller , etc.) affixation ( scanner, director, artist , etc.), acronyms and abbreviations ( laser, nibs, DAT , etc.). On the other hand, there is semantic neology, t hat is, new meanings given to already existing words (a process that is also qui te productive in architecture) such as accounts instead of clients, etc. The dictionary also includes a number of words that have their origin in everyday l anguage and which are very frequent in suc h specialized texts so that they can be sa id to be part of t he periphery of these knowledge areas (some examples are environment, product, sales, blend, quality, sample , etc.). According to Swales (2000:65), the languages for business purposes in general experienced a growth in recent years due t o internationalization and t he new globalism and the new business environment. The language of advertising is also analyzed by Leech (1972), he highlights the rights of discourse comm unities, namely people in the advertising field, to deviate from common lan guage. Such deviations range from orthographic, grammatical, lexical and semantic to context ual. We are especially interested in the lexical ones, as for exampl e those explained by what he calls “compounding propensity” (1972:136) in advertising, a tendency that is also present in architecture texts as we will see later on. According to him, such tendency is not just a violati on of lexical restraints but a matter of the advertising register as a whole, that is, within this field lexi cal restraints on compound formation are less stringent than elsewhere. Leech points out other “deviations” such as the invention of new lexical terms as in nonce formations or in unorthodox combinations or collocations used in advertising, such as eat hard (1972:178). Figurative language is also mentioned among the main features in Background of the study  19 advertising, exc luding met aphoric expressions that have passed into everyday use and thus lost their stri king or uncommon character. The language used in the field of law in North America is portrayed by Alcaraz; some of the traces found in this lexicon are the use of Latin words such as prima facie , calques also from Latin ( burden of proof as a direct translation of onus probandi ), Anglo-Norman words, such as parole , lien , salvage , etc. and formal words of a Latin root: abscond , impugn , violation , etc; there are also formal words of Anglo-Saxon origin ( deem ) , archaic adverbs and prepositions, ( thereof, wherein , etc.), performative and realization verbs ( agree, admit, pronounce , etc.) and redundant expressions ( null and void , fair and equitable …) according to Alcaraz (2002:89-91). The language of sports, namely cycling, is studied by Rodríguez Díez (1981): he focuses both on the need of a specialized language for sports and on the mass-media as the channel for spreadi ng such language. In this respect, he emphasizes the role of t he press as the place where spec ialized languages meet the general one. Acco rding to him, the language of cycling may be characterized mainly through its lexicon. Such an interest of linguists towards specialized languages comes from the branch of lexicography and from t he need of elaborating dictionar ies of general language. Rodríguez Diez claims that the common lexicon has a relative st ability as opposed to the scientific and technical lexicon which is entangled in a constant process of change and readjustment. One of the most salient features of the latter is the wide presence of loanwords coming from other languages. He also refers to the feature of nominalization, lack of polisem y, referentiality, etc.; fr om the syntactic point of view, the author notes the higher comp lexity of the scientific-technical Background of the study  20 languages as opposed to the general la nguage. Such complexity would be due to the proliferation of subordinate sentences and long adjective chains. The formation of the lexis in the language of computer science is evaluated by Gotti (2003) in a very inte resting study. Gotti concludes that the processes of word-formation displayed in c omputer science are similar to the ones used in general Englis h and other spec ialized languages, i.e. borrowing, analogy, metaphor, compounding, acr onyms, abbreviation, affixation, specialization and so on. The main differ ence with res pect to general language lies in the frequency of their recurr ence rather than in their nature. Transparency and mono-referentia lity are also among the features identified in this technical language. Different varieties of academic and professional E nglish have been studied by Alcaraz (2000). He gives a br ief description of the vocabulary of science and technology; according to him, academic English is based on lexicon of a Lat in origin whereas pr ofessional English re lies more on Anglo- Saxon sources. A case in point wo uld be that of computer science, a technological field whose vocabulary is mainly designed by means of Anglo- Saxon words. According to Alcaraz (2000:72 ), business English is the variety of IPA ( Inglés Profesional y Académico ) which has t raditionally drawn more attention since it has been part of the syllabus of international business schools; its syntax shares the general features of I PA, that is, simple syntactic structures, long nominal phrases and subordinate cl auses, namely conditional, final, restrictive, etc. The type of vocabul ary which is most frequent is t he semitechnical and general. Most of the te chnical terms consist of acronyms. He adds that polysemy is quite common am ong semitechnical words. Within the The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  21 different varieties of business Eng lish, the branch of economy is much more formal than the others, mainly becaus e it is closely linked to university, administration, politics, et c, and thus the main bulk of its vocabulary comes from a Latin source. 3. The language of Architecture. Ge neral features of Architecture language In the previous section I briefly co mmented on several studies dealing with different specialized langu ages. However, to my knowledge, there does not exist any work dealing specif ic ally with architecture language from the point of view of the lexis and word-f ormation. There is a work which focuses on the role of metaphor in the language of architecture by Caballero (2006), which is an enlightening portrayal in the way ar chit ects organize and represent their knowledge from a cognitive viewpoint; how ever, it is not approached in a way that could help in obtai ning an overall view on the lexical behavior and resources of architecture discourse, which is precisely my main c oncern in the current study. Roldán et al (2011) approaches the lang uage of Architecture and Civil Engineering but from the perspec tive of applied linguistics with a pedagogically-oriented study thought for helping students, pr ofessionals and linguists to communicate in architec ture academic and profess ional settings from a socio-cognitive angle. Architecture is a discipline which me rges artistic aspects together with technical and scientific ones, an idiosyncr asy that, by extension, is also reflected on the language used to convey it: Architecture might be described as the art and science of designing a building having qualities of beauty, geometry, emotional and spiritual power, intellectual content and complexity, soundness of constru ction, convenient planning, many virtues of different kinds, durable and pleasing materials, agreeable colouring and decorations, serenity and dynam is m, good proportions and acceptable scale, and The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  22 many mnemonic associations draw ing on a great range of precedents ( Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape , 2006: 40). During what Dressen-Hammouda (2008:2334) calls the “development of a student’s disciplinary i dentity”, future architects hav e to move into the academy by getting over the barriers imposed by t he disc ipline’s “gatekeepers”. Through this process students get their own disci plinary voice mastering the genres of the community and in so doing they shi ft from “novice stat us” to that of disciplinary expert. The disciplinary i dentity of an individual belonging to a discourse community, and I assume this is also so for architects, incorporates not only the patterns, norms, codes and stru cture of a social milieu but also its ways of talking (Dressen-Hammouda (2008:235)). According to Duff (2010:173), as learners get to participate in new discourse communities by means of language they also obtain information on ideologies, identities, orientations, linguistic and non-linguistic contents apprec iated by the discour se community they aim to belong to. The specific skills and concepts that architecture actors have to develop in order to organise their knowledge starts, as claimed by Wilson (1996:33), in the co urse of architectural education: this process of socialization t hat takes place in the schoo ls of architecture helps students to develop “standar ds of judgement” that ar e distinctive of the profession; apart from determining their syst em of constructs, this process of socialization which starts at universit y and continues during their professional development also marks the acquisition of a distinctive way of communicating, including, among other means, l anguage communication. This language “identity” is understood as part of the overall community identity; architectural language is a code that differentiates expe rts from the rest of the linguistic community, it would be a means of, using Alcaraz’s (2000:5) words, The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  23 gatekeeping , that is, watching over the orthodox y of architecture, as ascertained by their members in different forums: Every discipline has their own language – a distinctive collo quial vocabulary that binds their respective communities together. And, like learning any new language, you first discover its nuances, its definitions, its usage. And, after som e practice, the day comes where you understand it, can use it…and, suddenly, you feel like a true insider, inducted as a full-fledge d member into a that special and secret club that had so elusively held you outside their hallo wed walls. Architecture, or rather, Architects, are famous for their rather, let’ s sa y, inventive language. Jargon, in other words.( http://archi-hell.blogspot.com/2006/02/do-you-speak-architect.html.) The concepts of “insider” or “club” insist on the idea of a differentiated community whose members tend to show their expertise to other informed specialists by using labels such as talkitecture in the followin g text: In teaching architecture, I see students adopt the jargon because it m akes them feel part of the club, though people who use talkitecture more often talk about their work than do it. (William Safire, http://query.nytimes.com.) The existence of such a specific architecture language s eems to be recognized among the different members of the architectural community, a fact reflected in the following quotation wh ich poses the need for a glossary to translate technical terms in to “user-friendly” words: -Parlez-Vous Architect? Small Projects Practitioners Will Translate for Clients-. An impromptu strategic charrette inform ed my latest parti for the façade of your post-Modern residential unit.” Huh? Most hom eowners don't know the "archispeak" so conven ient to architects’ internal shorthand use. The Sm all Projects Practitioners Knowledge Community is developing a glossary to help translate technical words like "pro gra m" into user-friendly words like "wish list," which also could help define d esign work and services. (http://www.aia.org/aiarchitect/thisweek06/1103/1103kc.cfm) The lack of “user-friendliness” of architectural language responds to different motivations; on the one hand, t here is the inherent complexity of Architecture as a discipline, a fact t hat was portrayed in the definition provided at the beginning of this chapter; on the other hand, there seems to be a psychological need for elevating Architectu re to a status similar to Philosophy, Literature, Physics, etc. since Archit ecture reached academic prestige as The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  24 recently as the eighteenth and nineteenth c enturies, a time when it ceased to be considered simply a craft; the underlying idea is that by bei ng an applied rather than a fine art, Architecture was deprived of the scientific and academic burden of other disciplines, such as Philosophy, Literature, Physics, etc. This concern regarding intellectual recogniti on could lead to the belie f within the Architecture community that a complex or obscure language was needed to express architectural thought, a fact that is refl ected nowadays in ar chitectural language used by its actors, commentators, scholar s, students, and the like. According to Widdowson (1998:6), when des crib ing ESP, this “obscurity” is the result of the reader being positioned as an outsider, in th is case as opposed to experts in architecture. In addition, as point ed out by Dressen- Hamouda (2008:240), specialist discourse communicates far more than what the non-specialist can perceive at the surface. This is very o ften caused by the use of “architectural jargon” which conveys subtleties such as those described Archispeak : Widely used in architect ural circles in the heat of discussion, the recurrent use of particular words and terms has evolved a language of design jargon. Commonly found in architectural literature and journalism, in critical design debate and especially in student project reviews, archispeak can seem insular and perplexing to others and –particularly to the new architectural studen t- often incomprehensible. (Introductory note, Archispeak, 2004:I 3 ) The obscurity of this archispeak (also referred to as talkitecture ) is often criticized in design circles because of somewhat impeding communication, not only among specialists but ma inly regarding clients: “Are we adding extra grief to this complex process when we make “Archispeak” our language of choice? (…) But what about “Archispeak”, that fun and handy shorthand that architects all under stand among themselves? Is fenestration really more than doors and windows? Means of egress really means m ore than how to get out of the building? Is it really shorthand or is it a secret hanshake, designed to keep the cognoscenti in and everyone else out? Just asking. (http://blog.aia.org/aiarchitect/2006/11/should_w e_be_bilingual.html) 3 Archispeak is a guide of arch itectural jargon publis hed in 2004 by T om Porter; it will be one of the main sources for technical voca bulary in the curre nt study as pointed out in section 5.3.6. The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  25 “Code words”, “acronyms” or “arcane lan guage” are some of the features mentioned when describing archispeak as a professional jargon that very often contribute to adding confusion and obscu rity to architectural discourse: (…) Doctors, lawyers, and engineers have all developed their specialized professional jargon, and architects are no exception. Using code words, acronyms, and other arcane language m ay create an illusion of rarefied professional expertise, but it doesn’ t do much for communication. Why say “fenestration” when “windows” will do? In attem pting to impress client s, architects often confuse them instead… (http://blog.aia.org/aiarchitect/2006/11/should_w e_be_bilingual.html) Design experts are aware of the room for lexicograp hical analysis in this field and also the extra complexity of architecture jargon when compared to other related disciplines such as Building or Engineering: This offers the lexicographer a fenestration of opportunity: let us exam ine the high-rising jargon that architects an d designers call, self-mockingly, talkitecture or archispeak (…) Just as Hollywood producers do lunch, urban planners and landscape architects hold charettes. A charette was originally a Roman two- wheeled vehicle (not to be confused with a four-wheeled chariot) and later came to mean a small cart in which French architectural students placed their drawings (…) In building construction, you he ar solid Anglo-Saxon words: door, window, frame. In architecture, you hear words more Latin- and French-based: fenestration, porte-cochere. Archite cts use anatomy as m etaphor: we refer to the arms, head, body of a building. If it has a central corridor that connects everything, we'll call it th e spine. (William Safire, http://query.nytimes.com) Apart from lexical neologisms such as “fenestration”, “glazing” or “trabeation”, archispeak is also said to be rich in loanwords and metaphors: The jargon of architecture is what architects and designers archly call " talkitecture " or " archispeak ." They refer to windows as "glazing" or "fenestration," and a beam or lintel as "trabeation." A covered driveway is a porte- cochere. Nothing is simply flat, it's "planar" instead. Construction people are content with solid Anglo-Saxon words: wall, window, and door. Archit ects add a savory salad of Latin- and French-based words. Architects eschew gustatory metaphors like my salad, but they can't hold back from using the human body as metaphor: a building can have arms, head, spine, skeleton, skin, etc. (http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/a/architecture.html.) So far it has been made clear that t he architectural community is aware of having their own linguistic code; how ever, it will also be noted that such a language has not been thoroughly dealt with in the context of ESP, as opposed The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  32 The need to understand and spread t hese texts caused the appearance of several technical glossaries and dict ionaries within the treatises, some of them multilingual, which became t he basis of nowadays technical terminology in architecture; the interest architecture terminology raised among philologists is well exemplified by the fi gure of Fra Giovanni Giocon do da Verona, a man of a wide philological knowledge, who included in hi s edition of Vitruvio’s treatise a glossary of technical terms of archit ecture. Augustin Charles D’Aviler (1653- 1701) was a determined supporter of Vignola’s canon who studied in the Academy of Rome (1676-1679). He highlights the important role of travelling in architects’ education in this book whose influence goes beyond France reaching Germany; the second volume of his Cours d’architecture includes a dictionary of technical terms which reveals a deep concern with thoroughn ess, modernity and comfort. This was the first systematic dictionary of Architecture together with Grapaldo’s. In 1770/1 Roland le Virloy wanted to equate D’Aviler’s dictionary by publishing a three volume work which was richly illustrated and which included terminology in the main European languages. With the writings of the Jesuit Marc-Antoine Laugier (1713-1769), we witness a new trend: treatises were no longer wr itten by specialists by mid eighteenth century. The theory of Architecture becomes a part of philosophical disc ourse together wit h other issues such as mankind, na ture and society. In 1752/3 he wrote Essai sur l’architecture whose second edition included a glossary of technical terms. 3.3. The interdisciplinary character of architecture and its actors One of the most salient features of current archit ecture discourse is its interdisciplinary character, a quality t hat has been intimately connected with the The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  33 theory of Architecture since its early foundation. As opposed to what happened in the Middle Ages, a time when Arch itecture was approached in descriptive and exploratory terms within the boundaries of building skills, by the beginning of the Renaissance period, the arts stopped being consid ered secondary to achieve gradually an autonomous charac ter. Such a fact prompted the systematic analysis of the functions and prin ciples of Architecture. In this first stage artists and craftsmen educated in th e medieval tradition were not the ones who fostered the intellectual developm ent registered in the treatise genre. By large, the leading role in this field was played by scholars and intellectuals, people with a universal educ ation, who were often ve rsed in other knowledge areas, such as Natural Sciences, M edicine, Philosophy, History of Art, Literature, etc. a fact that would expl ain the development of certain frequent analogies in today’s architecture langu age such as the anatomy analogy (which will be dealt with in the study when quoting Forty’s (2000) typology of architecture metaphors) and in gener al numerous references to other disciplines found in th e lexicon of architecture. Thus from the wor ld of Medicine we may find the expression sick building (p.538, XIV.ANW.) 4 that is, a building, typically a large one, in which occupant s report an increased incidence of non- specific upper respirat ory and other symptoms. At the beginning, interdisciplinarity was marked by the audienc e architecture texts were addressed to. Let us take, for example, De Re Aedificatoria libri decem, which was not meant for architects but for a circle of patrons who wanted to have guidelines fo r their own building purposes. Many of the most influential texts in the history of Architecture were written by learned 4 This is a quotation tak en from the corpu s designe d for this study. See section 5.3 .6.1 to find the explanation for the tagging of references. The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  34 figures, such as Walter Rivius (c irca 1500-1548), a German doctor and mathematician who was deeply interested in the theory of Architecture and who supported the figure of a architector doctus , a learned architect capable of conceiving the whole building on his own; he edited Vitruvio’s t ext in Latin in 1543 and also a work dealing with the order s of Architecture following Serlio and Cesariano. He finally published the complete tr anslation to German of Vitruvio’s text, thus making it avail able to German architects, a remarkable contribution to the consoli dation of Renaissance arch itecture in Germany. The English diplomat an d scholar, Henr y Wotton (1568-1639), was familiar with Italian architecture and its treatises than ks to his many stays in Venice as English Ambassador. In 1624 he wrote The Elements of Architecture , the most important literary work in England in the seventeenth ce ntury. One of the most important French architects during the re ign of Louis XIV was a member of the Academy of Sciences with a thorough e ducation in Medicine and Physics, namely Claude Perrault; he became a member of the Academy o f Architecture in 1672. The French military engine er and mathematician François Blon del 5 (1617-1686) was appointed to run the Academy of Architecture and to elaborate a theory of Architecture. He carri es out a new translation of the Ten Books of Architecture by Vitruvio based on a philological analysis of the text. The Austrian Baroque architect, Johann Bernha rd Fischer von Erlac h (1656-1723), was educated as an sculptor, he traveled to Rome where he worked with the architect Philipp Schor and studied Arch itecture Theory. He belonged to the intellectual elites su rrounding Queen Christine of Sweden and he learned the methods of scientific archaeology. Germain Boffrand (1667-1754), a very 5 He traveled around Ital y, Greece, Turkey and E gypt. He published works on P hilology, History and Mathematics. The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  35 cultivated architect attached to the Frenc h court and lecturer in the Academy of Architecture, writes Livre d’architecture (1745) both in Fr ench and Latin; within this work, the author draws a compar ison between poetry and the theory of architecture based on Horace’s poetic treatise. The origin ality of s uch thesis lay in the idea of establishing syntactic uni ts within architecture, as in poetry: architecture had to communicate and inform. Architecture has also been closely re lated to other artistic expr essions such as Theatre and Scenography: take , for example, Giuseppe Galli Bibiena (1695-1757), an engineer and imperial scenographer who was brought up among artists and architects and was we ll-known because of his “ephemeral architectures”. The English arch itect, Robert Morris (1701-1754), wrote Lectures on Architecture and considered himself as a “poet ical architect” who dealt with architectural criticism as a literar y genre which reflected on the beauty of Architecture. In the eighteenth century, Isaac Ware wrote A Complete Body of Architecture (1756), an encyclopaedic architec ture work which analyzes different architecture perspectives m eant for architects and politicians. Music is also present in certain architectural expressions such as rhythm , a feature of musical compositions whos e use in architecture, according to Archispeak (2004:157), transfers meaning f r om “the syncopated flow of words and syllables, musical tones and bodily move ment to pattern variations of the repetitious ordering of ar chitectural elements”. Other express ions such as spatial choreography bring Architecture closer to Dance: Where the lobbies of the new structure’s three wings open to a changing spatial choreography , masterfully composed by local architect Paulo David, of narrow, descending stair shaft s, expansive halls, and sudden exterior views. (p.231, V.ARD.) 6 6 See section 5.3.6.1 to find the expl an ation for the tagging of references. The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  36 Other terms are based on differ ent disciplines related to Architecture; that is the case of fractal , for example, a mathematically conceived curve such that any small part of it, enlarged, has the same statistical character as the original; according to Archispeak (2004:80), this term became popul ar in Architecture in the 1980's through striking computer-graphic images: Words used by Decon architects – fractals , chao s, evolution – are shown to have no relation to their meaning in a scie ntific context. (p.267, VI.ARW.). We may also find lexical items co ming from Physics: the compound term critical mass which in Nuclear Physics m eans the minimum mass or size of fissile material required in a nuclear r eactor, bomb, etc., to sustain a chain reaction; this is defined in Architecture as the moment in the process of design when a developing idea suddenly seems to acquire an identity of its own: The reference to PUCA, a nationally established organization, also raises the issue of scale and critical mass . (p.68, II.AA.). There are also terms taken from Philos ophy which develop s pecific nuances in architecture discourse such as contextualism , a doctrine emphasizing the importance of the context of inquiry in solving problems or establishing the meaning of terms; this doctr ine when applied to Architecture suggests a type of architecture that reacts to its surroundings by respecting what is already there: He pioneered new methods of construction and made brilliant use of the newly available electric lighting, and he pioneered a dynam ic contextualism which has gone strangely unnoticed by the urban design fr aternity. (p.307, VI.ARW.) 3.4. Architects and thei r print on vocabulary Some of the architects who played a relev ant role in the hist ory of architecture theory have actually been the source for words related to building elements and typologies which have been directly gener at ed around them. Take, for example, the figure of Sebastiano Se rlio (1475-1553/55), who published works in Venic e, Lyon and Paris; his Architecture Atlas was one of the most influential The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  37 publications of Architecture at t he time and his impact had originated the expression Serliana or Serlian window ; according to the ODA 7 (2006:705), it is a tripartite window, door, or blind archit ectural feature consisting of a c entral opening with a semicircular arch over it; both expressions are found in t he corpus used for the present study: At the end are three chapters that discu ss the significance of the portico, the Serliana (sometimes called the Venetian or Palladian window) (p. 430, IX.RJ.) These are gems in their own right. I particularly enjoyed the speculation about the significance of the Serlian window in the expression of imperial rank or ambition. ( p.430, IX.RJ.) As can be easily gathered from t he first example above, the word Serlian a can also be replaced by the synonym Palladian window whic h derives from Andrea Palladio (1508-1580), an architect who stood out as a writer since 1554. His most important work was Quattro Libri and he belonged to the intellectual circles of Nothern Italy, a fact that intr oduced him to Vitruvio ’s work and o ther important theoretical piec es including Serlio’s. The introduction, organization and development of Palladio’s Quattro Libri would influence future handbooks in Architecture. Other expressions relat ed to this well-known author which hav e also been identified in our materials are Palladianism, Palladian-style, proto- palladian, neo-palladian or Palladio-influenced . Another influential figure was the Ro man architect Vitruvio who se work was divided into ten books. Each of t he volumes dealt with different topics: architect’s education, aest hetics and technique, urbanism , materials, public and private building, building typologies, orders of architecture, theory of colours, machinery and mechanics, etc. His well -known categories of Architecture, namely firmitas (it included figures, materi als and building problems); utilitas 7 ODA: Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landsc ape . The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  38 (the design of a building to guarantee the fulfilling of its functions); and venustas (it embraced aesthetics and the study of proportions) are often quoted both literally or translated into commodity, firm ness and delight: In the first century BC, the Roman architect Vitruvius set forth thre e major requirements for well-perform ing buildings: " firmness, commodity, and delight ." (p.24, I.AIA.) Classical authors in the theory of Archit ecture also influenced modern ones; this is what happens with one of the most im portant treatises in t he history of western architecture, it was co-written by a Spanish Jesuit called Juan Bautista Villalpando and published in Rome between 1595-1604; it consisted of a visionary recreation of the temple of So lomon and it combined biblical conc epts with those of classical times in order to rebuild an ideal model of multifunctional residence. Such model integrated a hier archical and symbolic structure, a pattern that inspired town-planning utopias in the twentieth century such as those of Otto Wagner or Bruno Taut. The role architects play on voc abulary is also present in certain adjectives (as will be accounted for in t he study) that describe features which are somehow characteristically related to them, for example, the adjectiv e Corbusian , coined in 1936 and defined in the OED 8 as typical of the designs of Le Corbusier, or influenced by his theorie s or, by extension, it may also be understood as mod ern ist or functionalist : Reminiscent of the Corbusian unite m odule, each has a lower living level and a bedroom mezzanine, spatially unified by a dou ble-height atrium and wintergarden. (p.95, II.AA.) 8 OED: Oxford English Diction ary online The language of Architecture. General features of Architecture language  39 A similar case would be that of the adjective miesian (1956), which relates to Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, especially to his work in the United States, according to the OED: The new building’s concept is M iesian , with an apparently rational expressed steel structure and centr al service core. (p.634, XXI.BD.) Not only well-known architects’ names are used in order to coin new adjectives: the word Framptonian , for example, is derived from Kenneth Frampton, the English architectural critic and historian, although this word is not listed in the OED: The chosen designers (average age 44) might be characterized as Builder Architects, many of them – especially between the coasts – as Framptonian Critical Regionalists. (p.262, VI.ARW.) Apart from words directly coined on proper names, there are other terms which have been collected by well-known figures whose prestige made those words popular, such as dymaxion , with the meaning of yielding the greatest possible efficiency in terms of the availa ble t echnology, this word was coined by the designer of Buckminster Fuller in 1929 who also coined the compound term geodesic dome (1959), a dome built according to th e principles of geodetic construction: It was a seductive development of his prior hopes for both versions of his Dymaxion House and his Standard of Living Package, neither of which were commercially unsuccessful. (p.294, VI.ARW.) Fuller considered Henry Ford ‘the greatest artist of the twentieth century’ and dreamed of the industrially produced autonomous hom e air-lifted to the idyll island of your choice u sing the geodesic dome . (p.294, VI.ARW.) All the features so far mentioned enable us to understand better some of the aspects to be highlighted in the study wh en dealing with charac teristic lexical phenomena regarding architecture discourse given that some of them, namely Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  40 loanwords, metaphors and semantic changes, might be determined b y the origin and evolution of architecture discourse through history. 4. Some basic concepts regarding the organization of the lexicon 4.1. Introduction The current study aims at describing the language of architecture and I have chosen to do so by means of its lexicon since, accord ing to Alcar az (2007:7), it is generally agreed that the lexicon is the element which best represents the essence of academic and professional languages and thus, this should be expected to be so regarding architecture language. I aim at analysing the lexicon in archit ecture texts in order to describe it and, ultimately, identify what builds the specific character of the architectural discourse from a lexic al perspective, an ob jective which entails the study of the processes responsible for the formati on of new words in the field of Architecture. In the course of the present study a number of concepts which ar e basic in the configuration of t he lexicon will be described before proceeding to t he analysis of the data, namely neology, prod uctivity and creativity. We have to bear in mind that in spec ialized languages t he means to coin new words as such are the same as those used in gene ral English; however, the differences are expected to be reflected, as point ed out by Gotti (2003:278), on the frequency of their recurrence rather than on their real nature. 4.2. Neology, productivity and creativit y When analysing the vocabular y of Architecture, we will be addressing the question of how a word is creat ed, a process often addressed as neology . Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  41 Guilbert (1975) deals with this concept of neology as th e study of the linguistic phenomena which appear at a gi ven time in the devel opment of a language in use. Such phenomena may occu r at all levels of lan guage, namely phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax or the lexicon giv ing way to Guilbert’s classification of syntagmatic neology, semantic neology, l oanword neology and phonological neology, an a priori classifi cation that seems appropriate in the present study to subclassify the different cases of neology wh ich might occur. I will pay more attention to syntagmatic neology, a s ection which includes the phenomena traditionally labeled as “word-formation”, a field that is framed into the widest label of morphol ogy. Morphology is concerned wit h the internal structure of word-forms and is nowadays considered to be a synchronic discipline, i.e., a disciplin e that deals with t he study of word-structure at one stage in the life of a languag e and not over time, that is, following the evolution of words; nevertheless, some authors such as Quirk et al (1985:1522), point out that a description of word-formation must of its nature be diachronic, however short-term, a claim that will somehow be re flected on our study where we will be referring to certain morphological proc esses in a time spam of several centuries. Within morphology a general di stinction is traditi onally made between inflectional morpholog y and lexical morphology 9 (word-formation), which is the branch we will be focusing on. Plag (2003:13) defines the latter as the study of the ways in which new complex words are built on the basis of other words or morphemes. The study of word formation is crucial in this study for it describes both existing complex words but I may also lay down which kind of derivatives can be obtained according to the rules of language, that is, theories dealing with 9 Mathew’s (1991) dr aws a distinction bet ween comp ound ing and word-f ormation, both as subfields of lexical morphol ogy, however, we will consider compounds a s belonging to word-formation processes. Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  48 complex words coined by a speaker/writer on the spur of the moment to cover some immediate need. This status of nonce-formation disappears once the speakers using the word are aware of hav ing heard it before. A nonce-word fails to become part of the norm w hereas a neologism is a word that becomes part of the norm of the language. It is intere sting what the author says about the difficulty of knowing when a word is co ined, whethe r it will turn out to be a nonce-word or a neologism. This difficulty leads Bauer (1983) to prefer the term “coinage” to embrace both. Arono ff and Fudeman (2005:225) make a very interesting remark on the connection between nonce-formation and productivity by quoting Baayen (1992); wor ds that occur only once in a large corpus are more likely than words that are us ed repeatedly to have been formed by a productive rule; because these items fo llow a productive pattern they can be created on the spur of t he moment, such as many examples of compounding; for Plag (2003:54), hapax legomena are defined in relation to a corpus, that is, they are words that occur only once in a corpus and thus they can be rare words or ad hoc inventions coined by creative speakers as sometimes is the case in fields such as Li terature or Advertising. 4.3. Word-formation processes In this section we will outline a taxonomy of the main word-formation processes in English and we will ne xt be commenting on several aspects related to the categories established which may also be relevant for the current study. My aim is not to describe all these lexical processes in detail si nce it is out of the scope of the present study. However, it is important to provide oper ational definitions of these concepts for my research. The starting point here will be Bauer’s Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  49 (1983) classification of word-formation processes. This taxonomy will be used as the model in the classification of the corpus material. Bauer’s categorization sets up the following types: compounds, neoclassical compounds, prefixation, suffixation, conversion and back-formation as major varieties and then clipping, blends, acronyms, word-manufacture (ex-nihilo formations) and mixed formations which will be included unde r the heading of “unpredictable formations”. Within compounds, Bauer (1983:202) draw s a further classification based on the category the compound has in th e sentence, that is, as noun, verb, adjective, etc. Compound nouns are by large the most common; here we show the subtypes within Compound Nouns with examples taken from our corpus: TABLE I . Compound nouns Compound nouns noun + noun ribbon window ( p.337, VII.CA.) verb + noun float glass (p.325, VII.CA.) noun + verb steel-making (p.99, XVIII.HP.) verb + verb --- adj + noun bifurcated window (p.465, X.IA.) particle + noun undercroft (p.160, IV.AM.) adverb + noun cross-site (p.493, XII.AS.) verb + particle add-on (p.233, V.ARD.) phrase compound architecture-as-walls (p.282, VI.ARW.) The following group menti oned by Bauer (1983:207) is that of compound verbs; most of them are, according to Bauer, the result of back-formation or conversion from compound nouns and the wh ole category is rather rare. They can equally be clustered into noun + verb , verb + noun, verb + verb, adjective + verb, particle + verb, adjective + noun, noun + noun. Both categories of compound adjectives and adverbs are much more restricted and even controversial. The former fall into noun + ad jective, verb + adjective, adjective + adjective, adverb + adjective, noun + no un, verb + noun, adjective + noun, Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  50 particle + noun, noun + verb, verb + verb , adjective/adverb + verb and verb + particle. As far as compound adverbs are concerned, Bauer (1983:212) claims that they are vastly formed by adding the suffixation -ly to a compound adjective. There are two other cla ss of compounds listed, namely rhyme- motivated compounds (as in hokey-pokey or tweeny-weeny ) and ablaut- motivated compounds ( flip-flop , zig-zag ). At a different le vel, Bauer poses a further category of compounds under the heading of “neoclassic al compounds” (1983:213). The whole question about neoclassical compounds is based on what has been labelled “combining forms”, items that may function as affixes but are not quite so. Those elements ar e traditionally taken from Latin and Greek (examples cited by Bauer (1983:213) include hydro -, - crat , - phile , etc.) to be used in English word-for mation and hence the label neo- classical. They are, according to the author, particularly produc tive in English and are also used as the base in derivational processes (as in holographic ). Within prefixation Bauer (1983:217) dr aws a further distinction, namely class-changing prefixation and class-maintain ing. Some prefixes included in the former class would be a-, be-, en-, de-, dis-, non-, un -. Class-maintaining prefixes are divided according t o the bas e they attach to, that is, noun base, verb base, adjective base, etc. Quirk et al (1985:1515) opt for a classification mostly based on semantics which gives way to negative prefixes, reve rsative prefixes, pejorative prefixes, prefixes of degree, of or ientation an attitude, loca tive prefixes, etc. Suffixation is classified by Bauer (1983) according to the form-class of the derivatives they gener ate and thus there are affixes forming nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Wi thin suffixation Quirk et al (1985:1546-7) shift into Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  51 grammatical motivations to classify su ffixes since their function is mainly changing the grammatical function of the head, and thus obtaining noun suffixes, verb suffixes, etc. (word class resulting from the process) and also denominal, de-adjectival, etc. (word cl ass of the base used as input). Conversion is together with compounding and affixation one of the most productive ways of coining new words in English. This device is specially interesting since there seems to be no mo rphological restrictions on the form s that may be used as input for conver sion. Bauer (1983:226-7) claims that constraints on conversion have not ye t been found and spec ulates with the possibility that conversion marks the trend away from synthetic structure towards analytic structure which has char acterized the history of English over the last millennium, which is a quite interes ting sug gestion. Katamba (1993:55) mentions the fact that some authors ca ll conversion zero derivation and thus it would be a process included within affi xation. Zero derivation would be an analogy with inflectional morphology and would imply derivat ion by means of zero morphs. However, Katamba (1993:55) concludes that such an analysis is rather misleading and decides to classify conversion as a distinct word-forming mechanism outside derivation. Other names given to conversion cited by Don (1993:2) are functional shift or implicit transposition . Bauer (1983) points out that conversion is considered to belong to syntax rather than to morphology by some authors; however, but for the type of st udy that we intend to carry out, it is more convenient for us to follow Bauer’s classificat ion of conversion as a morphological process different from der ivation. A prototyp ical example of conversion in AD that is found in the corpus is interface; the OED states that the noun interface occurred in 1962 as “a means or place of interaction between Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  52 two systems, organizations, etc.; a m eeting-point or co mmon ground between two parties, systems, or disciplines; al so, interaction, liaison, dialogue”; its converted verbal equivalent interface meaning “to come into interaction with” appears in 1967 according to the OED; th is new item probably progressed from the use of and individual or group of individuals to the entire spee ch community gradually becoming incorporat ed in the language, as explained by Balteiro (2005:85) regarding conversi on processes in general. Back-formation is a kind of morphologic al mechanism which is especial ly relevant for verbs. According to Bauer (1983:232), back-formation would be rather explained as the formation of new lexemes by the deletion of actual or supposed affixes in longer words and t hus becoming a process close to clipping. Quirk et al (1985:1578) include back formation in a larger category of “miscellaneous modes”. One of the mo st representative examples of backformation in the corpus is the term grid (p.536, XIV.ANW.); according to the OED, this word is defined as an a rrangement of paralle l bars with openings between them and it is said to be a backformation of gridiron . In order to finish this brief overview, we will refer to Bauer’s (1983:232) “hodgepodge” label named “unpredictable formations”. 10 Although minor in the prominence they enjoy in most account s, these processes are quite common and rather interesting. Clipping is defined by Bauer (1983: 233) as the process where the lexeme is shortened while maintaining the s ame meaning and word-class as in Decon , a term found in our corpus which resu lts from Decon-structionist. Bauer (1983) also comments on ov erlapping cases where on e or both elements in a 10 Plag’s (2003: 116) classifies these cat egories as truncations (cli pping would be included here), bl ends, abbreviations and acro nyms. Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  53 compound are clipped and thus could also be consider ed to be blends. Clipping is said to gain complexity in the realm of scientific terminol ogy; an example of this taken from the corpus would be polythene (p. 416, IX.RJ.). Blends are defined by Bauer (1983: 234) as new lexemes which are the outcome of putting together par ts of other words in a wa y that the resulting word which shows a great deal of opacity and unpredict ability. We may quote the word tensegrity (p.557, XV.AP.) from the corpus as a r elatively recent example of blend (1959), which derives from merging tensional and integrity. 11 Ho wever, overlapping and blurred cat egory as it might be, blendi ng is a productive device in English, especia lly in sci entific contexts, a fact that makes it attractive and relevant for our purposes. Acronyms consist of coinages made of the initial letters of the words in a phrase that become a new word. As Bauer (1983:237) points out, not every abbreviation counts as an acronym, the new formation must be pronounced as a word, not as a set of letters such as LED (p.649, XXI.BD.), a shortened version of Light-Emitting Diode (1968). Bauer (1983:238) refers to the singularity of acronyms regarding the re st of word-formation processes since the former are very much orthographically based. These three categories (clippings, acronyms and blends) are brought together by Quirk et al (1985:1580) under the label “abbreviations” including also here the categor y “familiarity marker s” which would accoun t for examples such as hippy , nuts , sweetie , mu mmy , etc. Under word-manufacture Bauer (1983:239) puts forward cases such as ex-nihilo formations, that is, words t hat have no morphologic al, phonological or 11 This is the origin given by the OE D while Archispe ak describe s it as a truncatio n of " tensile" and "integrity" coined b y Richard Buckminster Fuller in the late 194 0. Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  54 orthographic motivations at all, these ar e usually brand names. An example of these formations would be the word taken from the corpus Mylar , a proprietary name for a form of polyester resin whose origin is uncertain acc ording to the OED. Quirk et al also mention instances of co mputer-produced words which are random formations but that we end up ana lysing as motivated ones; it is the case for the ending -on in Teflon or Antron , as if it were a suffix. Examples displaying this feature in the corpus would be Freon (p.381, VIII.MT.) or dymaxion (p.294, VI.ARW.) Under mixed formations, Bauer ( 1983:239-40) gathers together some examples brought into existence by a mixture of processes which may bring about unpredictable forms which are almost in the realm of word-manufacture. To finish with, we would like to mention a type of process which, strictly speaking, would be outside word-formati on rules but which is, nevertheless, a source of new coinages. As Plag ( 2003:37) claims, new complex words are sometimes coined on the basis of a model, a mechanism called analogy. He poses the example of earwitness coined after eyewitness or air-sick coined after sea-sick . Bauer (1983:95-6) also accounts fo r this procedure and highlights the extremely limited productivity of the wo rds coined in that wa y. An analogical formation would stand for “a new forma tion clearly modelle d on one already existing lexeme, and not giving rise to pr oductivity series” (although it may result in a set of forms, as atte sted in examples given by Bauer (1983:96), namely, landscape which triggers seascape , cloudscape , waterscape , etc.). It is wor th mentiong that Plag (2003:37) includes within analogy t he derivation by deleting a suffix, a process that other authors, including B auer, have labeled as back- formation. Examples of analogical forma tions in the corpus would include Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  55 townscape (p.286, VI.ARW.) and roofscape (p.91, II.AA.), both after landscape or planar (p.173, IV.AM.), coined after linear . 4.4. Some further remarks on compounding Compounding is one of the mo st productive processes in English as far as word-formation is concerned and our corpus clearly confirms this case since countless expressions such as curtain-wall, bu ilding- perform ance, floorboard , etc. were found within the category of technical and semitechnical vocabulary. In order to analyze the la bel of compounding in the cor pus, we first have to delimit this word-formation device; let us start by pointing out that even though compounding may be presented as a clear cut class in s ome accounts, there is a great deal of debate in the literature regarding co mpounding and its identification. The controver sy arises right from the star t since it is even present when considering co mpounding as part of morphology or not. According to Jackendoff (2009:113), compounding does not look like the rest of morphological devices because it might be a relic of protolanguage, that is, a relic of earlier stages of the language capacity wh ich have only rudimentary grammatical structure and whose semantic interpretation would be v ery dependent on the pragmatics of the words combined and on the context of use. There are also disputed issues regarding the reas ons adduced when ascribing compounds to morphology and no t to syntax. Bauer (1998) tackles this controversy and argues aga inst the criteria genera lly taken as evidence for distinguishing combinations of N + N, among others, lis tedness, spelling, stress, or isolation of the first el ement. Although in the current study we do not aim at applying a complete set of syntactic te sts to all the data which might be Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  56 regarded as compounds, it is nonetheless interesting to see how the criteria given by some authors are controversial, something that will affect our own standards for classifying complex structur es under the heading of compounding. Listedness is, according to Bauer (1998:67), more of a lexicographical approach than a linguistic one. Besides, th e fact of considering compounds as exclusively listed items would appear to be a denial of their productivity. Spelling is claimed to be inconsistent although Ba uer (1998:69) suggests it might reflect linguistic intuitions. Bauer mentions th at orthography could be expected to correlate with two fact ors, namely compound frequency and the age of the compound; however, Bauer concl udes that this is not actually so. Adams (1988:59) also poses the questi on of unreliability of spelling in compounds and finds almost no correlati on between the degree of unity of the elements and the spelling as two separate words, hyphenated items or one word ones. According to Bauer (1998:69), the same applies to stress that is equally inconsistent and fails to provide a line div iding lexemes from syntactic constructions. As for the isolation of the first element, Bauer also finds it hard to prove this to be a reliable argument. The lack of allowance of coordinati on is, according to Bauer, very often explained by the unparallel semantic relationship of the coordinated elements. Similar cases are found in the one-replacement test. Bauer (1998:78) states that none of these criteria gives a reliable distinction between the two types of constructions, that is, phrases and compounds. The implication, according to the author, is that any distinction drawn on the basis of only one of those crit eria is a random divi sion between syntax and the lexicon. Bauer c laims that the firs t three criteria measure the Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  57 same thing, namely lexicalization or la ck of it; the rest measure syntactic isolation or involvement. Bauer m entions the possibility of applying a prototypical perspective to this anal ysis instead of clear-cut categories. However, such an examination gets also ruled out because prototypical cas es would equally fail to be clearly differ entiated. Bauer (1998:81) quotes three criteria for wordhood : positional mobility, uninterrupt ability and internal stability. As a conclusion, this author postula tes that although there is a common perception that there are two categor ies of N + N constructions, namely morphological (compounds) and syntactic (phrases) ones, the criteria given as evidence for this distinction is by no means conclus ive. Bauer even questions the existence of two categories to be di stinguished and identifies no explanation based on grammatical behav iour but one grounded on social history. She claims that the differences between compounds and phrases may explained by the blend of conventions in English due to the influence of both its Germanic and Romance roots (1998:84). Bauer finally suggests that these two different constructions could be joined together under the label of N-bars 12 . So far the conclusion is that to some extent certain structures could only be classified as compounds when they have been already accounted for in some reliable source, that is, listed in a dic tionary or taken from the available literature on morphology and word-formation. However, a preliminary reading of the corpus I will be working with shows that the role of c ompounding, at least of what seems to be compounding, is quite re markable. And thus it will be required 12 N-bar stands for an interm ediate node of NP. Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  64 It is worth mentioning that Algeo’s study of Spanis h loanwords in English includes the category “architecture, bu ildings and constructions”; within this label he includes loan-words such as barrio , bodega , cafeteria , cantina , embarcadero , jacal , marina , parador , paseo , patio , pueblo , etc. Traditionally, loan-words have also been classified into necessary loan- words versus luxury or stylistic loanwords , a distinction we have already encountered in this study when dealing wit h neologisms in general. Technical loan-words would be included wit hin neces sary loan-words since they imply the introduction of a new word together wit h a new concept or thing. On the contrary, the label “luxur y loanwords” seems to be suggesting that such elements are to some extent superfluous or excessive. Howev er, as read in Gómez Capuz’ (1998:256), it is this type of borrowed elements which offers the most interesting data on historical and cultural exchanges between two languages. As claimed by so me authors, the distinctiv e semantic nuances of novelty together with those of presti ge and snobbism are enough to consider the loan-word as necessary. As far as technical loan-words are concerned, Gómez Capuz (1998) quotes some works which characterize them as rational, practical and most importantly, peripheral as regards gener al language and very often influenced by the concept of cultural superiority of some nations over others and the notion of prestige. Cabré (1999:89) also claims that scient ific and technological transfer is the most frequent cause which explains the borrowi ng of terms from a language in which the concept behind the borrowed term was created. The loanword may be adopted with little or no change as is t he case in Englis h with foreign words such as coup d’état , pianissimo and protégé as claimed by Cabré Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  65 (1999:90). Once the borrowed term is assi milated to English, it may undergo the same derivations processes as any other native base (e.g. karateist , derived from karate, Cabré 1999:90). Together with thes e borrowings, which are the outcome of a terminological need or gap, Cabr é (1999) provides other examples which are, in her, opinion “unnecessary”, because they could be perfectly replaced by nativ e equivalents (examples given by Cabr é 1999:90 are Latinisms terra incognita and opus ). As Rodriguez González (1996:62) poi nts out, studies of borrowings have often focused on morphological and typolo gical factors overlooking stylistic ones. Rodriguez González (1996:63) establishes a taxonomy of stylisti c functions of borrowings based on Halliday’s (1978) functional components in the semantic system, one that shows three different cat egories, namely ideational (also called referential, it account s for the supplying of terms for new phenomena, concepts or things), inte rpersonal (usually having emotive connotations, they trigger expressi ve meanings) and textual (borrowed expressions that have a purely textual f unction, such as brevity, accuracy, emphasis, etc.). Gómez Capuz (1998:274-2 75) also presents some interesting classifications of the stylistic and semant ic function of loanwor ds, taking as input journalistic language; some of the main functions entail reflecting the local co lor, conveying an elevated style, functioni ng as euphemism, adding tone subtlet ies (irony, humor, etc.), ensuring rhetoric variation, achieving brevity and conceptual accuracy. Other functions mentioned by Gómez Cápuz (1998:276) are field atmosphere or “color” (words denoting science, politics, economy, etc.), social color and expressive effe ct (including plasticity, impact, etc). Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  66 4.6. Semantic neology: some remarks on metaphor In the lines above syntagmatic neol ogy and loanword neology have been depicted as devices used to coin new wo rds in English. There is a further resource that should be dealt with, that of semantic neology. This section tackles some aspects of the lexical gaps filled in by semantic tools and, more specifically, I will focus on the r ole of metaphor as a means for coining new words. Metaphor is a lexical tool which lie s behind the creation of terms in different domains and, more specifica lly, in the field of architecture. The analysis of metaphor in architecture des erves a study of its own (Caballero, 2006); since I do not aim at focusing on metaphor as a cognit ive process but rather as a neological tool , I will simply point out ce rtain features regarding metaphors that might be recalled further on in this analysis. As pointed out by Meyer et al (1997:1), when regar ded as a literary device, metaphor enjoys a voluminous body of literature dating bac k to Aristotle. As a phenomenon of general language, metaphor has gained relevance sinc e 1970’s, however, as a terminological phenomenon metaphor is much less studied. The concept of metaphor is def ined by the OED as follows: A figure of speech in which a nam e or descriptive word or phrase is transferred to an object or action different from, but analogous to, that to which it is literally applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression. This definition focuses on the lingui stic realization of the phenomenon, but as Lakoff (1980:3) claims, met aphors exceed the scope of langua ge: human thinking and its concept ual system are metaphorical in nature. A more detailed definition is gi ven by Goatly (1997:108): A metaphor occurs when a unit of discour se is used to refer to an object, concept, process, quality, rela tionship or world to which it does not Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  67 conventionally refer or colligates with a unit with which it does not conventionally colligate; and when this unconventional act of reference or colligation is understood on the basis of similarity or analogy involving at least two of the following: the unit’ s conventional referent; the unit’ s actual unconventional referent; the actual referent(s) of the unit’s actual collig ate(s); the conventional referent of the unit’s conventio nal colligate(s). Goatly (1997:1) claims that met aphor has been traditionally seen as an anomaly or a deviant use of language often related to the scope of literature. This tendency has been reversed in the last decades by the reanalys is of metaphor as the foundation of language an d thought. Metaphors draw a hierarchical structur e in our thinking by highlighting certai n features against others. Traditional definitions of metaphors based on devi ance and anomaly are in contrast with claims such as Mooij’s (1976:1), who poi nts out that metaphor is a well-known phenomenon that occurs in many different forms of linguistic communication, such as daily conver sation, advertising, newspaper-articles, sermons, scientific disquisitions, philosophica l writings as well as in novel and poetry. Brown (2003:14) maintains that metaphor is a t ool of great concept ual power and that everyday language is replete of metaphors. 4.6.1. Metaphor functions Out of Goatly’s long list of metaphor possi ble functions, we w ill highlight the one related to filling lexical gaps (1997:149): 17 the lack of a satisfactory term calls for an extension or transfer of the reference of an existing word-form which fills the lexical gap. According to Goatly ( 1997:149), this must be a matter of unavailability or processability. In his a ccount, metaphors are used to fill in le xical gaps in three ways: there is absolutely no suitable term available; there exists a word but it is only roughly adequate; a process or qualit y is made more clear-cut 17 Mooij (1976) poses anoth er function which is quite in terest ing regarding lexicon, namely the princi ple of economy. Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  68 by being related through modification to a s pecific first-order ent ity. According to Goatly, other functions of metaphor include explanatio n and modelling (metaphors can explain some relatively abstract concepts in terms which are more user-friendly and thus it is a very useful tool in scientific modelling); reconceptualization (metaphors allow us to consider our experience from a different point of view by using unconven tional terms or unfamiliar categories); argument by analogy (metaphors are concer ned with persuasion: they belong to the sphere of human action on the worl d); ideology (metaphors may be used to construct or defend a system of beliefs); expressing emotional attitude (metaphor produces emotional impact and tension); de coration, disguise and hyperbole (as in metaphorical euphemisms); cultivating intimacy (metaphor may create a sense of community excluding those who can not access the information displayed in the metaphor); humor and gam es, problem solvin g (metaphors can be exploited to achieve action of various kinds); text ual structuring (metaphor can be used to structure the developm ent of a text as t he organizing principle in order to achieve lexical cohesion); fiction (a literary narrative may be considered to be an extended metaphor); and, finally, enhanci ng memorability, foregrounding and informativeness. 4.6.2. Metaphor classification Lakoff (1980:14) draws a classification of metaphor into structural (cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in t erms of another), orientational (they give a concept a spatia l orientation based on ou r physical and cult ural experience) and ontological metaphors (ways of seeing events, activities, ideas, etc. as entities and subst ances). He also describes personific ation as an Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  69 ontological metaphor where t he physical object is furt her specified as being a person. Metonymy is, according to Lak off (1980.36), the proc ess by which we use one entity to refer to another that is related to it. Metonymy has more or less the same purposes as metaphor but fo cuses more specifically on certain aspects of what is being referred to. Mooij (1976:7) also separates metaphor from metonymy and synecdoche which are, according to him, forms of figurativ e language as well but whereas metaphor is based on s imilarity or analogy, the other two figurative forms would be based on actual relations of contiguity. He poses instances such as maker and product, cause and effect, vessel and content, part and whole, genus and species. 4.6.3. Metaphor and word-formation As pointed out above, Goatly (1997) claims that covering lexical gaps is among the main functions of metaphors, t hat is, naming new objects, concepts, experiences, etc. Nouns are the word-c lass which are most identifiable as metaphors and carry the richest interpretations. Verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions are gradually less recogni zable as metaphors and less loaded interpretation-wise. He also points out that metaphor might be a more successful strategy for word-forma tion than borrowing, since the higher motivatedness of the former makes it easy to remember. The act of derivation is strongly associated with metaphorical trans fer of meaning. As Goatly (1997:96) underlines, the association may be direct (the derived form integrates metaphor within its semantics) or indirect (a hist ory of derivation increases the lik elihood of lexical items being used metaphorica lly). Morphological changes such as suffixation and prefixation are used to lexicalize metaphors and incorporate Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  70 them into a semantic system. Accordin g to Goatly (1997:106), metaphors generated by word-formation are forced to become inactive and die early. Word-formation and metaphor are devices for adding interpretations which were once highly dependent on pragmatics into coded meanings which are part of the semantic lexicon. Mooi j (1976:5) gives several ex amples of these so-called “dead metaphors”, words that have lost their metaphorical character: foot (of a mountain), leg (of a table), head (of a state), and root (of all evil). 4.6.4. The role of metaphor in th e lexicon of professional languages The conceptual power of metaphors and, above all, their ab ility to create new terms make them especially relevant as far as professional languages ar e concerned. Brown (2003) studies the role of metaphor in the s cientific realm. According to him, metaphorical reason ing is at the core of scientific experiments, discoveries, theory and model ling formulation, etc. Scientists understand the world in terms of met aphors anchored in embod ied and social experience, they do not differ from any body else who aims at being creative. The same as scientists need metaphor so do engineers; Matarredona (2005) acknowledges that metaphors are traditiona lly one of the most salient devices to produce new terminology in the scien tific domain; thus, in engineering metaphors are mainly used to name, id entify and describe objects. Most metaphors used by engineer s are lexicalized ones. The process behind these metaphors is described by Matarredona in the following way: firstly, a non- scientific term is chosen to fill a termi nology gap; the te rm becomes established together with its accurate meaning; it fi nally loses non-scientific connotations. It is interesting what is pointed out by Matarredona (2005) regarding these Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  71 lexicalized metaphors. They might be so in a specialized field but when a non- professional meets them, the metaphor is not interp reted as dead; it rather regains its former intensity. Meyer et al (1997:2) make the following claim, namely when metaphorical concepts become lexicalized, they help a number of people understand what the concept means to their creators. In other words, they have a didactic role. Matarredona (2005) also emphasizes the principle of economy and accurateness among the main functions of metaphors in engineering. Some of the most common analogie s found in engineering me t aphors include the human body, animals, plants and objects. Anot her interesting aspect related to metaphors in engineering is that the scarce figurative language contributes to the whole community’s image: engineers are i dentified with sobriety, austerity and rigor. Caballero (2002:44) highli ghts the importance of me taphor in the field of architecture as an “essential heuristic t ool that fulfils their (referring to architects) cognitive and communicative needs according to the disciplinary constraints imposed by their handling of such an elusive entity as space”. According to her, ontological metaphors fo cus on the products of the architec t’s activity whereas structural metaphors address the architect’s creative role focusing on the procedural aspects and t he arrangement of parts and functions. Structural metaphors include biology, machine and motion metaphors. Image metaphors in architecture may be further classified according to their animate ( eye , hand , bone ) or inanimate sources (thes e embrace geometrical shapes, mechanical artefacts, food, etc.). Im age metaphors may also be withdrawn from cultural sources which recall not only exter nal appearance but also their intrinsic Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  72 values. Image metaphors and conceptual met aphors differ also in their linguistic realizations: the former give rise to many more word-formation processes than the latter. As in other specialized fiel ds, many metap hors used in architecture serve to fill a lexical gap in a e xpressive and economical way as well as marking the community’s boundaries. Forty’s (2000) semantic typology of metaphors will also be taken into account when classifying the metaphors f ound in the corpus; according to him, many of these metaphors in Architecture come from Science, ranging from many different scientific fields such as Natural Sciences, Anatomy, Biology, Physics, Mathematics, Mec hanics, etc. There are also social metaphors and metaphors related to language. Fine arts are also included in the metaphors quoted by this scholar. 4.7. Terminology and term-formation When dealing with Language for Specific Purposes, more specifically, the language of Architecture and its lexis, we are bound to refer to the field of Terminology since lexis is the essential domain of this branch of linguistics. According to Kageura (2002), terminology is a quite recent field of linguistic research which started in the late fifti es with the “Viena” School of Terminology; some of the main features of Terminol ogy are relevant for the study of the vocabulary of Architecture, such as the delimitation of concepts, the relevance of terms/terminology as opposed to ru les and syntax, the synchronic view of language and, finally, the in teraction between ordinary and technical languages. According to this framework, the basic function of architecture terms would be to express accurate meanings which are necessary in Architecture because of Some basic concepts regarding t he organization of the lexicon  73 the many complex concepts that hav e to be portrayed. Picht (1985:24) highlights the scientific progr ess in the nineteenth cent ury as the major boost to the organization of knowle dge and the need for termi nol ogy in a context where objects started to be subj ect to standardization (measurements, sizes, units, etc.) followed in the twentieth cent ury by the imperat ive need to guarantee professional communication. The estab lishment of Commercial Colleges in Europe and the inclusion of commercial languages as part of their programmes are, according to Picht (1985:27), among the reasons that triggered the development of terminology together with the compilation of special dictionaries in the first half of t he twentieth century. When dealing with corpus-based termi nology, Gamper and Stock (1988- 9) also claim that terms together with concepts are the core obj ect underlying research in terminology. According to them, concepts would be pieces of knowledge about the real world which help humans to model the world in cognitive processes. Terms would in tu rn be the lexical units which denote these concepts. An important characterist ic of terms is their us age in special languages adapted for specific domains. The relevance of terms within professional and academic environments is acknowledged not only from the perspective of terminological studies as may be inferred by Halliday’s (1993:4) words: Of course, technical terms are an essential part of scientific language, it would be impossible to create a discourse of organized knowledge without them. Technical terms have the potentia l to form systematic taxonomic hierarchies and to be added ad infinitum. According to Halliday, both vocabulary and grammar are interdependent: creating a technical term is in itself a The study  80 - Teaching perspective : the results of this st udy will be of interest to applied linguists regarding the design of materials for teaching ESP to non-native architecture students as par t of the syllabus in Technical Schools and Departments. One of the main goals in teaching is to introduce students to the concepts of a given area or discipline, an aim that comprises the learning of specia lized lexis. According to Crawford (2007:127), this explains why a st udy of the specialized lexical environment of a discipline is so im portant from the view of applied linguistics. - Lexicographic perspective : I will also try to ma ke a contribution in this field by designing and creat ing a multilingual glossar y of architectonic terms in three l anguages, namely English, Spanish and Galician. Therefore, this study is de scriptive and, to a certain extent, multi-purpose since it aims at characterizing a type of professional language th rough a close analysis of its lexicon. In order to do so a number of methodologic al parameters will have to be established and explained in detail in the following section. 5.3. Methodology This research study aims at analyzing the Englis h lexicon of architectur e discourse in order to describe and char acterize it. As pointed o ut by Biber et al (1998), the use of a corpus is the best wa y to analyze registers, dialects, styles, etc. (here a specia lized language) in terms of their linguistic patterns. The fundamental features of these st udies, according to Biber et al (1998:4), is that they are empirical, they use natural text s, they allow the us e of computers for The study  81 automatic and interactive techniques an d they depend on both quantitative and qualitative analysis, all of them qualitie s that determine the reliability of the corpus as a research instrument and make it the most suitable means to reach our goal in the current study. According to Conrad (2002:77), corpus design (size of the corpus, types of texts included, num ber of texts, the sampling procedure, etc.) is crucial in order to attain trus tworthy and generalizable results. According to Curado (2001:273), in the study of lexical phenomena in specialized languages the use of a representative corpus becomes highly attractive from the perspective of applied linguistics since it allo ws for the ha ndling of banks of lexical data that represent highly resourceful and var i ed vocabulary. Out of the many different types of corpora, it s eems logic to apply here what has been called “special purpose corpora 18 ” (Pearson, 1998:46) since a general reference corpus is designed to be representative of all relevant varieties of the language and not of a technical or professional field in particular, as also pointed out by Gavioli (2002:294): It is equally true that “specialist language”, characterising, e.g. a register or genre, may not be adequately represented in large corpora like the Cobuild or the BNC. Smaller corpora collecting register/genre-specific texts can be more reliable in this respect. According to Gavioli (2005:7-8), specializ ed corpora are cor pora designed for the purpose of creating a samp le of specialized langu age which can be easily downloaded from on-line s pecialized journals. Thus, a self-compiled corpus of archit ecture discourse will provide us with relevant, manageable, real and up-to-dat e data whic h will be the input for our analysis. 18 These corpora are called “monogeneric” as opp osed to “heterogeneric” (l arge general corpora). The study  82 5.3.1. Why a corpus-driven approach? A special purpose corpus wi ll enable us to draw gener a lizations and conclusions empirically supported on the discourse of architecture. These data will fulfil better our manifold expectations since a wide range of aspects r egarding lexic on and terminology will be taken into account. Apar t from my own criteria and intuitions over the likely research requirements, I have also witnessed the currency and suitability of the use of corpora within th e field of English for Special Purposes. According to Pearson (1998: 48), there are three main approaches to corpus studies, namely corpus-based, corpus-d riven and data-based. A corpus-driven approach will be used in this case, a methodol ogy that treats a corpus not only as a mere source of examples to confirm linguistic premises; according to Tognini- Bonelli (2001:84), this approach uses a corpus “beyond the selection of examples to support linguistic argument or to validate a theor etical statement”; this method also contributes to tri ggering unexpected conc lusions abo ut the language. Although driven by th e justification of certain hypothesis, this approach is more open and less cond itioned than the others. As claimed by Tognini-Bonelli (2001:84), within this perspec tive the whole data is conceived as a unit and the analysis intends to cover the corpus evide nce comprehensively, as I will try to do in the current study. 5.3.2. Which corpus should be used? Once the general type of corpus and approach have been stated, we have t o decide which corpus in particular will meet our research requirem ents. The first and most obvious question is: is there an existing corpus that we can use? there are corpora which hav e been designed in other technical fields such as The study  83 the Corpus of Professional English (CPE), a 20-million-word computerized database of English used by professionals in science and technology in twenty- two domains such as biology, chemistry, engineering, mathematics, medicine, and physics or the Student Engineering English Corpus (SEEC) of nearly two million words used by Mudraya (2006) , which repre sent s engineering lexis encountered in English-language. However, to my knowledge, there is not an equivalent corpus of architecture. Beside s the apparent lack of specific texts I had a further interest in compiling my own corpus to endow this study with a value-added asset. 5.3.3. A preliminary pilot corpus A preliminary pilot corpus was required to provide the general guidelines and basis for the creation of a representative corpus. A model corpus would throw some light on which are the most sali ent phenomena, what was to be look ed for, etc. and it would ultima tely prove the validity of the corpus as a tool for this particular analysis. Following this a priori motivation, a prelim inary collection of texts was withdrawn from architecture on line publications, a lis t provided by the Colexio de Arquitectos de Galicia . This initial search was based on electronic materials since it was assumed from t he beginning that this instrument would be accurate in capturing up-to-date mate rials and it would be expected to be closer to the real lingui stic environment of archit ecture professionals whose work is highly computerized and technology-dependent. The outcome was a corpus of 200,000 words. A qualitative ana lysis of the lexicon c ontributed to generating many linguistic insights on the printouts; some remarkable lexical phenomena were acknowledged, such as morphological neologisms The study  84 ( suburbanization , streetscape , beautification , eco-topian , starchitects , spec- builder , ultra-modish , urban-minded , dandified , everydayness , timeless ness , etc.), terms coined by the use of metaphors ( rocket -describing building shapes-, empty gesture or phalic overstatement -portraying a construction-, etc.), conversions ( to freelance , to interface , to trim , to green , etc.), loanwords ( protégé , repertoire , virtuoso , inferno , bravura moment , aficionado , etc.), Latinisms ( terra incognita , per aspera ad astra , exedra, etc.), use of compounding to coin new technical terms ( high-speed fibe-optic data lines , botton-up and non-linear feedback processes , pitched-roofed single-family house, etc . ), hybrids ( laisser-faire urbanism, architecture parlante, capuccino urbanism, etc .), personifications (“urban surf aces that tell stories”), and other processes. This pilot search confirmed some of the intuitions and expectations on the wide variety and creativit y shown in the lexis of AD and th e interest of characterizing this professional language to gether with the need of establishing clear-cut and documented param eters that would guarant ee corpus validity and reliability. 5.3.4. Criteria for corpus design After the first survey, a de finitive corpus was desi gned following three main features, namely representativeness, contem porariness and accessibility . These three qualities determined to a grea t extent the criteria for my corpus design: - Representativeness : size, topic, sources, level of technicality. - Contemporariness: current, real, up-to -date publications. The study  85 - Accessibility : genre, mode (press, online, free, computerized). 5.3.4.1. Representativeness and contemporariness The corpus to be used in this study had to accomplish “representativeness” and “contemporariness”; in order to repr esent what it was intended for, the requirement of size had to be seriously considered. The data bank ought to be large enough as to bring about a consider able amount of tokens to be examined and also to allow for generalizations to be derived from it; at the same time, however, the body of data could not be extr emely large as to prevent it from being analyzed qualitatively. A final figure of five hundred thousand words was acknowledged as suitable for the expec ted research needs (a “ small corpus” format according to the literature). The gener al topic of the text s to be collect ed was architecture, a subject matter that comprises many other related subareas (construction, urbanism, landscape arch itecture, building materials, green architecture, interior design, etc.). The level of technicality of the texts was determined by the genre; t he texts were meant to be cl oser to architects’ real communication rather than being mere technical inventories or treatises. Another constraint regarding repres entativeness and contemporariness is related to the sources. The texts ta ken as input needed to be acknowledged as representative by the very professi onal group whose disco urse was to be analyzed; that is, by the architects t hemselves. Thus the sources chosen are addressed to a readership of practiononers in the dom ain of architecture where they are highly renowned. In order to guarantee this requirement, we approached several Associations of Architects in Spain ( Colegi os de Arquitectos ) which are, to a great e xtent, familiar with international publications The study  86 and are the main and most prestigious reference as far as architecture is concerned in our country (this process will be described more in detail in the next section). Apart from the reliability, authenticity and currency of the sources, their diversity has to be highlighted as well. Even though national differences have been disregarded here, it has to be pointed out that the sources of the corpus are quite varied; although most of them are American, there were also publications from England, Ireland, Canada and Australia, a fact that contributes to a certain degree of diversity within th is register. I have not included as sources of the corpus those jour nals coming from non-English-speaking countries which use English as some sort of lingua franca , for they could add an additional dimension I di d not mean to go through in the current analysis. However, this does not mean that there might be some texts in the whole bulk of data written by a foreign author although such a circumstance has been considered marginal. Texts chosen are rather recent (2007-2008) and thus they will allow us to operate with updated materials, a very im portant fact when compiling a corpus of disciplinary texts as pointed out by Orna-Montesin os (2012:129) given the evident link of architecture with technology and design. 5.3.4.2. Accessibility The main concern of our corpus besides being representative is that of being made out of accessible sources (what Orna-Montesinos (2012:129) calls “availability”), that is, acce ssible to the professionals who work in architecture and people who are learning and teaching architecture and thus it will be guaranteed to be real, current, spread and alive, and that it will be up to its The study  87 community standards. Such accessibility has been achieved by means of the genre and the mode. Within architecture communication, I have chosen to focus on practical or applied texts, a kind of data which lies closer to architects’ daily language (as opposed to pure theoretical texts) as pointed out above. The genre chosen was the online press, mostly specialist-non-academ ic articles on architecture. I also included other subge nres, namely architectural review (a subgenre describes built proj ects usually targeted to professionals or people concerned with the architecture field), post-construction assessment, jury citation, interview, exhibition report, arch itecture book review, editorials, etc. Although this is a case of what Rowley-Jolivet and Campagna (2011:45) and Luzón (2005:28) would call “genre migrat ion” to the Web, since these are journals and magazines accesse d online, the texts retain most of the properties possessed in the older medium wh ich become adapted to the new one. Two other characteristics were ta ken into account to guarantee accessibility: on the o ne hand, the material included in the corpus is written, as opposed to spoken, and freely accessed on-line. The natu re of the current study does not seem to call for the inclus ion of oral discourse. Besides s poken discourse in architecture is usually linked to communication events which seem to be, at least a priori , less suitable for our purposes than those present in written material. The fact of working with electronic texts 19 contributes as well t o the accessibility requirement since they reach a much wider audience. 20 The electronic format also facilitated the te xts being computeriz ed. On the other hand, the texts included in the corpus are accessed for free (subscription 19 Using electron ic texts has some inherent co nstraints: the main ones ar e that texts are often ep hemeral: they might expire in th e website because of space rest rictions. Another “but” has to do w ith the little information provided ab out the editorial team on certain occasions. 20 As mentioned in Pearson (19 98:53) “electronic” w as an other mode di fferent from written and spoken: e- mail, discussions, etc. however, since our texts fo llo w the journal format, we will not say they are essentially different from w r itten ones. The study  88 materials are not fully accessible outside academic institutions, architecture offices and the like). Most journals sug gested by the architec ture associations had an electronic version and at least part of their materials were fully available; these were the texts I hav e selected to work with. The communicative setting established for these electronic journals is usually expert-t o expert and expert- initiates communication although the fact of being accessed openly online makes these materials available to ever yone interested in reaching them. 5.3.5. Collecting the data As has been noted above, I have addressed architecture associations in order to obtain a list of international online publications which are acknowledged in the architect’s community to be prestigi ous journals and magazines all over the world. More specifically, I contac ted the documentati on departments of the directory found in the CSCAE ( Consejo Superior de Col egios de Arquitectos de España ); 21 the listings provided 22 coincided in the following titles: 23  AIA Journal  Architecture in Australia  Architectural Digest  Architecture Magazine  Architectural Record  Architectural Review  Canadian Architect  Metropolis  RIBA Journal Out of each journal, a bulk of approxim ately forty thousand words was extracted resulting in an overall amount of 359.150 wo rds, a figure that accounts for the main part of the corpus. Full texts we re retrieved excludi ng pictures and 21 The assistance of the Colegi o de Arquitectos del Ebro is greatly ackno wledged. 22 I asked for the most prestigious and widely read An glo-Sa xon journals according to their expertis e. 23 Some of them coincide with Caballero’s (2002) sourc es, namely Architectural Review , Architecture in Australia and Architectura l Record . The study  89 captions up to a number of 569 texts. All the texts are preceded by correlative numbers and show their website addresse s and dates of compilation (most of them range from January to June 2007 except for t he last one, which was compiled in December 2008). 24 This was the amount of texts I could gather from those online journals and magazines in a proportioned way (I could retrieve more texts from some of t hem but not from all). In or der to rea ch the figure of half a million words a se condary group was added to this primary one; the latter is made of publications related to the former by means of “suggested or favourite links”, that is, they are online publications that are in turn acknowledged by some of the “primary” on es. To be more precise, twelve more architecture websites were included obtai ning a final inventor y of twenty one journals. This secondary group provided texts that are in general less institutional and targeted for architectu re students/practitioners therefore it complements the first set of te xts. These are the sources:  Archeire: Irish Architecture Online  Archinect  Architecture Show Magazine  Architecture Week  Archnews  Archpaper  Death by architecture  Dwell  Gabion- Hugh Pearman  Icon Magazine  New London Architecture  Building Design The second group contributed to an out come of 146.499 words (about twelve thousand per journal), thus completing an ov erall figure slightly o ver half a million 24 This difference in date is du e to the fa ct that the last j ournal was initially Volume 5 ; it w as replaced by Building Des ign because Volume 5 offered no information whatsoever on the public ation itself in the website and this meant a d iffe rence regarding the others. Building Design w as taken from the same sources as the rest. The study  96 Ambiguity : It is a double entendre, an enigmatic or equivocal characte ristic that appears in art, literature and architecture. (2004:4) Animate : It means to give life or make lively. When heard in architectural debate, the term usually refers to the need to breathe life into a drawing or a design. (2004:6) Apart from these two sources, I will be labeling “technical” those words cited in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) under the labels arch, carpentry, build and eng , as is the case with cantilever and batten : Cantilever : Arch . “A kind of bracket or support of stone, wood, or iron, whose length is many times its breadth and m ore than t wice its depth, which projects from the wall of a building for the support of a balcony, the upper members of a cornice, eaves of a house, etc.; also attrib., a s in cantilever cornice, p rinciple”. Batten : Carpentry & Build . “A pi ece of squared timber, not more than 7 inches broad and two and a half inches thick, used for flooring, and as a support for laths, etc.; a scantling. (The length m ay be anything over 6 feet; shorter pieces are known as batten-ends).” Technical terms will include thos e lexical itmes which are morphologically derived from the former, although they might not be listed in the ODA, Archispeak or OED as technical, e.g. Niemeyer-like , anti- marquee , arch- designer, Archigram-inspired , windowless , window dressing, precast alluminum panels, Jacobean oakwall p anels, palladiam window, thermal bridging, surveillance equipment firefighting , etc. Architecture is a wide-embracing field and it might be analyzed from many perspectives as shown in t he definition given by th e OED and thus there are many terms related to each of these senses: - Building typologies : The art or science of building or constructing edifices of any kind for human use. Regarded in this wide application, a rchitecture is divided into civil, ecclesiastical, naval, military, which deal respecti vely with houses and other buildings (such as bridges) of ordinary utility, churches, ships, fortification. - Architecture as an “art” : But architecture is sometimes regarded so lely as a fine art. - The craft and technique : The action or process of building. arch. - The built object : concr. Architectural work; st ructure, building. - Architectonic styles : The specia l method or ‘style’ in accordance with which the details of the structure and ornamentation of a building a re arranged. The study  97 These terms include construction typolog ies, styles, materials or building structures that will al so be analyzed (as in the material called emperador marble ). I will also study some technica l terms which belong t o disciplines intimately related or even pertaining to architecture, such as Physics, Engineering, Art, Geology, Chemistry, Design (Int erior Design, Industrial Design, Urban Design, Landscape Design, etc.) as in Lucite lamp : (1937) “A proprietary name for a solid, transparent pl astic that is a methyl methacrylate resin; perspex”, (<<http://www.oed.com>>, last accessed 16/12/2012). I will also take into account as input of this study, at least initially, nonce- formations ( ultra-plush, media room) and words coined rec ently even if they belong to general language -especially t hose in between inverted commas, that is, those which are acknowledged as n once formations by its very users- ( customization, cyberspace ), loanwords ( á la Home Depot, beaucoup de goût, cabernet sauvignon, bouilla iss e, bouilotte, chiaroscuro, espaces libres, hamman, gaandereij, flâneur ), compounds made out of loanwords (as in Vierendeel trussers where the proper name of a Be lgian engineer and architect is used attributively with reference to a type of girder int roduced by him in 1896 (<<http://www.oed.com>>, last accessed 16/12/201), semantic neolog isms and terminologizations ( Sisyphean task, shimmering skins, Gherkins, Japanese box, urban acupuncture , etc.), loanwords with semantic neology (e.g. Genius Loci , in the OED it is defined as “the presidi ng deity or spirit” but in architecture it gains a different nuance: “in geography, landscape ar chitecture and architectural design, genius loci is now accepted as denoting "spirit or essence o the place" in Archispeak (2004:88), Latinisms ( affi davit, ad hoc, bona fides, gravitas), etc. The study  98 Once the target and the criteria to identify the input have been discussed, I had to establish the methodolog ical means to isolate them, that is, the tools to filter the raw material. The design of a database was c onsidered as the best modus operandi. The advantages of this process might be summarized as follows: - The categorization implied in the database works as an engine which drives the search making it target-oriented and systematic. - The database brings about an output which has boundaries and that is manageable. - The database selects and structures the raw material homogeneously. - Once the tokens are selected, def ined and class ified, they can be subject to a more sophisti cated linguistic analysis. - The computerized nature of the database will multiply the possibilities of carrying out many kinds of searc hes with a considerable saving of resources. Nevertheless, the use of data basing is far fr om being risk-free. The more our classification is tuned up, the more arbitrary it mi ght appear regarding some categories. Certain features ar e reasonably acknow ledged or easily supported. Some others escape the clea r-cut boundaries of classification and in order to be introduced in a chart, we sometimes have to decide where to draw the limits in a continuum wit h the extra risk of not being completely accurate. Other disadvantage is that the standardiza tion implied in the database prevents us from being flexible to include certai n phenomena we did not expect to find in an a priori consideration but which are never theless worth being analyzed. All these considerations lead us to point out two main remarks on database- The study  99 orientation: on the one hand, data basing will be our ma in source of material but not necessarily the only one withi n the corpus (there might be other searches executed directly on the whole bulk of the co rpus); on the other han d, the database will tend to be as much comprehensible as possible. Certain definitions which will be stretched if nece ssary to make sure re levant material is not left behind. Bearing all these premises in mind, a draft chart was initially drawn anticipating the categories which could be relevant for the study: TABLE VII. Draft chart DRA FT CH A RT Reference Listed in OED □ yes □ no Listed in Archit.dict. □ yes □ no Type of term □ Technical term □ Semitechnical □ General term Date PERIOD OF USAGE Definition Etymology Word-clas s □ Noun □ verb □ adjective □ adverb □ preposition □ other □ Word-formation process □ derivation □ compounding □ conversion □ backformation □ clipping □ blend □ acronym □ ex-nihilo □ other □ Prefixation □ class-changing □ noun base □ verb base □ adjec tive base □ class-maintaining □ Suffixation □ Forming nouns □ Forming Adjectives □ Forming verbs □ Forming adverbs □ N›N □ V›N □ ADJ›N □ N›ADJ □ V›ADJ □ ADJ›ADJ □ Other □ English Suff + foreing Bases □ Compound Nouns □ noun + noun □ verb + noun □ noun + verb □ verb + verb □ adj + noun □ particle + noun □ adverb + noun □ verb + particle □ phrase compound □ Compound Verbs □ Noun + verb □ verb + noun □ verb + verb □ adj + verb □ particle + verb □ adj + noun □ noun + noun □ Compound adjectives □ Noun + adj □ verb + adj □ adj + adj □ dv + adj □ noun + noun □ verb + noun □ adj + noun □ particle + noun □ noun + verb □ verb + verb □ adj/adb + verb □ verb + particle □ Compound adverbs □ Rhyme-motivated Compounds □ Ablaut-motivated compounds □ Neoclassical compounds Semantic field Type of loanword □ natural □ denizen □ allien □ casual Original language Graphic variation □ yes □ no Metaphoric use Pragmatic effect □ local atmosphere □ elevated style □ rhethoric variation □ brevity □ conceptual accuracy □ pun □ expressive effect Spanish equivalent Galician equivalent Further Commen ts Quotation The study  100 This chart was a proto-attempt of cat egorization that ought to be polished and further documented. Some sample searches were conducted to test the validity of these categories and some extra res earch was carried out to decide on the precise labeling to be handled; this proc ess led to a final database that will be explained in detail in the next pages. 5.3.6.1. Notes on the data base design Each token was assigned to a register ; each register has almost one hundred fields. I wanted to work with a singl e database and thus I included a large amount of fields; however, not all fields are applicable to every token, most of them are subfields withi n a field. The outcome was a database of 2.865 registers such as the following for airbrick : TABLE VIII. Screen capture of database I. The study  101 TABLE IX. Screen capture of database II. The following fields were thus established: 26 - Token : this box will be fill ed with the token subject to analysis, e.g. chamfered. - Reference : here we write the page number w here the token taken as an example was found, as p.100 for cham fered . - Journal : this is the reference of the journal from where the word was extracted, such as II.AA., t hat is, journal number two, Architecture in Australia. This is the table and codes used for journals: TABLE X. Codes for journals The AIA Journal I.AIA. Architecture in Australia II.AA. Architectural Digest III.AD. Architec t Magazine IV.AM. The Architectural Record V.ARD. The Architectural Review VI.ARW. Canadian Architect VII.CA. Metropolis VIII.MT. RIBA Journal IX.RJ. Archeire: Irish Ar chitecture Online X.IA. Archinect XI.AN. 26 Other problems raised by some of the fields will be dealt with later in the correspond ing section. The study  102 Architecture Show Magazi ne XII.AS. Architec ture Week XIII.AW. Archnews XIV.ANW. Archpaper XV.AP. Death by architecture XVI.DA Dwell XVII.DW. Gabion- Hugh Pearm an XVIII .HP. Icon Ma gazine XIX.IM. New London Architecture XX.NLA. Building design XXI.BD. - Listed in OED : As mentioned before, I will be using the Oxford English Dictionary as one of our main sources of information; this category tests whether the given token is lis ted or not in t his dictionary; the fact of not being listed may be due to several reasons : nonce-formations, neologisms whic h have not been yet lexicalized, highly technical items and foreign words. o First and second definitions: We have provided two fields for quoting the definition given by the OED in c ase t here is one because the maximum capacity of boxes is sometimes too small for the definition. The OED usually gives several definitions; I have intended, when possible, to opt for the one that best fitted the example chosen, if possible. o Date and Period of higer frequency : these data are only given when the word is listed in th e OED, a source that pr ovides the record dates. There might be some cases listed in the ODA and not in the OED where the date of emergence is given (for example, wit h the coming out of a movement, group, institut ion, etc. such as “Archigram” which was born in the early 60’s) and thus I have r egistered it as “circa 1960”. It is important to give a date in these cases even if it is approximate because this may allow us to classify a token as a neologism. Very few examples The study  103 have been dated by means of sources different from OED , ODA and Archispeak . - Listed in ODA: It stands for listed in the Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Lansdcape Architecture . o Def in ODA: If “yes” the definition or at le ast part of it is s hown; as before the box may be too small for t he definition to be shown at its full length. As I did with regard to th e OED, when more than one definition is provided, I have chosen the one that matches best the example quoted. - Listed in Archispeak : as mentioned above, this is a glossary of architectural terms which will also be handled. o Definition in Archispeak : As with the ODA, definitions here are given in a shorter version because of length restrictions. -Technical term: This category has been ticked when dealing with a technical term regarding architecture. Labels technical and semitechnical follow Alcar az Varo’s (2000:68-9) classification of te rms according to thei r technicality. The decision of classifying a token as technical or not might be sometimes controversial because these are by no means clear-cut categories. However, this categorization is very relevant fo r our study. I have decided to consider technical terms those which are listed in t he ODA or labelled as such in the OED such as astragal (p.273, VI.ARW.). - Semitechnical term : Words whose meaning fall within the domain of architecture despite the fact that thei r meaning is not obscure to non-specialists such as bridge deck (p.513, XIII.AW.). The study  104 - Other : this label refers to general term s, words whic h do not belong to technical or semitechnica l vocabulary and which have been included because they represent some term format ion device, such as the blend camcorder (p.403, VIII.MT.) - Etimology : This information is in most cases taken as well from the OED if the word is listed in it. The “etymology ” the same as the “source language” of tokens which are not cited in the OED have to be searched for in the internet when no other data is available and thus its reliability is put under certain reservation). In cases of compounds her e I have established the members as in laser-cut plywood=laser-cut + plywood (p.61, II.AA.). -Semantic field : This category will be filled only regarding architecture terms. The subcategories 27 considered will be the following: TABLE XI. Semantic categories - Neologism features : this is a yes/no field that aims at recording the existence of any type of neology 28 that will be later specified un der the different boxes. 27 Semantic hierarch y adapted from the Art and Architec ture Thesau rus , a project conducted b y the Getty Museum which gathers terms describing art, architecture , material cultur e and archival m aterial and which started in the 1970’s. Associated concepts facet Associated concepts Physical attributes facet Attributes and properties Design elements Color Styles and Periods facet Styles and periods Agents facet People Organizations Activities facet Disciplines Functions Processes and techniques Materials Facet Materials Objects Facet Furnishings and equipment Settlements and landscape Individual Buildings, building typology Elements in buildings The study  105 This taxonomy has been adapted from Gu ilbert’s (1975) classification which has ben already explained in section 4.5 above. o Semantic neology o Syntagmatical neology o Loanword neology. - Migration of terms : This tag is meant to ackno wledge a shift of terms from other professional languages or from the general language to architecture. - Field to field : cases where the shift occurs between two specialized areas, e.g. aficionado (p.9, I.AIA.) - General language to architecture language : e.g. layer , sheet . - Word-class : this category is self-explanatory. - Word-formation process : this box is ticked in case there is a word-formation process worth being analyzed. Here we have relied on Bauer’s (1983) labeling of the possible word-formation processes in English; the possibilities here are the following: o derivation (within it prefix ation, class-changing prefixation, class- maintaining prefixation, noun-base pref ixation, verb-bas e prefixation, adjective-base-prefixation). o suffixation (forming-nouns suffixation, fo rming-adjectives suffixation, forming-verbs suffixa tion, fo rming-adverbs suffixation). o compounding: in cases of compounding t h is feature would be ticked (yes). o Then this category will be further specified: Number of words (here the number of words making up the compound will be 28 Phonological neo logy has already b een ruled out for not being relevant in the present stu dy. The study  112 symbols which were not admitted in the dat abase) for this issue was out of the scope of the present study. When the OED does not list the word, I have conducted alternative searches. In ca ses of compounds, I have made overt their binary dimension in this box. W hen the source consulted for etymology was not the OED, I have mentioned so it in “further comment s”. “Phonetics” and “related words” boxes have proved to be irrelevant and thus I have decided to ignore them. The classification followed in “semantic field” has been simplified and adapted. In the category labeled “neo logism features”, I have taken 1850 as limit date. A word appearing af ter 1850 or acquiring a new meaning after this date according to the OED has a tick in th is box. This date may sound arbitrary and to a certain degree it is; a word might have entered a language after 1850 31 and be totally assimilated in the language. However, since I am interested in tracing the lexicon of architecture, a certain time spam was needed, and 1850 has been deemed to be a reasonable boundary. After being ticked as neologism, it is further spec ified whether it is semant ic, morphological, etc. The box called “word-formation process” is independent from that of syntagmatic neologism, that is, when a word-formation process is attested this box is ticked independently of it being recent or not. There are a set of examples with compounds which also undergo derivation that will hav e to be analyzed more in detail. In general, with these cases we hav e ticked both boxes of compounding and derivation to ident ify this group and deci de over their status later on. I have included many “compounds” that some aut hors do not consider so because of their spelling form since they are lin ked by a hyphen: however, I have decided 31 Some corpus-base d studies like Cannon ’s (1996), suggest this time referenc e to analyze recent borrowings in Engl ish; Ayto (1991) also cla ims that most words borro w e d in the last couple of h undred years have not ye t become th oroughly anglic ized and that is w hy I have t aken 1850 as a ti me boundary for loanw ord ne ology . The study  113 to leave behind those meas urements expressions like 600,000-square-foot because they are very frequent and the st ructure is basically repeated with different figures. I have added a field calle d “analogical formation”. This concept is taken from Bauer (1983:96) and it does not belong to word-formation; here a new word is coined in analogy with another, such as doncrete is an analogy of concrete or cemeteryscape after landscape . There are just very few cases of hybrid combinations. Again, I have to hi ghlight that only acronyms referring to materials, processes, systems, et c. have been included: proper names representing institutions, design offi ces, etc. have not been considered relevant. Loanwords have been accounted for even if they have entered the language at an early stage because I w ant to make a portrayal of the composition of the lexicon to characterize it. The cl assification given implies a certain level of subjectivity. In general I have tended to classify as “natural” those loanwords that enter ed English at an early stag e; those which keep their foreign form with a well-known meaning (e ven if it just for experts) have been classified as “denizens”. Some other t hat are rarer have been classified into “casuals” and “alliens”. In case of “cal que” (usually a feature given by the dictionary) I have ticked only the box of calque, not that of loanword. Foreign spelling is ticked when there remain fo reign accents or other foreign graphics (such as “ç”) or the word has not been alter ed at all in its original foreign form. In the box called “source” I have simplified cases such as Modern Latin or Classical Latin into simply “Latin”. T he box labeled “pragmatic effect” may be regarded as subjective: in cases of loanw ords covering terminological gaps we have named them “conceptual accuracy”; in cases that fall into style we have alternated from “elevated style” to “r hetoric variation”; loanwords connected The study  114 with the description of a place have been tagged as “local atmosphere” and a low number of borrowings have been cla ssified into “humour”. The labels corresponding to figurative style have brought about some added difficulties; I have restricted or simplified them. One of the facts that is ex plained in “further comments” is when the definition in t he OED does not match those in the ODA and Archispeak . The following can be regarded as t he final outcome, exemplified by means of the word sick building : Token : sick building Reference : p .538 Journal : XIV.ANW. Listed in OED : yes Def in OED (1) : a buil ding, typically a large, older, relativel y poorly maintained office building, in which occup ants report an incre ased incidenc e of non-sp ecific upper respira tory and other symptoms Def in OED (2): which have been attributed to factors su ch as temperature, hum idity, indoor air pollutants, noise le vels, and visual display unit s ; also in exten ded use. Listed in ODA: yes Def in ODA: ( syndrome) building having disa greeable or unacceptabl e environmental charact eristic s. Listed in Archispeak --- Def in Archispeak --- Technical term : yes Semitechnical term --- Other --- Date : 1983 Period of more frequency : 1983-1 997 Etimology : sick + building *Semantic field: attribute s and properties Neologism features : yes Semantic neologism --- Syntagmatic neologism: yes Loan w ord neologism --- Migration of terms --- Field to Field --- General language to arch. --- Word class : noun Word-form ation : yes The study  115 Derivation --- Prefixation --- Class-chang ing --- Class-maintaining --- N base Pref. --- V base Pref. --- ADJ base Pref. --- Suffixation --- Forming N suff. --- Forming ADJ suff. --- Forming V suff. --- Forming ADV suff. --- Compounding: yes Number of w ords: two words Hyphen --- Embedded compound --- MOD in larger compound --- Compound Noun: yes Compound Verb --- Compound ADJ --- Compound ADV --- N + N: yes V + N --- N + V --- V + V --- ADJ+V: yes Ptcle + N --- ADV + N --- V + Ptcle --- Phr Compound --- Phr + N --- Ptcle + V --- N + ADJ --- V + ADJ --- ADJ + ADJ --- ADV + ADJ --- ADJ/ADV + V --- Rhyme-motiv ated compound --- Ablaut motivated compo und --- Neoclassical compound --- Hybrid combination --- Conversion --- N-V conversion --- V-N conversion --- ADJ-N conversion --- ADJ-V conversion --- Backformati on --- Clipping --- Blend --- Acrony m --- Ex-nihilo --- Analogical formation --- Loan w ord --- Type of loanword --- Calque --- Loan expression --- Foreign spelling --- Source --- Pragmatic effec t --- Varitions in spelling --- Main results  116 Example of v ariation --- Use of italics --- Use of inverted commas --- Use of slash --- Use of periphrasis --- Periphrasis expression --- Metaphoric use: yes Type of Metaphor: personi fication Single occurrence: yes Spanish equivalent: edificio enferm o Galician equivalent: edificio enfermo Further comm ents --- Quotation: This last thought is most important, espe cially since we’ r e comi ng out of an age of sick buildings. * This category is only applied to technical and semitechni cal words. 6. Main results 6.1. Word-formation analysis of the data 6.1.1. Compounding As mentioned above, com pounding is one of the most productive devices used in the creation of new word s in Englis h, a tendency also attested in the coinage of terms in special langu ages (Leech 1972:136; Quirk et al 1985:1534); therefore, it might be inferred that its role in the lexic on of architecture discourse has to be highlighted in this study. Some of the features t hat make compounds such an attractive lexical tool ar e, among others, their conciseness, interpretability, compactness, sem antic transparency and high productivity. When analysing the phenomenon of compounding in t he corpus, I have attested what Meys (1975:3) calls “dynamic hum an unitizing capacity”: a remarkable tendency towards compacting the lexicon. T hus our attention here falls not so much on compounds as morphological units but on compounds being the lexical consequence of a tendency toward s “zipping” information, especially around technical concepts. According to Meys (1975:4), this process of organization represented by means of compounding enables us to reduce the Main results  117 number of symbols and therefore helps us in remem bering information material. According to Pastor (2011:57), the la ck of verbs and prepositions in compounding structures causes a loss of explicit textual information and thus a higher degree of shared know ledge between interlocutors is required in order t o convey meaning; this feature may sugges t t hat compounding might work as a kind of gate-keeping device. In this section, I will aim at describing the lexical material encompassed under the reach of compounding in order to draw a profile of the most prototypical compound st ructures in the lexicon of architecture. After going through the literature on co mpounding, there seems to be a high degree of controversy on what a compound is and this issue brings further difficulties when trying to squeeze co mpounds into database dynamics. The same as Adams (1988:58), I have opted as well for being “fai rly liberal” when regarding certain collocations as inst ances of compounding. Warren (1978:57) deals also with the difficulty of classi fying compounds that have been withdrawn from a corpus and she includes under that label examples, such as London home or garden gate that, in the opinion of so me scholars, are not really compounds but noun phrases; Warren c hooses to use the term compound “more freely” that other linguists. Since the interest of the current study is t o analyze the lexicon of architecture discourse, I will be considering as compounds many complex terms that are conceptual units dealing with architecture and architecture-related i ssues that have been found in the corpus, some of them being clear compounds and some others being arguably technical or semitechnical phrases . Some authors such as Soler et al (2007:75) consider some of these complex expr es sions as usual collocations which Main results  118 present a certain amount of st ability wi thout being lexicaliz ed; its degree of idiomacity is variable and they should be placed in a continuum. These so- called collocational patterns have been attested to be quite fruitful for the elaboration of dictionaries and termi nological databases, according to Soler et al (2007:75). Our classification into compounding wi ll be influenced by morphological evidence and listedness in dictionaries but also in ductive generalizations from clear cases, interpretations based on technical kno wledge and on conceptual technical units. I will also give sp elling a more relevant role than most accounts do since, as pointed out by Bauer (1998), to a certain extent, spelling might reflect linguistic intuitions towards “wordness”. 6.1.1.1. Compoundi ng configuration As predicted, I identified a total number of 1420 32 (one word and two word) compounds within the corpus which hav e been included in the database to be analyzed more in detail. M any of these so-called “compounds” (as pointed out before, our criteria hav e been rather open) are tec hnical and semitechnical words; however, I have also included gene ral compounds since the vocabulary of a given professional language is also conformed by means of it. As table 10 shows, most compounds gathered from the corpus belong to the nominal category: TABLE XII. Compound configuration regarding word-class N Adj Phr V Adv Total 977 391 46 3 3 1420 32 I have included her e only one- w ord and two- wo rd compounds. L onger strings (such as Belgian bo nd- brick wall ) have been left out side these figures. Main results  119 FIGURE 5. Compound configuration CO M PO UND C O NFI G URA TI O N Ad v e r b s Ve r b s Ph r a s e s A d ject iv es Nouns Out of a total number of 1420 compounds i dentified in the database, the vast majority belong to the category of Noun, namely 977. Adjectival compounds are the second group with 391 ex amples, followed by phrases (46), verbs (3) and adverbs (3). 6.1.1.2. Nominal compounding It is not surprising that nominal co mpounding is the most common word- formation process in the corpus since th is is the type of structure which is considered to be the most representative and frequent in the literature as far as compounding is concerned. In order to be able to analyze nominal compounds , I have decided to divide the over all bulk of examples into tw o categories: N + N (373 tokens) and Adj + N (478 tokens) which are the ones that show the highest number of occurrences. Nouns performed by neoclassical compounds will be further explained in a different sect ion devoted to neoclassic al compounds regardless their word-class since they are a group which is worth being analyzed globally due to its characteristic features. The remaining minor types within nominal compounding will be handled after N + N and Adj + N subtypes: Main results  120 TABLE XIII. Nominal compounding NOMINAL COMP OUNDING N + N AD J + N NEOCLASS OTHE R 373 478 56 70 FIGURE 6. Nomi nal compounding N om i nal C om poundi ng N e o cl a ssi ca l Ot her N + N Ad j + N 6.1.1.2.1. N + N compounds Out of 373 N + N compounds that have been identified in the corpus, one word sequences will be examined separately fr om two word sequenc es, that is, on the one hand, compounds that are graphically represent ed as a single unit, with or without a hyphen ( groundloop , plate-glass , T-figure , etc.) and, on the other hand, those that are written as two separate elements ( industrial park, satellite city, tree house ). In the course of this analysis, I will often refer to this difference since one word items are usually closer to the general idea of lexical unit or word whereas by means of adding more elements their ambiguity towards phrase status increases. Main results  121 6.1.1.2.2. Several key co ncepts regarding compounds Let us now analyze certain key aspects of compounding which have been previously mentioned in th is study in order to check their importance within Nominal compounds; those concepts are, namely, lexicalizat ion, listedness, date of coinage, spelling, concise ness, compactness and recursivity. 6.1.1.2.2.1. Lexicalization and listedness As explained by Meys (1975:5), the original choice of a combination of elements in a compound is not arbitrary, that is, it is motivated in terms of the meanings of the constituent elements. Once the co mbination becomes a “conventionalized sign”, the overall meaning may chan ge independently from the origina l meanings of its elements and t he word may become part of the lexicon. The combinations that reach this level of idiom acity and lexical stability are usually listed in dictionaries, s uch as skyscraper (1883), made out of the words sky and scraper which together convey a high buildi ng of many storeys such as those characteristic of American cities. Howeve r, there are terms which did not reach that level of idiomacity (and they mi ght never do so) and, nevertheless, I have analyzed them despite not bei ng listed in one of the three main sources I have been using to design the database: OED, ODA and Archispea k . One has to bear in mind that they may not be lis ted because these sequences are not institutionalized yet, but they might eventually become so and thus I have considered compounds words such as doorset or icon-builder, although they are not analyzed as such anywhere but which display the main morphological features and semantic tec hnical burden of other expre ssions which are indeed considered to be so; I have listed under the label of compounding expressions like anchoring system or urban belt which might be seen as simple collocations; Main results  128 for example, street furniture (1836); this word refers to anything erected on pavements or streets, including bollards, railin gs, lamp-posts, pissoirs, post- boxes, street-signs, etc., that is, it is a Town Planning jargon item. Two common words, such as picture and window are combined in a compound (1864), picture window in order to mean a large window cont aining a single undivided pane of glass. Roof garden (1893), according to the OED, is an established term that names a type of garden, or co llection of plants in large pots on the flat roof of a house or other building. T he OED points out that th is term may be even more specific by referring to a place for eating or entertainment sit uated on the roof of a building. Another compound listed in the ODA (2006 :428) is the combination of the words Land + Art which recalls the 1960's and 1970's experiments made with earth-moving equipment to creat e works of art, also known as Earth art. None of these expressions ( Land art or Earth art ), which are well-known in art and architecture, are listed in the OED yet. A similar combination occurs in Landscape architecture (1840), which entails the design of gardens, parks, campuses, cemeteries, etc. for public leisure according to the ODA data (2006:428). Other terms listed in the ODA, which are a priori more technical, are drip mould, crown molding, thatch roof, Scissor tru ss, sawtooth rooftop, screen façade , etc., most of w hich ar e not listed in the OED. 6.1.1.2.2.3. Transparency and interpretability There are many expressions in the corpus which may be considered compounds, collocates or simply noun phrases which ar e not found in the OED , ODA or Archispeak . Some of them refer to diffe rent materials and equipments; their meaning is rather transparent and ma ybe that together wit h the specific ity of their members make them be outside listings although many of them occur Main results  129 more than once in the corpus: insulated glass unit, cardboard, polycarbon sheeting, corrugated-iron sheeting, board-and-batt en siding, BIPV system, wood-frame, steel reinforc ement, wind-generator, sawt ooth rooftop, stormwater drain, cast-iron column, steel reinforcement, tatami-m at floor , etc. Some of these are really technical, such as polyvinyl butyl, a combination of two highly specific chemical terms, which does not o ccur in dictionaries as a compound: Insulated diffuse glass laminated on the inside with polyvinyl butyl , removing another 60 percent of the daylight. (p.405, VIII.MT.) Another interesting example referri ng to materials may be found in the expression channel glass : Resting on top is the dramatically cantilevered gallery, a boxlike form wrapped on three sides in channel glass . (p.172, IV.AM.) This term, which is not listed in the OED, ODA or Archispeak, occurs three times in the whole corpus, a fact that shows that it is not a mere nonce formation or coincidence but the name of a concept regarding materials: the information found in architecture websites defines channel glass as a translucent U-shaped cast glass. Another non-listed compound which re fers to a type of material is Type K cement . Although this term occurs in only one text of the corpus, it is worth highlighting it; it represents those co mpound terms which ar e probably born as a brand name and in the course of time might become polularized turning into a common designation: The roof and floor slabs use Type K cement , an expansive cement used to create shrinkage-compensating concrete. (p. 512, X III.AW.) This lexical item is not ye t widely spread (and it may we ll never be) since it is escorted by an explanatory roundabout expression, as if the author were aware of its neological or opaque natur e. Another co mpound containing ce m ent which Main results  130 is not listed in the OED is fibre-cement (probably this term would be collected in a dictionary of materials or engineering); this word occurs twice in the corpus and its translation in Spanish would be fibrocemento : Clad in multicoloured fibre-cement boards, the flat facades are punct uated by 105 windows. (p. 469, X.IA.) There are other compounds which are not listed in the OED whose meaning is to a great extent recove rable from the meanings of their elements, as in occupancy sensor: Office lighting is m onitored by occupancy sensors or photoelectric controls, while outdoor banner projectors use minimal electrical p ower via light-emitting-diode (LED) lamps. (p.530, XIV.ANW.) There are more abstract or metaphoric compound terms which are recurrent in the corpus, such as building performance , a concept that occurs many times in our material and whose interpretability might keep it away from being listed: “An increased awareness of passive design strategies has begun to enhance building performance and human productivity. This is a key question for designers: What can b e done before technological components are addressed?” (p.538, XIV.ANW.) It might be considered that this term is per ceived as a lexical unit as to be a modifier into a larger compound: By helping architects realize this goal, building-performance design has proven itself to be a critically important part of the profession. (p.24, I.AIA.) There is also a compound which occurs more than once, namely city-making, which is defined in the corpus as follows: city-making is more than a matter of planning and design. It also con cerns the deepest values and sources of meaning by which people try to live. This is a city’s spiritu al dimension – its ‘ soul ’ . (p.438, IX.RJ.) A more tangible concept, lighting design , is also present more than once in the corpus although it is not listed in dicti onaries as a usual collocate or compound: The interior lighting design includes a network of electronic sensing devices and timers that optim ize daylight harvesting and program zone light ing controls in all buildings. (p.530, X IV. ANW.) Main results  131 There are other collocates which occur m ore than once and which refer to ambiguous or hybrid concepts, such as architect-developer , design-bu ild , gallery-bridge or artist-architect. All the above examples are not “words” from the point of view of some dictionaries; however, as mentioned before, the fact that some of them are written as one si ngle unit linked by a hyphen highlights their compacting purpose so common in te chnical fields where the speaker is willing to flee from the use of periphras is towards “wordness”. Many of these examples are ad-hoc compounds that follow a patte rn where gaps are filled by members of the same semantic cat egory rather than being a lexicalized sequence of words. Some ot hers are strings of nouns in a premodification position that are linked by means of a hyphen responding to the demands of context. Some other, alt hough occurring as independent words, were recorded several times in different texts, a fact that might point out to the beginning of a new compound formation. 6.1.1.2.2.4. Spelling Many of the compounds I hav e gathered in the corpus are link ed by means of a hyphen; as mentioned in the literature, the fact of being linked by means of hyphen does not automatically confer them compound st atus and it might just reflect the intention of writing a concept as a single word; however, most of times these structures are in premodify ing position and are linked by a hyphen in order to make it clear the structure of t he modification pattern. Hyphenation is not always a consistent device since some compounds show variations in spelling and in the corpus, that is, they may occur with or wit hout a hyphen such as curtain-wall, checkerboar d, rooftop, straw-bale or black-water , among others. Main results  132 Some others have a graphic dependence of the hyphen to be understood as expressions such as all those concept s represented by a capital letter and a word: T-wall, I-beam, L-figure, L- plan, T-figure, S-curve or H-pile . Apart from the hyphen, some words in the corpus are linked by a slash sign; I mention this here although m any authors may reas onably argue that those elements that are linked by a slash are simply adhoc combinations and thus they are by no m eans compound structures; although, in broad terms, I agree on this point, I would like to ment ion its occurrence. The slash is used quite often in architecture texts in order to build term s such as the ones we have just mentioned and this might respond to the “highly visual learning style of the profession” (Orna-Montesinos (2012:139) of architects which may sometimes lead to the utterance of expr essions clos e to visual and schematic language. The graphic burden of the slash has also connonations related to hybridation, copula and multipurposeness, concepts that are deeply rooted in architecture, especially when describing sp aces and their functions; there are 13 one-word compounds linked by a slash, namely the following: architecture/architect client/architect passa ge/stasis beam/column client/manufa c turer Ramp/walk bedroom/bathroom greenhouse/vivarium Terrace/forecourt belvedere/bar gymnasi um/auditorium chapel/cemetery history/ contemporaneity Take, for example, the expression belvedere/bar , which combines the name of two different building typologies with two different functions ( belvedere : according to the OED, “A raised turret or lantern on the top of a house, or a summer-house erected on an eminence in a garden or pleasure-ground, for the purpose of viewing the surrounding scene ” in order to define a space and a bar): Main results  133 To the left of the entrance is a walkway to an open-sided living/dining area, with steps leading up to a ro und kitchen. Suspended above both is a belvedere/bar that Skilken calls his st orm room—a plac e to enjoy rain y weather or a full moon through the glass ceiling vault. (p.119, III.AD.) As is the case with neologisms in general, compounds may also occur in between inverted commas; in some exam ples this could be taken as a “markedness” sign, that is, a device to mark a “nonce use” or some rule- bending creativity example such as façade-ectomy: Some historic preservationists might decry Foster's solution at the Hearst Tower as a " facade-ectomy " in which a dramatically new and different structure is created behind a historic exter ior wall, leaving it standing as a generally nonstructural, disembodied elem ent. (p.521 XIII.AW.) This word is defined in word-spy 36 as the removal of the facade of a building to use as the front of a new or re constructed building, that is, façade-ectomy is already acknowledged outside its use in this corpus; this neologism metaphorically plays by means of analogy wi th other clinical terms that contain - ectomy -such as for example vasectom y- by applying it as a suffix to express an architectonic intervention as some sort of mutilation to gain a more dramatical effect of the word. Another com pound structure that appears in between inverted commas is cheesegrater , as a metaphor of the shape of a building: They've just started to build Richard Rogers' Leadenhall Tower, a.k.a the " cheesegrater ". This tall narrow wedge of a building, very close to the Gherkin, will comfortably outstrip both it and Tower 42, rising to 737 feet. (p.596, XVIII.HP.) In this case, the use of inverted co mmas would repond rather to the quoting character of the expression. Another example of a compound ocurring in between inverted commas is “glitter-concre te”, which is assumed to be some sort of material and the wr iter is probably aware of a neologism being coined on the spur of the moment and thus marks it with the inverted commas: 36 Wordspy ( <<http://www.wor dspy.com>>, last accessed 01/12/2 011 ) is a source suggested by the “Asociación Españ ola de Estudios Lexicográf icos” (www.aelex.org). Main results  134 As we approach we are unbalanced by ambiguity, standing in the open air, within a raised volume of smooth, mica-flecked, " glitter-concrete ", with simultaneous views out underneath the gallery. (p.465, X .IA.) 6.1.1.2.2.5. Conciseness, co mpactness and recursivity From a syntactic point of view, compound s are the contracted equivalent of a phrase, that is, a way of compacting the semantic information of a chain into a smaller lexical element, as expressed by Levi (1978:57). This is favored part ly due to the principle of right-headedness that the vast majority of compounds follow together with the propert y of recu rsivity that triggers two interrelated phenomena: some compounds have the ability to be in turn modifiers in larger compounds and many compound structures display embedded s tructures. This is not different regarding compounds in architecture discourse where we find around 83 one-word compounds which are in turn modifiers in lar ger compounds and 99 which are not. Only eleven two-word compounds are modifiers in longer compound s, that is, the possibi lity of j oining longer compounds diminishes as the compound increases its length. Some examples include satellite city as in satellite c ity expansion, Shingle style as in Shingle style houses or Portland cement in Portland cement mortar : “Absorption” is concerned with satellite city expansion and regional sponges. It will look at increased pr essure triggering the development of previously ignored ambiguous and interstitial space. (p.102, II.AA.) The Palladian window, obligatory for all Shingle Style houses , is centered in the master bedroom. (p.107, III.AD.) Twenty-five years ago, contractors, engineers, and owners typically chose to repoint with a strong Portland cement mortar , so a s to avoid ever having to do the work again. (p.4, I.AIA.) As pointed out before, in one-word compounds I have include d compounds that are wr itten as a single word; howev er, within this sequence we may find an “embedded” compound, that is , a compound that functions as one Main results  135 of the next node compound members. In the group of one-word N + N compounds there are a fe w of them that show this property: cementkingpi n single-resident-occupancy condo-cumga llery design-bid-build web-site-design terrace/forecourt stainless- steel-clad designer-architect- terra-cotta-tile engin eer-poet -philo sopher-anticipator petro-hydroc arbon Terra-cotta-tile is a type of tile, made of terra-cotta , a compound whose original meaning is almost faded and which ente rs into combination to form new compounds. Many of the two-word com pounds contain embedded com pounds, namely 88; they could be taken as noun phrases, such as polycar bon sheeting, corrugated-iron sheeting, Jacobean-strapwork ceiling, fluorescent-tube lighting, board-and-batten siding, central- plan interior, curtain-wall extrusion, crazy-quilt façade, High-Tech style, sawtooth rooft op, fibreglass insulation, polyester-wool blend, matte-aluminum pane l, wood-frame farmhouse or reclaimed-chestnut floor . As we can see, the tendency towards compacting elements together with the recursivity faculty causes a sense of “lexical dens ity” in these texts which is a characteristic of techni cal and specialized texts in general ter ms, as pointed out by González Puey o and Curado (2003:46) when dealing with medical technical discourse and scientific texts in general. 6.1.1.2.2.6. Semantics Once I have described some rema rkable facts about N + N compounds in the corpus from a morphosyntactic perspective, I will now be concerned in the following pages with their semantic features. I wil l start by dividing the material included in the database accordin g to what may be called “degrees of technicality”. As pointed out in previ ous sections, the vocabulary found in Main results  136 technical texts may be divided into te chnical, semitechnical and general words (Alcaraz: 2000: 68-9); the database focu ses mainly on the first and second group. Technicality has been the first broad criterion to classify the bu lk of expressions from a semantic point of vi ew; according to the data, most of the words analyzed are semitechnical; the next step is to classify the semantics of technical and semitechnical compounds according to some more specific labels, namely the ones displayed in the table below with figures representing one-word compounds and two-word compounds: TABLE XVI. Semantic labels There are compounds conveying attr ibutes and properties such as slab-edge or bay-front ; design elements like handrail or Aubusson tapestry; styles and periods expressions include Russian Constructivism or Pet Architecture . The semantic category “people” co mprises instances such as dome builder or masterplanner; compound terms for organizations such as artist-in-residence studio or interior-design organization are rather scarce; “disciplines” label contains words such as digital design or interior design . Under “function” we may find thermal performance or urban regeneration. The heading “materials” 1WC 2WC Physical attributes Attributes and properties 28 6 Design elements 6 10 Color 0 0 Styles and Periods Styles and periods 1 3 Agents People 11 5 Organizations 0 1 Activities Disciplines 4 10 Functions 8 9 Processes and techniques 10 10 Materials Materials 31 15 Objects Furnishings and equipment 4 9 Settlements and landscape 3 13 Building typology 20 18 Elements in buildings 44 80 Main results  137 displays quite a number of examples such as poured concrete or driftwood . “Furnishings and equipment” are repres ented by means of words such as wrecking ball or photo-sensor ; “settlements and landscape” labels terms like garden city or urban sprawl; under “individual building , building typology”, we may find compounds such as dovecote or capsule home; elements in building s include barrel-vaulted gallery or wind ow-wall. There are terms which have been classified under “furniture” like Thonet bentwood chair or Lucite desk. The more relevant categories r egarding the frequency criterion are displayed as follows: FIGURE 8. Semantic labels As recorded in this chart, many terms are related to nam ing “elements in buildings”, which is quite logical sinc e most texts in the corpus describe architecture outcomes and their constituti ng elements; materials are also quite frequent since they are used when describ ing buildings and cons tructions; the category referred to as properties and attributes is also quite commonly found. A ttr.&Pro Des.El. Sty.&Per. People Org. Disc. Func. Proc.&Tech . Mat. Fur.Equ. Sett.&land. Build.Typ Elem.Build. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Semantic Labels Main results  240 tech-savvy ( technology + savvy ), boogazine ( book + magaz ine ) or loco ( lo w + comsumption ), this last example occurs more than once in the corpus: So they set about designing their L ocoplug and Locooutlet (“ Loco ” stands for low consumption).(p.371, VIII.MT.) There are also instances of blending which are mo re directly related to architecture, such as the term PoMo ; this occurs twice in the corpus and stands for Post Modernism, being registered in 1987 according to the OED: Little to see therefore of Edge City shopping malls or PoMo office buildings; little to read of the important cultural influ ence of, say, Meier and Eisenman or of Holl, Williams & Tsien, Morphosis and Moss. (p.262, VI.ARW.) Another blend, tensegrity (1959), results from truncating the compound tensile integrity , in or der to create a term for a new syncretic quality that the OED defines as the characteristic pr operty of an stable three-dimensional structure consisting of members unde r tension that ar e contiguous and members under compression that are not: who worked with Norman Foster on the Reichst ag project, and New York–based sculptor Kenneth Snelson, an innovator in tensegrity structures, who will advise on the design of the tower’ s broadcast antenna. (p.557, XV.AP.) The combination of glue and lamination creates glulam (1953), a building material consisting of laminati ons of timber glued together: Clad in finished cedar board and comprised of glulam beam s and col umns, the primary structural system is meant to im ply a First Nations post- and-beam architecture. (p.328, VII.CA.) Another material that has been named through blending is plexiglas (1935), defined in the OED as a proprietary nam e for a tough transparent thermoplastic used as a substitute for glass which is probably the result of truncating pleximeter with glass and thus it is writt en with capital letters: A cylindrical lattice of fiberglass-reinfo rced polyester-resin tubes encircles a dru m clad in translucent Plexiglas tubes o v er clear glass panes. (p.244, V.ARD.) Main results  241 A very interesting adjective is born by combining sudivided and suburban (as explained in the corpus) to obtain the nonce-formation subdivurban : Subdivurban ? What is that? Sub-divided suburban. The plot should not be that big because it is not central part of city. (p.476, XI.AN.) The word superscraper was already mentioned in the subsection 6.1.2.1.3 devoted to prefixes of degree and size although it could also be included here as the blending of super and skyscraper meaning a “super skyscraper”. The term diagrid (OED-1943) names a s upporting structure cons isting of diagonally intersecting ribs of metal, concrete, et c. and it originates as the result of combining diagonal and grid : Springing from an ornate 1920s base, the struct ure ’ s stainless-steel-clad diagrid rises like a great scissor lift, but t hen, defying expectation, the shaft stops short, without a culminating form topping its 46 stories. (p.247, V.ARD.) The words starchitecture and starchitect are also two blendings of star + architecture/architect, the second one app ears up to four times in the whole corpus: His mission it is to rid the world of what he describes as starchitecture (so I’m guessing Norman won’ t be checkin g out the Neutral website, opposite?) (p.413, IX.RJ.) A total of 19.4 million sq uare feet of new construction is being planned, a nd much of it is being designed by a constellation of int ernational starchitects . (p.531, XIV.ANW.) Another nonce-formation resulting from the outcome of a blend and defined in the corpus is commersidence ( commerce + residence ): One is a mixture of residential and commercial activit y. We call it commersidence . Cat Street is a really good exam ple. (p.476, XI.AN.) The hybrid expression arch-designer ( architect + designer ) may also be interpreted as a blend formation: In June 5, Christie’s will auction off Jean Prouvé’s Maison Tropicale, one of three prefabricated houses the arch-designer made in the late 1940s for use in French colonial Africa. (p.542, XV.AP.) Main results  242 6.1.3.4. Acronyms Acronyms are repeatedly used in architecture and their opacity causes the increase of the level of technicality of the text, especially when the whole term the acronym stands for does not occur to gether with the abbreviation. Only a third of the acronyms occurring in the co rpus are listed in the OED, and most of these are as recent as the twentieth century with the only exception of the abbreviations of chemical elements Vanadium (V) and Molybdenum (Mo). The meanings corresponding to the non-listed acronyms we re searched for in the web; there is often a lack of data referri ng to specific dates of first coinage but since most of them are related to new technologies and current building issues, they are also supposed to be recently co ined. The vast majority of them are abbreviated nouns. Acronyms are frequently found in the corpus when dealing with technological equipments and specif ic ations, especially regarding lighting and energy matters as the following: OLED : Organic Light-Emitting Diode RFID : Radio Frequency Identification GPS : Global Positioning System LED : Light-Emitting Diode EAF : Electric Arc Furnace PV : Photo Voltaic VLT : Visible Light Transmittance UV : Ultraviolet EAS : Electronic Article Surveillance Tardis : Time And Relative Dimensions In Space Highly sophisticated materials and chem ical components are often named by means of acronyms, as well as their specifications: V : Vanadium Mo : Molybd enum No : Niobium PCB : Polychlorinated Biphenyls XPS : Extruded Polystyrene PET : Acronym. Polyethylene Terephtalate HSS : High Speed Steel GRP : Glass-reinforced Plastic Main results  243 MDF : Medium Density Fibreboard DPC : Damp-proof Course FR : Fire-resistant UPVC : Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride VOC : Volatile Organic Compound ESD : Enlightened Sound Daemon EIFS : Exterior Insulating Foam System Technical systems related to building issues may also adopt this device: HVAC : Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning CNC : Computer Nu merical Control STC : Sound Transmission Class IEQ : Indoor Air Quality and Eco System s CAD : Computer-Aided Design. There are other reduced terms which are mo re directly related to architecture: POE : Post-Occupancy Evaluation LEED : Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design CIAM : Congrès Internacionaux d'Architecture Moderne SRO : Single-Resident-Occupancy BPE : Building-Performance Evaluation BIPV : Building Integrated Photovoltaics BIM : Building Information Model M-C H : Micro Co m pact Ho me These acronyms may in turn behave like any other word and may be susceptible of word-formation processes, particularly in compounding, where elements are simply put together and the transformation is rather low: Leed-certified: Framed photographs of LEED-certified buildings line the hallways of the U.S. Green Building Council's new headquarters, one floor of an office building in Washington, D.C. (p.201, IV.AM.) SRO apartment: "The financing was largely a lump-sum 'Skippy grant' for the SRO apartments ," he says. (p.320, VII.CA.) Low VOC material: Low VOC materials , paints and glues are specified throughout. This increases the air quality for workers during construction and for the inhabitant s. (p.495, XII.AS.) BIPV system: Designed for its cold climate application, it is the largest curtain wall-integrated BIPV system in Canada, producing 35 kilowatts of energy (p.351, VII.CA.). Main results  244 CNC fiber placement robot: Michael Silver (Brooklyn, NY): “Composite Space,” sustainable building applications for s-glass, carbon and Kevlar®-reinforced thermoplastic composites fabricated using a multi-axis, CNC fiber placement robot . (p.529, X IV. ANW.) light-emitting-diode (LED) lamp: Office lighting is monitored by occup ancy sensors or photoelectric controls, while outdoor banner projectors use minimal electrical power via light-emitting-diode (LED) lamps. (p.530, XIV.ANW.) fire-rated MDF: That mahogany is milled into planks for the exterior decking; milled as tongue- and-groove boards for the sprung floor of the theater stage; m illed into veneer and laminated over fire-rated MDF at the interior walls and ceilings. (p.173, IV .AM.) There is a final step left before closin g the chapter devoted to word-formation processes in this study; however minor, ex-nihilo formations are also present in the corpus; Kevlar , for instance, is according to the OED, a proprietary name for “a synthetic fibre of high stiffness and tensile strength, used mainly as a reinforcing agent in composite material s and as a constituent of ropes and cables”; its coinage is quite recent, 1974, and it is said to be an ex-nihilo formation like Mylar (1952), which occurs in the corpus as well, being a proprietary name for a type of polyester resin which has high strength and heat resistance. The OED poses the possibility of Mylar being related to earlier Nylon: The clear shell allows the kayaker unparalleled intimacy with the marine world below, yet it is surprisi ngly tough, made of a military-grade urethane stretched over a Kevlar frame. (p.171, IV.AM.) The metallised polyester film used fo r the Sony Europe project is Alluvial’ s version of Mylar , a BoPet polyester film registered as a trade m ark by Dupont Teijin Film s in the 1950s. (p.641, XXI.BD.) Other similar case is Cor-ten, which is also a trademark for a type of weathering steel: Main results  245 Some 18m high, made of welded plates of safely oxidising Cor-Ten steel, and derived from fractal geometry, it will take a 200 m circuit from one circular viewing platform to another through the tree canopy of Kew. (424, IX.RJ.) The ex-nihilo Lucite (1937), a proprietary name for a type plastic, is a little more motivated since the OED says it mi ght be derived from the Latin lux plus the suffix - ite : Finally, the designer placed a contemporary Lucite lamp on either side of the sofa. (p.127, II.AD.) Another ex-nihilo is Freon (1932), a proprietary name related to halogenated simple hydrocarbons used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants: And then there was that chemistry professor who had only to hear the word Freon to abandon moles and measures .(p.381, VIII.MT.) A more interesting case is that of dymaxion (1929), whose orig in seems t o be totally arbitrary; it was coined by the well-known designer Buckminster Fuller to convey the idea of yielding the greates t possible efficiency in terms of the available technology. The author’s notoriety made it possible for this coinage to thrive beyond mere nonce-formation status: It was a seductive development of his prior hopes for both versions of his Dymaxion House and his Standard of Living Package, n either of which were commercially unsuccessful. (p.294, VI.ARW.) 6.1.3.5. Analogical formations Once the episode of word-formation has been completed and before heading towards loanword neology, a couple of aspects regarding analogical formations should be here described. As pointed out previously in this study, Bauer (1983:95-6) defined anal ogical formations outside word -formation processes as new formations clearly modelled on one already existing lexeme whic h in general does not trigger a pr oductivity series, although sets of forms may occur as I will attest next. The word landsca pe (an example quoted by Bauer Main results  246 (1983:96) as some sort of exception to the lack of productivity of analogical formations) has generated by analogy a nu mber of new formations which make it almost viable to consider - scape as a combining form or a suffix which would be added to certain nouns in order to create new forms. Several examples of this were found in the corpus: Tablescape (1968): “A decorative arrangem ent of ornaments or other objects on a tabletop” (mark the use of inverted commas): Marian Macken considers Supermodels: an exhibition of space and form in architectural models – a ‘ tablescape’ of diverse architectural models curated by Sam Marshall. (p.76, II. AA.) Soundscape (1968): “A musical composition consisting of a texture of sounds”: Soundscapes : International Garden Festival 2007. (p.357, VII.CA.) Townscape (1937): “The arrangement and overall appearance of the buildings, spaces, and other physical f eatures of a town” (also in between inverted commas): The Englishness of the concept of ‘ townscape’ as promoted in pages of the Architectural Review in the 1950s and ’60s: the subjects could hardly be more varied. (p.286, VI.ARW.) Roofscape (1928): “A scene or view of roofs”: These large turbines top the building in m uch the same way as turrets and spires have traditionally don e, and they make a similar contr i bution to the downtown urban roofscape . (p.91, II.AA.) Cloudscape (1880): “A scene composed of clouds , whether actually or in a painting”: It feels both literally a nd metaphorically less weighty than the rest – a le m ony meringue instead of a wholesome loaf, a cloudscape in stead of a landform, dream-like rather than chthonic. (p.57, II.AA.) Cityscape (1856): “A view of a city; city scenery; the layout of a city”: Main results  247 Above them, registered by the f loating ski ns of sun-screening, the council’ s offices occupy the mid-city scale. Higher still, in the zone of the cityscape , are Suncorp offices. (p.89, II.AA.) Streetscape (1833): “A view or prospect pr ovided by a city st reet or streets”: This research centre for the museum, sited on Rue de l’Université, emerges from the existing streetscape of neo-baroque nineteenth-century buildings. (p.63, II.AA.) And the last example is not quoted in t he OED, namely viewscape , which has been defined in the web as “a visual co nnection that occurs between a person and the spatial arrangement of urban and landscape features”: 54 Viewscape : Their residential projects place spe c ial em phasis on indoor-outdoor living, with configurations that include rooftop floor plans, glass façades that can open 360 degrees, decks, verandas, and vie wscapes . (p.584, XVII.DW.) Most of the analogical fo rmations found in the corpus deal with computers and technology, all of them rath er recent coinages, such as laptop (1984- after desktop ), palmtop (1987-after laptop ), wi-fi (1999-after hi-fi ), low-tech (1981-after high-tech ), software (after hard-ware ), pixilated (after other adjectives ending in - lated ), cyberspace (1982- after cybernetics ). There are some examples in the sphere of fashion and art: fashionista (1993- after earlier borrowings from Spanish like sandinist a , peronista or senderista ) or Plop Art (probably after Pop Art ). The word egocide is v ery likely derived as an analogy after suicide . Other analogical formations which are more specif ically related to architecture are: escalator (1900-after elevator ), polychrome (after mono chr ome ), planar 55 (1850- after linear ), doncrete (probably after concrete (?)), superscraper (most likely after skyscraper ). 54 << http://www.isocarp.net/Data/case_studies /643.pdf >> , last acce ssed 01/05/2010. 55 This word was also anal yzed in section 6.1.2 .2.6. Main results  248 6.2. Loanword neology 6.2.1. Introduction “In exploring the evolution of the English voca bulary we shall find that words are both fossils in which the culture of the past is stored and vital organisms responsive to the pressu res of the present” (Hughes, 2000:1). Loanword neology is a further way of co ining new words in professional and academic languages that devia tes from syntagmatic ne ology in m ore than one respect as shown above, one of the most remarkable being, as pointed out by Hope (1963:39), that loanw ord neology does not involve the creation of a symbol “ex-nihilo”. The borrowed word ha s already proved to be suitable for a specific lexical gap in another language at the time it is adopted, that is, it has revealed itself as efficient; such a pr agmatic motivation yi elding the borrowing act matches quite well t he linguistic behaviour of professional jargons. I have assumed in the present study that bo rrowing words from a foreign language has to be considered as a suitable device to enlarge the vocabu lary of a given professional language even though, as claimed by Cannon (1981), this mechanism is diminishing in importance in recent times. Leaving s uch questions behind, I will be briefly focusing on th e motivations at the rear of this phenomenon in order to understand the criteria that led to the selection of the material taken from the corpus within t he present section. In broad terms, it might be concluded that loanwords are li able to be classifi ed into two main groups: necessity loanwords and luxury loanwords . The first bulk would res pond to those words borrowed from another language in order to fill the so-called “lexical gaps”. In this case, I could be referring to, for example, every technical or semitechnical word that is imported together with its referent because there is no native equivalent for it, such as stucco , a name given to a special material, a Main results  249 fine plaster one composed of gypsum and marble whose term was introduced from Italian in 1598 according to the OED. This phenom enon has been repeatedly acknowledged in scientific and technical fields where new discoveries, abstract concepts, theoretical constructs, technical equipment, etc, would arrive from beyond national front iers carrying as well the “ lexical paraphernalia” attached to them. More specif ically, in the realm of architecture, we could think of the influence of Renaiss ance treatises reaching England from Italy, full of Italian technical concepts that had to be translated, if possible, if not adopted. Moreover, luxury loanwords are usually sa id to be superfluous and they are coined mainly responding to stylistic reasons which included euphemism, local atmosphere, brevity, humour, etc. (Gómez Capuz, 1998:274- 8). An example of this type of loanwords would be the French word blasé (1930- “Bored or unimpressed through over-familiarity; insensitive, supercilious”): There's one final bureaucratic hurd le to overcome regarding the change of use from the old pier, and then construct ion will start. They're both remarkably casual, going on blasé , about it. (p.595, X VIII .HP.) According to this classifica tion, we would be tempted to think that in the realm of technical and professional languages nec essity loanwords are the ones to be dealt with, and that ma y well be the case; however, many author s highlight the importance of luxury loanw ords since they convey important information about historic and cultural exchanges among nations and also because they respond to a conscious willingness to borrow a wor d, and thus they are also a more “creative” device than necessity terms. Besides those already mentioned, the reasons behind the choice for these so-c alled “unnecessary” items are manifold. I would like to point here those related to prestige which involve a sympathy of a social group, here architec ts and architecture critics, towards a given foreign Main results  256 TABLE XXIX. Measurement of naturalization Measurement of Naturalization Naturals Deni zens Alien Casuals 288 130 33 49 FIGURE 21. Measurement of naturalization As can be easily gathered from this figure, the large bulk of lexic al material coming from different languages is, acco rding to the OED, utterly naturalized, 57 such as garland , colonnade , synagogue , transept , volute , etc. Denizens 58 are the next most popul ar tag, as in cupola , campanile , c olumbarium or cabochon . The following relevant ca tegory would be casuals, 59 including examples such as engawa , bibliothèque , altération. Less important would be the ones called alien: 60 gaandereij , tempeh , mandala or volkspark . According to Gómez Capuz (1998:274), borrowed words may have different pragmatic motivations that include several headings. There ar e a number of loanwords which may be ascr ibed to more than one stylistic or 57 Naturals are thorough ly assimilated loan- words (Capuz 1998:34). 58 Denizens are foreign words that are reaso nably spread in use but which are not w h olly adapted as far as form and grammar are concer ned (Capuz 1998:34). 59 Casuals are rare w ords being used i n special circumstanc es such as travel books, letters from abroad, etc. (Capuz 1998:34). 60 Aliens are wo rds designati ng a foreign reality that lacks a native e quivalent and which is frequent in use (Capuz 1998:34). Naturals Denizens A liens Casuals 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 1 2 3 4 Measurement of naturalization Main results  257 pragmatic effect. The most common is conceptual accuracy (1998:275), a characteristic that may be related to 388 loanwords in the corpus, that is, the majority of them. These examples have been borrowed basically to fulfil a certain lexical gap in order to be as specific as needed. The following one s would be elevated style and rhetorical var iation (1998 :277); elevated style is said when the use of a foreign word is meant as a “signum de classe” or to create an erudition aura, this may also serv e to increase the level of technicality of the text. The effect named rhetorical variation is conveyed by a borrowed word which is used as some sort of synonym in order to enrich the vocabulary and avoid repetition and bor edom. Local atmosphere (1998:276) is the next effect which is achiev ed by means of using loc al words, foreign words which recreate the genius loci of a given setting. Less common are expressiveness effect and humor which are marg inally found in the corpus. 6.2.3. French loanw ords French loanwords are by far the most numerous among the ov erall figure of loanwords in the corpus, a fact that is quite predictable not only because of the importance of French vocabul ary within the Engl ish lexicon in general but als o because of the importance of the French influence in the history of Architecture. According to Cannon (1996:45), the main semantic categories of recent French loanwords in English would be food, arts (especially theatre and film) and politics. Besides the semant ic needs fulfilled by Fr ench loanwords, there are other motivations that make French an a ttractive source of vocabulary; as pointed out by Ayto (1991) , French loanwor ds are surrounded by an aura of a certain cachet and sophistication: “but even in the case of more general Main results  258 vocabulary, the dropping of a French phrase ( Pièce de résistance, embarras de richesse ) may lend an air of cultivation and worldly polish-al beit sometimes spurious” (1991:vii). As noted in table X XVIII, French loanwords that occur in the corpus entered the la nguage at an early st age, only 41 of them are more recent than 1850: TABLE XXX. Dates: French loanwords 2000-1950 195 0-1900 1900-1850 1850-18 00 1800-17 50 175 0-1700 1700-1650 16500-1600 5 14 22 14 12 1 6 11 14 FIGURE 22. Dates: French loanwords 6.2.3.1. Styles and periods Semantically speaking, ther e are many words derived fr om French that are used to name different periods and styles, many of them originated in France. This is the case of Art Déco, a style of design which was born in the 1920s/1930s whose designation occurred in English in 1966 acc ording to t he OED. The word Dates: French loawords 2000-1950 1950-1900 1900-1850 1850-1800 1800-1750 1750-1700 1700-1650 1650-1600 0 5 10 15 20 25 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Main results  259 Régence 61 is used to designate the style of the first third of the eighteenth century in France, a term used in English from 1919 . This expression shows up three times in the corpus presenting t he original French or thography and always ascribed to pieces of furniture: (…) a 19th-century chaise longue, Régence chandeliers , a large, rough-hewn stone Chinese ball and a spare, wrought iron low table of Vervoordt’s own design. (p.116, III.AD) There are other terms related to regencies in France like Louis XIV (1855), Louis XV (1876), Louis XVI (1892) or Empire(1869): The museum quality collection th ey’ve amassed brims with item s of unique provenance—the pair of Louis XIV Boulle commodes reunited after two centuries, the Louis XVI candelab ra from Pavlovsk Pala ce. (p.130; III.AD.) we needed a couple of skirted pieces to give warmth and to break up all the silhouettes, because the room has an awful lot of legs—the t wo needlepoint Louis XV chairs, the pedestal table, the Regency desk chair, the Louis XV desk. (p. 108; III.AD.) The Louis XVI– style library—the room to which Bradfield lost his heart—was decorated with French walnut paneling with gilt trim . (p.144; III.AD.) It took hold in Germany, Austria, and Denmark after the Napoleonic Wars, -largely in reaction to the exce sses of the French-influenced Empire era that preceded it. (p.395, VIII.MT.) Other well-known terms used to name differ ent periods and styles in architecture and art which are derived from Fr ench include the following: Romanesque (1819): this is the architectural st yle of buildings erected in Romanized Western Europe from the seventh century to the end of the twelfth century having certain characte ristics similar to those in Early Christian, late Roman, Byzantine architecture according to the ODA (2006: 656); as shown in the following exampl e taken from the corpus, it may be present in the formation of compound words such as Romanesque-style, where it still preserves the initial capital letter: 61 According to the ODA, it is a rest rained Classical style durin g the minority of King Lo uis XV of Fran ce (1715-23) Main results  260 A case in point: Three years ag o, I found myself in a Romanesque -style neighborhood school building built in 1896, a structure that was to be demolished and replaced by a new school. (p.6, I.AIA.) Beaux-arts (1821): According to the ODA (2006:75 ), this term is used to name the florid classical style evolv ed in t he École Na tionale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts, the main official art-school in France, founded in 1795: Within an hour, one can glimpse the stately de co and Beaux Arts avenues of the chic, café-dotted Condesa and Roma enclaves, the vast 20th-century masterpieces of Luis Barragán and Abraham Zabludovsky. (p.580; X VII.DW.) Rococo (1841): According to the OED, th is term may be applied to both furniture and architecture and it is related to Louis Quatorze or Louis Quinze workmanship. It has gaine d negative connotations for being associated to meaningless decoration or for being exc essively ornamental. In the corpus it is used more than onc e, always in the context of furniture and interior design: The designer set the tone by flanking a fireplace with a pair of Italian Rococo consoles topped with German Rococo mirrors. (p.116; III.AD.) Renaissance (1845): this movement, which was influenced by classical models, began in Italy in the fourteenth century but the term was indirectly borrowed from French in 1845 and not from Italian. The term is so internalized that it accepts uses like the following, where it tolerates being graded as an adjective: It’s very Renaissance , actually.” At this point, the architect is nabbed by som e suits. (p. 610; XIX .IM.) Or it may be part of neoclassical compounds such as neo-renaissance : Behnisch Architekten inserted the gleam ing Haus im Haus within the neo- Renaissance fabric of Hamburg’ s Chamber of Commerce. (p. 229, V.ARD.) Main results  261 Art Nouveau (1899): This term names a style of architecture and decorative arts that flourished in Eur ope and in the US from 1888 to 1914, featuring asymmetrical compositions as defined in the ODA (2006:44): The sinuous shapes of the utensils recall the fl oral motifs of Art Nouveau , and the delicate veins threading through them add an organic—and oddly carnal— touch. (p.171; IV.AM.). Surrealism (1917): Although present in architecture contexts, very often by means of metaphoric extens ion, Surrealism is origin ally an art and literature movement seeking to express the s ubconscious mind by any of a number of different techniques: it’s covered art nouveau, art deco and modernism and late r this m onth the V&A gives surrealism the major retrospective treatment. (p. 440;IX .RJ.) avant-garde (1910): according to the OED, this term is used to name the pioneers or innovators in any art in a particular period: These are ‘traditionalist s’, ‘perpetrators of various ism s ’, ‘exponents of a new avant-garde’ and ‘environm ent-conscious designers’. (p.278; VI.ARW.) 6.2.3.2. Techniques There are also several terms having th eir origin in Frenc h a nd which were borrowed by English. They refer to differ ent architecture techniques such as the following: Assemblage (1727): This term is defined in the OED in various technical uses: the joining, putting together of par ts (in Carpentry or of a machine); a collection (e.g. of artefacts); a work of art consisting of miscellaneous objects fastened together. In the example below it is also extended to an architectural dimension also thanks to the modifier larg e-scale : (…) a large-scale assemblage of polychrom atic drums and cubic blocks that arguably adds an equally “eccentric” note on the the park. (p.239; V.ARD. ). Main results  262 Eglomise (1877): The word eglomise is in t he following example part of the compound eglomise-paneled: the daughter’s into a glamorous eglomise -paneled dressing room for Cullman, the older son’s into an anegre-and-Ultrasuede study for C ullman’s husband, and the younger son’ s into a proper guest room. (p.141; III.AD.) Gouache (1882): According to t he OED, this painting method consists in opaque colours ground in water and mixed with gum and honey so as to form a sort of paste: The vibrant color is e choed in the John Grillo gouache that stands in front of them, and again—more faintly—in the glazes of t he Tang sculptures in the hall. (p.122; III.AD.) Collage (1919): Here collage is extended in its use f rom the original art meaning 62 to the concept of architectural collage ; apply ing art concepts to architecture is a qui te common phenomenon: But ad hoc additions over the years left the museum an architectural collage of disjointed constituent parts. (p.233; V.ARD.) Mon tag e (1934): This term describes a mi xture, blend, or medley of various elements; a pastiche, miscellany: Rome's monstrous ruins and angelic traces constitute a city filled with architectura l details and spoils that suggest parallels with modern collage and montage (p.332; VII.CA). 6.2.3.3. Furniture and design elements Other semantic group is related to term s used to name pieces of furniture or design elements. There is some sort of chic aura, snobbism and sens e of opulence inherent to the sometimes excessive use of French terms in the texts describing furniture and in terior decoration: 62 According to the OED, collage is an abstract form of art in which photographs, pieces of paper, newspaper cuttings, string, etc., are placed i n ju xtaposition a nd glued to the pictorial surfac e. Main results  263 Console (1706): It means a type of Classical bracket or corbel with parallel sides, usually an ogee curve terminating in a volute at the top and bottom: Ornamental forms which were scarcely sanction ed by antiquity, such as brackets, volutes, co nsoles , balustrades, parapets, masks, shells, frames, garlands, and niches. (p. 273; VI.ARW.). Bergères (1762): This word defines a large easy chair of a style fashionable in the eighteenth century; also, a kind of couch: Guests who venture through this thicket ha ve every right to expect a world of rattan furniture inside, so the bergères and fauteuils are both a surprise and a delight. (p.135; III.AD.) Commode (1786): This is a piece of furn iture with drawers and shelves: Some very fine pieces, Louis XV and Louis XVI,” the client says, indicating chairs, benches, chests, consoles and commodes of unsurpassable grace and form. (p. 108; III.AD.). Chaise longue (1800): a kind of sofa with a rest for the back at one end only) and chandelier (1736- an ornamental branche d support or frame to hold a number of lights): (…) a 19th-century chaise longue , Régence chandeliers , a large, rough-hewn stone Chinese ball and a spare, wrought iron low table of Vervoordt’s own design. (p.116; III.AD.) Boiserie (1832): According to the ODA (2006:97), this term applied to wooden panelling, usually from floor to ceiling on interior walls, embellished with carvings in low relief, gildin g, inla y, etc. The word is here used instead of simple panelling or wainscoting in order to match the whole French flavour and the technical s ophistication of the text: Walls were dressed up with boiserie inspired by various French hôtels, or clad in imported mahoganies and walnuts. (p. 130, III.AD.) . Chinoiserie (1883): The ODA (2006:172) defines this word as a style of European architecture and the artefacts in the Chin ese Taste, intended to evoke China, first appearing in t he seventeenth century and reaching Main results  264 heights of delicacy and inventiv eness in the eighteenth century and early nineteenth century. It is here us ed to describe a wallcovering: In the dining room, Easton has hung a large Fr ench Art Déco mirror to reflect the flowers in the antiqued hand-painted chinoiserie wallcovering . (p.131; III.AD). 6.2.3.4. Building Typology There are a number of terms borrowed from French that designate different types of buildings, such as the following: chalet, atelier, station, boulevard or colonade : Colonnade (1718): Series of columns plac ed at regular intervals, and supporting an entablature: As with housing for the living in the South-east, dem and is high, and a second phase of the mausoleum, extending the colonnade , is likely to start on site almost immediately. (p.438; IX.RJ.). Boulevard (1769): Broad street, pr omenade, or walk, planted wit h rows of trees: Ground-floor businesses with residential units above would line the boulevard . (p. 156;IV.AM.) Chalet (1817): Wooden dwelling-house of a type common in Switzerland, with a broad, low-pitched roof with wide overhangi ng eaves and often timber balconies and external stairs: The promenades and parks, the bandstands and beach chalets , the entertainment halls and amusem ent parks. (p.425; IX.RJ.) Station (1830): This term applies to fixed stopping-places and the buildings of such stations: Deustche Bahn m ust rebuild train station according to original plans. (p.152; IV.AM.) Atelier (1840): A workshop or an artist's studio: Main results  265 For many members of the atelier , it’s the first t ime they’ve seen these pieces in the flesh. (p.638; XXI.BD.). 6.2.3.5. Characterization terms Apart from terminology, there are cert ain words used to describe a given atmosphere related to the architectural sphere; these items also have their or igin in French: Connoisseur (1714): This word describes a person well acquainted with one of the fine arts: The aesthetic movem e nt toward spareness began not with the bourgeoisie, Winters says, but with well-known cabinetm akers designing connoisseur pieces for the royal households of Vienna. (p.396; VIII.MT.) Elegance (1797): It refers to a refined grace of form and movement, tastefulness of adornmen t, refined luxury, etc.: (…) but its capacious interior la cks the structural ele gance and expressive detailing expected in th e project’s principal in-door space. (p.385; VIII.MT.). Repertoire (1847): This French-originated word means a stock of dramatic or musical pieces which a company or player is accust omed or prepared to perform: Libeskind’s overbearing formal repertoire alway s intoxicates exhibition d esigners. Just as at the Imperial War Museum, the installation her e is an attempt at Libeskind-style disp lay cabinets (there is image-repertoire). (p.612; XIX.IM.). Flaneur (1854): Archispeak (2004:78) mentions flâneur as one of the means of coping with the shock and discontinuity when experiencing the impact of the modern city: The important thing is that the building is once again the domain of the cultured flaneur . Long may it remain so. (p. 590; X VIII.HP.). Chic (1879): According to the OED, this adjective denotes ‘stylish’ in the best fashion and best of taste . In the corpus we may also find the compound formation hippy-chic meaning a fashionable hippy style: Main results  272 6.2.5.3. Building elements Apart from building typolog ies, there are also numerous terms which label elements that are found in constructions: nave (1501), cornice (1563), cup ola (1579), Belvedere (1596), relief (1606), portico (1607) soffit (1613), balcony (1618), vista (1657), dado (1664), pergola (1664), serliana (¿),piano nobile ( 1715), loggia (1742), fresco (1753), m ajolica (1851). 6.2.5.4. Techniques The Italian print is also pr esent when naming the proce sses or techniques used in architecture: Stucco (1598), fresco (1598), alfresco (1613), profile (1665), fauxfresco (¿), sfumato (1847). Among the list of loanwords, there are also Italian words which are not related to architecture. Some belong to the fiel d of music, an area that witnessed an important borrowing activity from Ita lian as seen in the following words: allegro (1721), Crescendo (1785), prima donna (1834), fiasco (1855), maestro (1938). 6.2.5.5. Italian calques There are not too many ca lques from Italian. We ma y highlight the hybrid Art Povera derived from Arte Povera 63 which was, according to the OED, “an artistic movement originating in Italy in the 1960’s, incorpor ating elements of conceptual, minimalist, and performance art and characterized by the use of ostensibly worthless everyday material s, often in temporary installations”: I am not advocating sloppiness or some sort of architectural equivalent of Art Povera , but am unsatisfied by extraordinary di splays of control over d etails and joints in projects that remain conce ptually banal. (p.61, II.AA.) 63 This expression was already mentioned in the section devoted to Marginal t ypes within Nominal compounding. Main results  273 Another example would be manner ism , according to the OED a word constructed after Italian manierismo, the style of architectu re from the period of Michelangelo characterized by the use of Classical element s in a strange or abnormal way, or out of context, ODA (2006: 469): In Europe, locked between the peculiarit ies of mannerism and drama of the baroque, there emerged a restrained and sch olarly classical style. This has been largely ignored by architectural histo rians. (p.432, IX.RJ.) 6.2.6. Spanish loanw ords Spanish (especially New World Spanish as opposed to European Spanish) occupies a special position since at present time it is in a direct and constant contact with English as opposed to other languages, such as the Asian ones. However, as pointed out by Cannon (1996:52), its contribution is not as important as that of Romance languages in Eng lish during the Renaissance period. Cannon (1996:45) claims that the main sem antic categories of recent Spanish loanwords are po litics, food or drink and occupation and status, followed by sociology, sports and ethnolo gy (inclu ding bullfighting), narcotics and music, etc. Rodríguez González ( 1996) also mentions the importance of physical environment, expressiveness, socio-political jargon, of “nonce- borrowings” used by authors, etc. Rodríguez González (1996: 67) also includes the terms related to degrading conditions of life, which have to do with habitation models and thus to architecture. The following would be examples of this: el Barrio (a guetto area of upper Manhattan), ranchos (Venezuela), tugurios (Colombia), callampas (Chile), villas miseria (Argentina), barriadas ( Peru ), which resemble the well-known Luso- Brasilian favelas . Almost half of the Spanish loanwords found in the corpus are not specif ic from architecture, that is, they are not used as necessity loanwords to fill lexical gaps, they are in fact luxury Main results  274 loanwords. This use of loanwords for ot her reasons different from the strict lexical needs is very interesting since this tendency also defines the style of architecture discourse as a whole: Machete (1575) The ghastly efficiency with which up to a million Rwandan Tutsis were slaughtered in 1994 - mainly with m achetes costing less than a dollar each, and clubs costing nothing. (p. 599, XVIII.HP.) Armadillo (1594) "We started from the metaphor of a pangolin (similar to an armadillo )" (p.519, XIII.AW.) Embargo (1602) The Arab oil embargo in 1973 led to two-hour waiting lines to bu y gasoline. Perhaps energy resources were not boundless. (p. 53, I.AIA.). Guerilla (1819) By leveraging a gam ut of traditional and nontraditional media, including print, television, radio, out-of-home and online, as well as viral and guerilla marketing tactics.” (p.366, VIII.MT.). Aficionado (1845) We have become a social off ice where there is usually an architect or a n architecture aficionado looking at books, magazines, or r eading in our resource library . (p.9 I.AIA.) Conga (1935) but you can’t avert your ears if, for instance, your subway car suddenly becom es the chosen venue for a group of conga drummers playing for spare change. (p. 400, VIII.MT.). Fashionista 64 (1993) No wonder the company’s downtown fashionistas have been able to slip into the military architecture like a herm it crab insinuating itself into a mollusk’ s shell. (p.376, VIII.MT.) Completo (?) which didn’t mean we couldn’ t find time to stop for completo, tequila served straight up and alternated with sips of spicy red sangrita. (p. 580, XVII.DW.) 64 Here the Spanish suffix - ist a is applied to a native base. Main results  275 Arroyo (?) Sliding a wall one way would weave an outcropping into the architecture, and another wall would curve around an arroyo carrying off rainwater. (p.137, III.AD.) Charros (?) There is also this store for charros —Mexican horsemen, the refined version of the American cowboy—downtown, in front of the Museo de la Ciudad d e México. (p.582 XVII.DW.) Piñon (?) They eventually settled on a handsom e piece of property outside of town: 14 ridgetop acres nestled a mong sheltering piñons t hat overlooked not only the iconic Santa Fe Baldy but also the striking Jemez Mou ntains . (p.11 4, III.AD.) Sangrita (?) which didn’t mean we couldn’ t find time to stop for completo, tequila served straight up and alternated with sips of spicy red sangrita. (p.5 80, XVII.DW . ). As Cannon (1992) pointed out, borrow ed items, such as for example bamboo curtain or our telenovela farce, are forms which are bu ilt taking an original loanword as part of them rather than as a translation of some new borrowing. This fact that also points out towards the measurement of nat uralization of the borrowed word since it is likely to becom e eligible as a compound element such as any other native element. Telenovela (1976) Local politics often resemble a telenovela farce. The ground is sinking at a rate of up to a foot per year. (p. 580, X VII.DW.). There are materials like ziricote 65 (?) , adobe (1748) or balsa (1866): Though the 1985 MacArthur Genius award–winner’s rocking chairs now sell for upward of $25,000 apiece—and a double rocker in ziricote , a notoriously difficult hardwood, is going for a record $100,000. (p.394, VIII.MT.) A former practicing archaeologist a nd currently a clinical psychologist, she had been living for many years in a m ore than century-old Santa Fe adobe house. (p.120, III.AD.) 65 Ziricote is a heart wood which h as various shades of black with irregular wavy black st reaks, lines and variations. Main results  276 and the mono-materiality of bals a (Backpacker Hostel, Connie Zhang) and boxboard (Negative Space, Jenny Hien) to assemblages in wood, metal, resin, plastic, clay, sandstone, bronze and folded paper. (p.77, II.AA.) We also find elements referring to buildings and building typology, such as cantilever (1667), albero (?), plaza (1673), hacienda ( 1717), barrio (1841), silo (1920) and patio (1931): It’s really a cantilever of f of a cantilever ,” Diller adm its. “It’s what you tell your architecture students not to do: don’ t put m ore load on something that’s already vulnerable. (p.608, XIX .IM.) The inner drum, containing the auditorium, takes its footprint from the form er albero , or ring of sand, where bullfights once took place. (p. 244, V.ARD.) Machado and Silvetti has done a masterful job with the Getty’ s setting, crafting a sophisticated ensemble of build ings, plazas , and landscaping that finally provides a real home for a relic of another tim e and place. (p.255, V.ARD.) Nevertheless, it was razed by Hernán Cortés’s army in 1521, and its stones were promptly reappropriated to build S panish-style haciendas in the streets radiating from the new central plaza, the Zócalo. (p.580, XVII.DW.) and the subtle spatial adjustm ent and restructuring of the barrios (shantytowns) of Caracas were enough to instigate the desire for an instant Latin American pilgrimage. (p.79, II.AA.) It is supported by seem ingly randomly placed piloti and several concrete-enclose d “ silos ” that cam ouflage vertical circulation elements and mechanical equipm ent. (p.237, V.ARD.) but are actually rows of planters, and the deeper erosions form ed by sunken patios and light wells (p.231, V.ARD.). 6.2.7. German loanw ords It has been considered that German loanwo rds are less important in Eng lish if compared to the other major languages such as Latin, Greek, French and Italian and relatively few words have been directly borrowed from it. The majority of these lexical items are basic ally technical items, the main ones are chemistry, mineralogy, biology, geology, botany, biochemistry, philosophy, psychology, zoology and military terms (P feffer and Cannon, 1994:xxii). Main results  277 Pfeffer and Cannon (1994:76-79) quote several German loandwords in the field of art, architecture and pottery that point to the fa ct that the German influx had only two important moment s, namely those related to the Jugendstil 66 and Bauhaus ; only the second occurs in the corpus: Bauhaus (1923): A German word defined by the OED as “ the name of a school of design founded in Weimar, Ge rmany, in 1919 by Walter Gropius (1883-1969); used for the pr inciples or traditions characteristic of the Bauhaus.” This is the example from the corpus: where Walter Gropius designed the legendary Bauhaus in 1925–26, after he had moved the school from its original home in Weimar. (p. 248, V.ARD.) Pfeffer and Cannon (1994) also menti on the importance of terms related to trends or artistic styles such as Biedermeir or expressionism: Biedermeir (1854): According to the OED, this term is applied to the period between 1815 and 1848 in Germany and to styles, furnishings, etc., characteristic of that period, especial ly to a type of furniture derived from the French Empire style. This is how it is defined in the corpus: Biedermeier , as the style (and p eriod) came to be known only later , began around 1815 and ended unceremoniously in abo ut 1830 (p.395, VIII.MT.). Expressionism (1908). Style of painting in which the artist seeks to express emotional experi ence rather than impre ssions of the physical world. It appears in the text preceded by the modifier over-the-top: New York architect Steven Holl ’ s $21.5 million, 70,000-square-foot art and art history building for the Universit y of Iowa winningly navigates a third way between the extremes of over-the-top expressionism and prosaic functionalism. (p.24, V.ARD.) 66 According to the ODA (2006: 406), it is the Germ an version of Art Nouveau n amed after the journal Di e Jugend which publiciz ed the style. Main results  278 In the realm of art criticism, they quote the loanword kitsch (1926) and stylize (1898), both of them ar e found in the corpus: Kitsch (1926): Art or objets d'art characterized by worthless pretentiousness; the qualities associ ated with such art or artefacts: As a designer, it’ s interesting to be confronted by this profusion of objects that cost nothing, that are absolutely not design, th at are either pure utilitarianism or pure kitsch . (p.587, XVII.DW.) Stylize (1898). To conform (an artistic r epresentation) to the rules of a conventional style: The poetry of broken, improper relations between property and kin is presente d alongside a theatrical architecture of stylized perspectival sequences as in an almost contemporary Inigo Jones se t for a masque, for example. (p.279, VI.ARW.) Pfeffer and Cannon (1994) also quote the word Gesamtkunstwerk as introduced in 1939, an item that also occurs in the corpus: Gesamtkunstwerk (1939) Seidler’s methodology and princip les are important for understanding his work. He described his approach as gesamtkunstwerk , in which the architecture aims to be a totally integrated work of art. (p.66, II.AA.) Other loanwords that are found in our corpus in the field of architecture theory and history are the following: ersatz (1875). It is is defi ned by the OED as a substitute or imitatio n (usually, an inferior article instea d of the real thing): Then they had to come up with a d esign that was both sympathetic to the Tudor vernacular – all wattle, daub and wonky timber – while creating a contemporary house without a whiff of ersatz . (p. 442, IX .RJ.) Zeitgeist (1848). This German word conveys the spirit or genius which marks the thought or feel ing of a period or age: as gateway to success for architecture students has also contributed to consolidation of the cultural soil for the Korean architecture by sugge sting such themes as honor the tradition and Zeitgeist of the Korean culture . (p.569, XVI.DA). Tectonics (1850). A term for the arts of construction in general: Main results  279 Here tectonics become an issue – elsewhere this is skilfully and deliberately denied. (p.58. II.AA.) Schloss (1617) It means castle in German: The Modern Literature Museum would form the third component of a unique compound centered around the National Schiller Museum, a neo-Baroque schloss designed by Ludwig Eisenlohr and Carl Weigle. (p. 236, V.ARD.) Hinterland (1890) The district behind that lying along the coast (or along the shore of a river); also applied especially to the area lying behind a port and to the fringe areas of a town or city: The uniformly one-apartment-deep configurations in both towers allow the potential for cross ventilation and fo r all apartments to take in a range of views to the sea, hinterland and north or south across th e city. (p.93, II.AA.) Other expressions occurring in t he corpus are Existenzminum , usually calq ued in English as Minimal dwelling , a concept directly related to Modernism; it appears in in the corpus between invert ed commas together with its translation: Existenzminimum (?) Minimal dwellings have been popular in oth er places and tim es – in 1929, the second CIAM congress advocated “ Existenzminimum ”, or the minim al dwelling, as a societal good. (p.101, II.AA.) Other German calques are good design , clapboard and spectrometer . The following loan conveys a type of public space, volkspark or park of the people: Volkspark (?) Moses began as a dynamic creator of modernist volksparks and ended by decimating relationships of urban scale, t ypology and demographics. (p.409, IX.RJ.) Pfeffer and Cannon (1994) provide several examples of German loanwords in in the field of music in English, many of them naming musical inst ruments, terms referring to voice and also words relat ed to the leader or subleader of the orchestra like the word Concertmeister, which also occurs in the corpus: Main results  280 Concertmeister (c. 1876) Inside, the structure is a dense honeycom b of spaces: a lecture hall, a music library, the symphony's offices, various dressing rooms, the concertmeister's suite, four lobbies, a seri es of reception rooms. (p.162, IV.AM.) Other expressions that do not belong directly to the field of architecture include the word Wunderkind: Wunderkind (1930) According to the OED: A talented or su ccessful young man, a ‘whizz-kid’ . In US academia today, Greg Lynn is some kind of post-Deconstructionist Wunderkind . (p.265, VI.ARW.) Other expressions that ar e not listed in the OED since they are almost raw German material that could be said to be nonce-loanwords: Haus im Haus (House within a House) Completed in March, the bold $8.2 million, refl ective steel-and-glass project— called Haus im Hau s (House-Within-a-House)—provides a jolt of Modern elegance that enlivens and casts a new light on its historic settin g. (p.229, V.ARD.) 6.2.8. Greek loanw ords Greek elements in the corpus are semantically quite v aried. There are terms for places, buildings and elements in buildings such as agora (1598), necropolis (1819), pylon (1851), astylar (1842) : Agora (1598). An assembly; hence, th e place of assembly, more in particular the market-place. Such an intention is signalled in the use of the term " ago ra ". This is a loose-fit space, with a variety of activit ies spilling into it. (p.56, II.AA.). Necropolis (1819) A word used for a ceme tery used as the name of a large cemetery in or near a city: The great necropolises , planned to wnships of the dead, duly came int o being. (p.436, IX.RJ.) Astylar (1842): without columns or pilasters: Main results  281 The ‘regular, astylar , hipped roof manner’, as Worsley calls it, was, in fact, an interpretation of the published designs of Serlio. (p. 431, IX .RJ.). Pylon (1851). The OED describes it as any imposing tower or pillar or any massive or weight-bearing pillar supporting a bridge, road, etc.: The building was more an architectural folly, or grotesque, than an example of good urban design. It had soaring, out-of-scale, fluted pylons capped by urns at the corners and flanking the entrances. (p.521, X III.AW.) There are other terms of Greek origin wh ich rather refer to theo retical issues: typology (1845) , archaic (1846), semiotics (1880), ergonomics (1950) , ergonomic (1958), anthropomorphic (1858), kinetic (1864), holistic (1926). 6.2.9. Japanese loanw ords According to Cannon ( 1981), in reasonably recent times, Japanese would be the third main source of borrowed words in English, after French and Latin followed by Italian, Spanish, German and Greek. This relevant role of the Japanese language is partly explained due to the increas ing Ja panese cultural and economic strength after the Second World War at an international level. Cannon (1981) draws some semantic characte rization of Japanese loanwords, he highlights the fields of science (incl uding geography, biology, medicine, geo logy, etc.), arts (swords and sword-making, pottery, theatre, literature, painting, music, cultural periods, status, foods or drin ks, martial arts, clothing, (including furniture, places withi n the building and measures), etc. Cannon (1996: 45) points out that recent Japanese loan words concentrate on the semantic categories of arts and martial arts (chiefly pottery). To this general configuration of the nature of Japanese loanwords, some data must be added regarding architecture. Japanese architecture has achieved a decisive position in the international scene in the last fe w years, the eighties being the moment of its Main results  288 with wax in a pattern, dyei ng the parts left exposed, and then rem oving the wax: The only exceptions were the spe ctacular batik lawns, n a med for the fam ous fabric that is a Javanese specialty. (p.121, III.AD.) The following two loanwords are apparently borrowed from Indonesian, they are Temp eh and Am boyna : Tempeh (1966). An Indonesian foodstuff made by fer menting soya beans with Rhizopus and deep-frying them in fat: Soybean farming and research led to commercial sales of soy products such as tofu, tempeh , soy yogurt, and Ice Bean, an ice cream equivalent. (p.190, IV.AM.). Amboyna (?). This word is probably Indon esian and it refers to a type of wood. The fact of not using italics or commas makes us think of a term commonly used as a material in the fiel d of architecture and construction: it is made of amboyna and the not misnamed stinkwood—the tree does indeed give off an unpleasant odor ( p. 146, III.AD.) 6.2.11.3. South-Asian languages  Hindu Mandir (meaning a Hindu tem ple ) Nonconformist chapels traced the characters of many an industrial town, synagogues sprang up to serve displaced communities, and the spread of urban mosques and mandirs indicated the aftermath of Em pire. (p.433, IX.RJ.) Hari (This word means an avatar, the incarnation of a deity) The result was a presentation on hari , an Eastern philosophy, distilled down into design language. (p.361, VIII.MT.). Man tr a (1971). Defined by the OED as a constantly or monotonously repeated phrase or sentence; a characteri stic formula or refrain; a byword, slogan, or catchphrase: The phrase soon becam e a mantra . One day the designer was watching a CD spin, and it reminded him of a fan. (p.361, VIII.MT.) Main results  289  Hindustani Bungalow (1676) This is referred to a one-storied house (or temporary building, e.g. a summer-house), lightly built, usually wit h a thatched roof. In the text it is somehow related to another building typology, cottage : That’s house, as opposed to cott age or bungalow —house, as in properly proportioned rooms,” Roth’ s longtime decorator, Los Angeles-based Michael S. Smith, proprietorially points out. (p.1 42, III.AD.)  Hindi Veranda (1711). An open portico or light roofed gallery extending along the front of a dwelli ng or other building: The building code also dictated the eight-foo t-deep porch and corresponding veranda . (p. 150, III.AD.) Pukka (according to the OED when referred to a building or other construction this word means permanen t, solidly-built, made of stone or brick and mortar): The authors’ journey through India’s kachha architecture (which in Hindi means unripe or incom plete as opposed to pukka which m eans ripe and proper) has revealed many wonders which are beautifully recorded by Barry Dawson’s fine photographs. (p.274,VI.ARW.) Kachha. This is apparently a type of building made of natural materials such as mud, grass, bamboo, thatch or sticks and is theref ore a short-lived structure: The authors’ journey through India’s kachha architecture (which in Hindi m eans unripe or incomplete as opposed to pukka w hich means ripe and proper) has revealed many wonders which are beautifully recorded by Barry Dawson’s fine photographs. (p.274, VI.ARW.) 6.2.11.4. Middle East languages  Sanskrit Avatar (1986): This word is defined by the OED as a graphical representation of a per son or character in a computer-generated environment, especially one which represent s a user in an interactive game Main results  290 or other setting, and which can move about in its surroundings and interact with other characters; it is followe d by a periphrasis in the corpus: The opera will also incorporate re al-time motion capture technology, in which performers on stage will also appe ar as multiple avatars (graphical images) on the structure's screens. (p.165, IV.AM.) Mandala: This word stands for a geometrica l figure with a centre, such as a circle, or polygon, or a square, often in the form of a labyrinth or maze with symbolic meanings and it is listed in the ODA (2006:469): The form, spiraling and segmented, was inspired by barrel cacti indige nous to the Arizona desert, and Native American sym bols, such as the coiled snake and the Mandala , says design architect Peter Eisenm an. (p. 243, V.ARD.)  Persian Caravanserai (1599): A kind of inn in Easter n countries where caravans put up, being a large quadrangular build ing with a spacious court in the middle: Fluidcity by Dominic Stevens is a river-borne caravanserai of urban amenities, a moving city that appears overnight, then vanish es quietly, departing in the mist to a new location. (p.460, X.IA.)  Hebrew Mechitzah: This word conveys a partition that is us ed to separate men and women: Only men are allowed to worship in this area. Women take a short flight of steps at either side to sit in th e Mechitzah in the wings.(p.436, I X.RJ.). Bar mitzvah (1861): A Jewish boy who has reached the age of thirteen, regarded as the age of relig ious responsibility and also the ‘confirmation’ ceremony in a synagogue on this occasion: However, the hall has proven to be a highly popular site, hosting everyt hing fro m business events and bar mitzvahs to weddings and fam ily reunions. (p.540, XIV.ANW.) Kosher (1851): This word is used to name the right, good; applied to meat and other food prepared according to the Jewish law: Main results  291 Just as a piece of m eat is rendered kosher by the whim of the Beth Din, so is a dismal terraced house transformed into a holy mosque at the click of an imam’s finger. (IX.RJ., p.428).  Lebanese Machini: Note the use of inverted commas a nd the periphrasis: The Lebanese have a word, “ machini ”, which refers to their tendency to fix things temporarily – for now – irrespective of future problem s (p.615, XIX.IM.)  Assyrian Ziggurat (1959): According to the ODA, (2006:875), this word refers to the ancient Mesopotamian staged temple-tow er of pyramidal form in which each successive stage is smaller than t hat below; it is used metaphorically in the corpus: Perhaps this is a good augury for Herzog & de Meuron’s projected glass ziggurat of Tate Modern 2 in London. (p.458, IX .RJ.)  Arabic and Arab Bimah : (from Arabic al-mi nbar, “platform”, in <<http://www.britannica.com>>, last accessed 10/12/2011) who “grew up worshipping in Orthodox synago gues like this in Rome, Italy, and Rochester, N.Y.,” faced the dilemma of whether to recreate the original bimah (raised platform) or create a new one to replace the church’s altar. (p. 45, I.AIA.) Dahieh: It means "the southern suburb" and it is a mainly Shi'ite Muslim district of southern Beirut, Lebanon: Why have the rents gone up in Ein al Rum aneh? Because now they have a sea view. “ Dahieh ” means suburb. (p.614, XIX.IM.) Mecca (1843): A place regarded as s upremely sac red or valuable, or where a faith, policy, truth, etc., originates: Already the subject of songs by the Talking Heads and the Ramones, the music and performance art mecca the Mudd Club, located on White Street from 1978 to 1983, gets this more formal m e morial too. (p.547, XV .AP.) Hookah (1763): The OED defines it as “a pipe for smoking, of Eastern origin, having a long flexible tube , the smoke being drawn through water Main results  292 contained in a vase, to which the tube and the bowl ar e attached; the narghile of India” : Eastern-themed decorations are here and there—at one point I knock over a hookah that’s sitting by the stereo, which Mikulionis says is more for show than for shisha. (p. 578, XVII.DW.) Ijtihad (¿): a word related to the Corán and the Sunnah defined in the corpus as “a critical interpretation of Islamic texts” Maybe so, but with the sect banning the practice of Ijtihad (a critical interpretatio n of Islamic texts), and reliant on liter al, medieval readings, isn’t the design of the mosque merely a radical skin protecting a highly conservative programme? (p. 434, IX.RJ.) Hammam (1625): According to the ODA (2006:345), it is a Islamic bath complex, usually containing changi ng rooms, latrines, and steam-room heated by the hypocaust method: The caravanserais, souks, hammams and charitable institutions which share the same architectural language throughout the Muslim world are not compared or discussed. (p. 261, VI.ARW.) 6.2.11.5. Other sources in the American continent  Sioux or Dakota Indian Tepee (1743): A tent or wigwa m of the American Indians , formed of bark, mats, skins, or canvas stretched over a fram e of poles converging to and fastened together at the top. We have been exploring with our consultants, TransSolar, a method of cooling outdoor spaces based on the very o l d idea of the open-top tepee that draws hot air out of the space. (p.535, X IV.ANW.)  Louisiana Fr. Lagniappe (1849): Something given over and above what is purchased, earned, etc., to make good measur e or by way of gratuity: The long box in back (concealing the extra dept h) overhangs the raised floor; that the shelf on top is an easy reach from the dining-room table is just lagniappe . (p. 397, VIII.MT.).  Canadian Native Laguage and Eskimo Main results  293 Gilseyhu , Gitdumden , Tsayu, Gitdumden , Laksamishu , all quoted with their equivalents in English: where families belong to five family groups or clans which comprise Laksilyu (small frog), Gilseyhu (frog), Tsayu (beaver), Gitdumden (bear), and Laksamishu (fireweed). (p. 328, VII.CA.) Inuit (1765). It refers to an Eskimo or to the Eskimos collectively: Emphasizing that ‘ Inuit’ (the politically acceptable term) describes only a subgroup of Canadian Eskimos, and is irrelevant for most Siberian, Alaskan and Greenland Eskimos. (p. 308,VI.ARW.) Igloo (1662): According to the OED, it is an Esk imo dome-shaped hut; especially one built of bl ocks of compact snow: While the igloo remains important, it is the alternation of summer and winter housing, or at least summer/winter entrances to houses that characterizes Eskimo buildings. (p. 308, VI.ARW.)  Aztec language Coatlicue: This term is defined as the Aztec mother of gods and goddess of death and life in the corpus: But the real reason to go is to se e the magnificent sculpt ure of Coatlicue , the Aztec mother of gods and goddess of death and life, who wears a skirt of serpents. (p. 581, XVII.DW.) 6.2.11.6. African languages  Egyptian arabic Shisha (1832): A water-pipe through which tobacco is smoked; a hookah: Eastern-themed decorations are here and there—at one point I knock over a hookah that’s sitting by the stereo, which Mikulio nis says is more for show than for shisha . (p.578, XVII.DW.)  Africans Voorkamer (1775): The front r oom of a Cape Dutch house or farmhouse: The front hall (or voorkamer ), pave d with its original Batavian oxblood tiles, has been left austere in the Dutch way (p.146, III.AD.) Main results  294  African language Anegre (light tone wood) the daughter’s into a glam orous eglomise-paneled dressing room for Cullman, the older son’s into an anegre -and-Ultrasuede study for Cullm an ’s husband, and the younger son’s into a proper guest room . (p. 141, III.AD.) Mak ore (1915): A large West African tr ee, Tieghemella heckelii, of the family Sapotaceae; the reddish- or purplish-brown, sometimes dark- streaked, wood of this tree: The walls are hard plaster on concrete; the flooring is of the hardest woods, such as Brazilian cherry, African makore , and the hickory native to Middle Tennessee. (p.163, IV.AM.) mumbo-jumbo (1738): A god or spirit said to have been worshipped by certain West African peoples: Mumbo-jumbo is its own motor. It claps and whirls and prostrates itself in ad-hoc surroundings bereft of beauty, bereft of any but the most rudimentary architectural interventions. (p.428, IX.RJ.) Zeem : A language from Nigeria: The site is the first internet database of its kind, he says, with infor mation on nearly 7,300 different linguistic groups (from Brazil's Anambé to Nigeria's Zeem ) (p.181, IV.AM.) 6.3. Semantic neology So far I have dealt with the different pr ocesses used in coin ing new words in the field of architecture which were mainly bas ed on word-formati on devices and the on the borrowing of words lexical items fr om different languages. I would like t o mention here a further possi bility of filling lexic al gaps by means of what could be called semantic neology, a phenomenon that was explai ned more in detail in section 4.6 of this study. This secti on would then treat some aspects of the vocabulary obtained through se mantic tools, mainly the use of metaphors and the acquisition of new sem antic nuances. I do not aim at providing an exhaustive list here since the use of different types of metaphors is widely spread and quite Main results  295 hard to delimit, and the whole issue would call for a study of its own. I will just present some examples found in the corpus regarding se mantic neology so t hat the relevance of these pr ocesses within architecture discours e may also be apprehended. 6.3.1. Scientific metaphors According to Forty (2000:100) , many metaphors in architecture come from the field of science, ranging from many differ ent scientific fields, such as natural sciences, anatomy, biology, physics, mathem atics, mechanics, etc. According to Forty (2000:101), scientific metaphors in architecture belong solely to the modern era since there was no theoret ical separation between science and architecture before the eighteenth cent ury; once this distinction was m ade relevant, the use of scientific metaphor s became effective due to the increasing interest in seeing architecture as if it were a science. One of the most important metaphors within this section menti oned by Forty (2000:87) is that of circulation , a notion born in the physiol ogy area; here several exam ples of t he corpus are quoted featuring terms that would fit within the overall metaphor of circulation, namely distribution, accessi bility, connections, and interconnected spaces: The house is a mineral, half-buried in deep earth,” says Hiro Yamashita, founder of the Tokyo-based practice, referring both to the crystalline structure of the building and the unusual distribution of living space. (p.608, X I X.IM.) accessibility and identity, connections between spaces, the r elationship between public and private, safety and security, community and users, density and value, maintenance and after-care, history and change . (p.619, XX.NLA.). One of the biggest problems with the Taniguchi m akeover—with its massive atrium, hard floors, and cleverly interconnected spaces —is that the whole building seem s to act as a woofer (p.402, VIII.MT.). Main results  296 According to Forty (2000:88), this physi ological metaphor acquires a double meaning when it concurs on the French concept of circulation meaning traffic , a sense apparently introduced in the late eighteenth century; derived from this notion, I have selected from the corpus the metaphors of circuit and journey : It will take a 200m circuit from one circular viewing platform to another through the tree canopy of Kew. (p.595, XVIII.HP.) Where Thompson’s domestic designs enclose space with wonderful dexterity, here she has created an armature that, as we journey through it, allows us, the visitors, to make the space through a looking glass, as it were. (p.87, II.AA.) There is a further one that belongs to th e architect Le Corbus ier’s theoretical contributions and that is quoted as a raw term in Frenc h, promenade architecturale; according to Archispeak (2004:150), this term was invented by Le Corbusier to describe the journey through a building: Enlightenment induced technology led to photography and its painterly antidot e Cubism: Le Corbusier invented the promenade architecturale (p.272, VI.ARW.). Human anatomy and biology are other important sources of metaphors in architecture. One of the most common metaphors is the one represented by the word skin ; the OED quotes a specific meaning ( 1884) in the field of architecture regarding this term, namely descr ibed as “the facing of a wall, in contrast to the material in the heart of it”; this word appe ars several times in the corpus since it is a very popular and thoroughly internalized metaphor: The house presents the sam e skin on all sides, like a barrel – a skin form ed from a rusting steel grate. (p.60, II.AA.) Archispeak (2004:172) relates this concept of skin to that of skeleton , both being words taken in architectural vocabular y from the human body-building analogy; skeleton is also present in the corpus. The ODA (p.718) also quotes a compound expression based on skeleton , namely skeleton-frame , being a Main results  297 “structural frame of concrete, metal, or timber, supporting the floors, roof, and exterior treatment”. Here we pos e an instance taken for the corpus: The steel skeleton is exposed everywhere, with the fast-cr u m bling layers of rain- stained bricks also revealing the he avy concrete formwork. (p.604, XIX.IM.) We may also find the composite expression exoskeleton , defined by the OED as the external integument, whether bony or calcified, as in some animals, or leathery as in others, here ra ther applied to a building: The superstructure continues above the building to create a roof feature in the form of a triangulated e xoskeleton , the angle of which is dictated by the solar access plane to Martin Place. (p.97, II.AA.) Another word, derived fr om the body analogy is rib, which, according to the OED, occurs in 1378 with an architecture meaning: “a piece of timber, metal, etc., forming part of the framew ork or roof of a building”: Using the same router, the company also produced the plywood rib structure for the School of the Art Institute of Chicago's fashio n show stage set. (p.186, IV.AM.) The metahor rib also names a kind or vault, the rib vault (a coumpound da ting from 1814 according to the OED), whic h is also present in the corpus: The triangular framing of the amber, chartreuse, and violet stained glass suggests rib vaults , while the sloped interior walls culminate in pointed apexes th at give the illusion of soaring Gothic arches. (p.3 80, VIII.MT.). Other metaphor that is found in the corpus is lung , a term that, according to Archispeak (2004:113), is also one of that series of body-relat ed metaphors, such as heart , that “entered the ar chitectural vocabulary during the eighteenth century via a more enlightened approach to city design”; both are present in the corpus: It needs green lungs for people’s well-being, so you create parks and things preferably using existing and dom est ic nature. (p.487, X I.AN.) Thus when the foyers are illuminated, it will be possible to look into the heart of the building from outside and to appreciate its structural anatom y." (p.591, XVIII.HP.) Main results  304 outside architecture circles like t he ones found in the corpus, namely cheesegrater, jewel-box or envelope : They've just started to build Richard Rogers' Leadenhall Tower, a.k.a the " cheesegrater ". (p.596, XVIII.HP.) (…) not to mention the vintage hoo ked and needlepoint rugs in the thr ee college- age children’ s je wel-box rooms. (p.144, III.AD.) However, as illustrated by exam ples such as Carlos de Beistegui’ s interior for his rooftop apartment over-looking the Champs-Elysées in an envelope created by Le Corbusier, the inside of buildings was a very different matter. (p.441 IX . RJ.) Other visual metaphors appeal to textur e and have more sophisticated referents like the loans moiré and papier-mache : The mural’s surface forms a shifting moiré of hues, animating the lobby, and slips past the adjacent wall, creating a n alcove to rest or gather before and after performances. (p. 537, XIV.ANW.) Moiré is defined in Archispeak (2004:124) as “a vis ual e ffect that occurs when the periodic units of two or more grid s or mesh screens are overlapped and superimposed”. Papier-mache is defined by the ODA (2006: 557) as a paper- pulp mixed with resin and glue, or consisti ng of shreds of paper glued, together and pressed into mould, used to make orna ments or wall- or ceiling-coverings, however, here it is used figuratively: The main ceiling may look the same as ever, but in fact is now massively dense plasterwork rather than the original which was as thin and sound-transparent as papier-mache. (p. 589, XVIII.HP.) Other important set of visual metaphor s relies on the equation of geometrical forms such as the common compound expr essions T-figure, S-curve, L-plan, or H-pile: The T-figure schema of the residential tower is composed of a broad, thin, lozenge-shaped block of one- and two-level ap art ments facing the ocean, and a square satellite tower uniformly containing one apartm ent p er floor plate . (p.93, II.AA.) Main results  305 They can give rise to places of character throughout the city, like Little Italy (centred on the gentle S-curve of College Street) or Little India (which crunches against a shift in grid where Gerrard Street East jogs north to avo id a former marshland). (p.319, VII.CA.) (…) and the rear theatre, and the construction of a new five-level build ing in an L- plan shape to replace those two buildings. (p.501, X II.AS.) Either proposal would need to fix severely deteriorated steel H-piles holding the structure up. (p.546, XV .AP.) 6.3.5. Other semantic changes Many of the words that are about to be analyzed could also be claimed to be metaphors or metaphoric extensions of an original meaning. I have rather decided to discuss them here as exampl es of semantic neology by semantic change, more specifically what has been called ab ove in section 1.3.7. as examples of “terminologization”, that is, a term taken from general language which acquires a technical meaning or “migration of terms”, that is, a technical term from one specific langu age is used in another o ne, both quite interes ting ways of filling lexical gaps in architecture. 6.3.5.1. General language towards architecture jargon According to the OED, the gener al meaning of the adjective dense appears in 1599. Archispeak (2004:50) describes it as an ar chitecture term (no date is recorded): “crowded or closely compacted. In environmental terms it describes the compactness of population and a spatial compression caused by a close-knit structuring of form.” a city government run by greedy Tammany Hall hacks to a power-engorged monster who rammed highways through dense urban n eighborhoods with a “meat-ax” . (p .407, VIII.MT.) Main results  306 The word slab is quoted for the first time in 1290; its architecture meaning dates from much later, namely 1927, a nd it is described in the OED as “a rectangular block of pre-cast, reinforced conc rete used in building, esp. in multi- storey constructions”: Ordinary portland cement concrete slabs can't be re lied on for watertight construction due to the material's proclivity to crack. (p.512, XIII.AW.) The word bach (1855) , a clipping from the form Bachelor, recently (1927) assumed an architecture-specific meani ng in New Zealand. English as a makeshift hut or a small house at the seaside or at a holiday resort: most of the twentieth century the Australian beach shack and its cou nterpart in New Zealand, the bach , facilitated d ays spent outdoors unconcerned by tidiness. (p.61, II.AA.) The word concept (1556) is another example of a general language word which has became established as an arch it ecture term; the OED acknowledges a use in the context of marketing and desi gn where it means a theme, a set of matching or co-ordinated items. In Archispeak (2004:33) it is listed as part of the designing process: “during or following the act of dige sting and interpreting the program of requirements, or brief, the designer's next undertaking leads to the formation of a concept”: But the principal overture of Cooper's concept is to carve out a daylit at rium at the core of the building that would serve as a new main reading room and become a social heart for the building. (The space that would be lost would be replaced in a new fifth floor that Mies intended but that was never built.) (p. 195, IV.AM.). Brutalism as a synonym of “brutal state” or “brutality” occurred in 1803; the architecture meaning is lo cated in 1953, as “a styl e of art or architecture characterized by deliberate crudity of des ign”; this meaning is ascertained in the corpus: Having said which, the revamp avoided the brutalism that the same design team adopted alongside, and in its own te rms was highly successful (p. 592, XVIII.HP.). Main results  307 Intervention is a word born around 1425 according to the OED; it has a specialized sense in a rchitecture, Archispeak (2004:103) claims t hat it is similar to the widespread use of the word installation in art circles, “ intervention is popular archispeak jargon fo r describing an architectu ral design intention”, a meaning that is not reflected in the OE D but which does occur in the corpus: (…) as part of an intervention directed by Spanish architects José L uis Iñiguez de Onzoño and Antonio Vázquez de Castro, British architect Ian Ritchie memorably added frameless glass elevator towers to the entry facade. (p.250, V.ARD.). Iconic (1656) has developed a meaning designating a person or thing regarded as representative of a cultur e or movement (1976); the specialized meaning in architectu re is described in Archispeak (2004:99) as the pictorial or mental picture of an architectural exam ple that is exemplary of the type: Another ‘village’ type e nvironment has been created at The Brunswick Centre - the major refurbishment of one of London’ s most recognisable and iconic buildings from the 1960’s. (p.616, XX.NLA.) Interface occurs in 1882 with the meaning of a surface lying between two portions of matter or space, and forming their common boundar y. Archispeak (2004:101) defines it as t he point of contact where interaction takes place between two forces, processes or subjects . Interface is a surface lying between two spaces: Instead of a securit y wall or fence, the prison is ringed with equally impenetrable lower buildings that act as an interface with th e outside world, a kind of halfway house. (p.598, XVIII.HP.) The word armature appears in the sixteent h cent ury; it gained a meaning in architecture by 1903, according to the OED, as the iron bars or framing employed in the consolidation of a building: Where Thompson’s domestic designs enclose space with wonderful dexterity, here she has created an armature that, as we journey thr ough it, allows us, the visitors, to make the space through a looking glass, as it were. (p.87, II.AA.) Main results  308 According to the ODA (2006:28), annex is a wing of a building or a supplementary building desi gned to provide additional accommodation, such as outbuildings; this word first appeared ar ound the sixteenth century with more general connotations as some thing that is “annexed”: The more subdued 1928 m arble annex modeled after it by Benjamin Wista r Morris on the corner of 36th Street and Madison Avenue. (p.246, V.ARD.) Archispeak (2004:168) quotes the word shard (a gap or notch) in its architectural usage in the context of st udent projects whic h assemble design proposals using jagged, dart-shaped forms with fier cely tapered and pointed curved planes: His slavish attempts to represent the exterior form of intersecting sh ards and boxes on the interior leaves rooms with inexplicable pieces of drywall appearing in the corners. (p.612, XIX.IM.) Linearity is another of those terms bo rrowed from general language to become architecture-loaded. Archispeak (2004:112) describes it as the dominating directional dynamic which is particularly evident in the ex terior appearance of buildings grounde d in Modernism. This term is quoted as part of a book title in the corpus, namely, Architecture and the Burdens of Linearity (p. 279, VI.ARW.), in relation with its nonce synonym directionalism . The word additive is described in the ODA (2006:8) away from its original general meaning as a method of agglutinative or serial design involving asymmetrical plans and elevations, wher e the interior spaces and volumes ar e suggested by the exterior treatment of projections, roofs, etc. In another unifying gest ure, the architects designed a metal-fram ed GRP-covered canopy that runs the length of the building, which Auletta says was in the spirit of Ted Cullinan’s ‘ additive ’ design concept for the campus .(p.4 20, IX .RJ.) According to Archispeak (2004:110), layering is an architectural buzzword that was in common currency long befor e computer imaging. The idea of a Main results  309 building as the conscious expression of a s e ries of layers of space or materials seems to have begun with t he early Modernists: The layering of perforated steel slats and custo m -made solar tiles adds depth and movement to the loggias. (p.530, XIV.A NW.) According to Archispeak (2004:116), the word mediate is derived from the adjective "median", med iat e means to intervene betw een hostile factions or conflicting ideas or principles: However, the architect must mediate between the client’s programm ati c requirements and the building’ s capacity to meet them. (p. 4, I.AIA.) The word brief , born in the thir teenth century, is quoted in Archispeak (2004:20) as the representation of instru ctions and specifications given for a design task; A brief to design new buildings in so culturally rich an environm ent is one with particular responsibilities for the architect. (p. 432, IX .RJ.) Policy (originally fourteenth century) is another general word that is quoted in the ODA (2006:589) as the im provement or embellishment of an estate or town; here we cite an exampl e from the corpus within the compound urban policy : The work is informed by urban policy and design, leading to city-building, and has included many artful designs in the public realm .( p.349,VII.CA.) 6.3.5.2. From a specialized language tow ards architecture There are many terms in architecture t hat originally belong to the field of Engineering, Physics, C hemistry, etc., in the case of the term extrusion it could be claimed to be borrowed from material science. Extrusion occ urred in 1638, but its specific meaning related to indus trial materials appears as recently as 1921; The plane of the guardrail is illuminated by a continuous vertical lighting elem ent of fluorescent fixtures, which are housed in alu minum extrusions and supported by a steel tension rod and extend the entire four-story height. (p.173, IV.AM.). Main results  310 The term Metabolism defined as “ structural change in a tissue” (and thus originally pertaining to M edicine) appeared, according t o the OED, in 1872; the OED quotes an architecture-specific meaning in 1960 as a “modernist movement in Japanese architecture, which viewed the city as a single entity and emphasized the need for an integrated approach to urban life, with buildings serving both public and priv ate functions and being ad aptable to changes in the city as a whole”; this concept is introduced in the corpus: Maybe the Metabolists are the most im portant reference. Our work can be a critique on metabolism . The situation is really different. (p. 477, XI.AN.). Another term coming from scienc e that has been mentioned above among scientific metaphor s is the adjective organic; its meanings were, according to the OED, initially related to Medicine and Biology (around 1400). Its application to architecture is connected with the writings of Frank Lloyd Wright to designate “any of various styles in whic h the character of buildings is more or less reminiscent of a living organism”. In the corpus it is also mentioned in reference to this architect: Fay Jones stands out as a follower of Frank Lloyd Wright who managed to carry the legacy of organic architecture forward to the end of the twentieth century (p.39, I.AIA.) The word green was applied to environm entalism and ecologica l movements in the 1970s (and thus it was an example back then of “terminologization”): around this time the term ecological archit ecture is also coined probably borrowed from environmentalism. The term green is common ly applied in architecture: Today, the news about green buildings is that they're no longer newsworthy (p.201, IV.AM.) It occurs also in compounds such as green design or green-built homes : Main results  311 As awareness about humanity's impact on the health of t he planet continues to grow, green design and sustainability have becom e hot topics for the architectural community as well as for those who work, li ve, and play in and around its structures. (p.188, IV.AM.) Townhouses sit in groupings of t hree or four units around highly landscaped “placitas,” form ing natural conversation points in the lan dscape. The “ green-built ” homes are energy efficient, with active and passive solar energy elements, and are structured to facilitate water harvesting. (p. 191, IV.AM.) The word accent, originally belonging to lingui stic circles (1521) reaches its specific meaning in architecture in 1972: Each of the studio’s projects featu res clever metal acce nts . For the Brooklyn Kinetoscope, a backlit metal panel facade recalls the br ight, flashing lights of old cinemas. (p.224, V.ARD.) Another term would be bollard , initially a wooden or iron post, on a ship, a whale-boat, or a quay, for securing ropes to; in 1948 it wa s applied to urban furniture as a post on a traffic island: London’s public realm com prises everything outside our front door: from pavements, bollards and street benches to great Georgian squares, Victorian streets and parks, modern roads and transport interchanges. (p. 633, XX.NLA.) The following words have the added peculiari ty of being originally loanwords that maintain to a great extent their foreign façade and that have acquired a specific architectural meaning, namely ersatz , charette , vignette and genius loci . The German word ersatz , when applied to architecture, is defined by the ODA (2006:267) as that indiscrimi nately eclectic architecture with motifs taken from many sources and verging on kitsch as in many examples of Post-Modernism: Then they had to come up with a d esign that was both sympathetic to the Tudor vernacular – all wattle, daub and wonky timber – while creating a contemporary house without a whiff of ersatz . (p.442, IX .RJ.) Initially a word taken from Old French around the fifteenth century meaning a type of vehicle, charette, is an architectural term recently rebaptized (1959) conveying a period of group work, typi cally undertaken in order to meet a Main results  312 deadline or collaborative wor kshop focusing on a particular problem or project, etc: The AIA SF Urban Design Committee also held a charette , resulting in a policy paper entitled "The Embarcadero: Addressing th e Issues". (p. 20, I.AIA.) The word vignette which initially meant an ornament al or decorative design on a blank space in a book or among printed matte r (1751) is taken in architecture as referred to the smallness of impression or view, such as a short descriptive essay or character sketch: The models range in type, including modelled vignettes of the development of individual schemes; presentation m o dels. (p.77, II.AA.) The Latin term Genius Loci connotes the genius of the place and it is, according to the ODA, (2006:310) an archit ectural term referring to the presiding deity or spirit of a place and thus ever y place has its own unique qualities, not only in terms of its physical makeup, but of how it is perceiv ed. This definition resembles the one given in the OED but it is of great currency in architecture discussions: Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre, and Kenneth Frampton promoted the practice of critical regionalism as a venue f or an architecture that resisted the corrosive forces of globalization by attending to the genius loci of particular sites (p.8, I.AIA.). The Latin word opus is, according to the OED, a work or production in any of the arts; a production or performance more generally. In the ODA (2006:538) it refers to "work, as intended to designate constructions, or arrangement of materials in construction”: Whatever your reaction to the chu rch is, you cannot deny that you are in the presence of a flagrantly unforgettable architectur al opus (p.227 V.ARD.). Conclusions  313 7. Conclusions 7.1. Introduction The current research was intended to embo dy a new c ontribution to the field of ESP, in that it represents a close, co mprehensive des cription of the lexicon of AD in English. Although t here is a var ied literatur e on the description of specialized languages, to my knowledge none has been devoted wholly to the lexicon of architecture. As described in section 1.1. 3, those professional and academic languages that have been extens ively studied include marketing, scientific English, the language of advertising, the l anguage of law, the language of cycling, civil engineering an d the language of computer science, among others. I have taken the position that AD is a type of profe ssional lang uage and thus is expected to display specific lexical features, as is the case with varieties such as law, business, medicine, engine ering, advertising, com puter science, etc. To my knowledge, the most pertinent study here is Caballero’s (2006), yet while this is a rigorous and interesti ng work, it is devoted mainly to the description of the role of metaphor in AD, and the lexicon therein is not itself analyzed. Thus, the current study represents a unique contribution to the field, not only because of its innovative character in the field of ESP but also due to its methodology. The main innovation in this sense is the corpus, which has been designed and compiled in order to characte rize the main lexical features of the language of architecture. This was dev eloped according to pre-established research aims and combines manual insp ection with computerized processing. The corpus was printed out for a preliminary reading, allowing for an overall Conclusions  320 as “a brick which is strong, dense, se mi-vitreous, and impervious to water, used in the construction of underground or exposed areas of a building”. Those words whose architectura l meaning is only recorded in Archispeak are often cases of specialization whose su btleties have not ye t been included in what is strictly speaking a technical source, such as the ODA. T hose compounds listed in none of th ese dictionaries are per haps the most interesting linguistically. They attest a very particula r stage in their course of lexicalization and institutionalization, and al so confirm the ongoing proc ess of the creation of vocabulary in AD by means of com pounding, as well as confirming the continued legitimacy of co mpounding as a fully productive device for coining new words in the area of architecture. Such a conclusion ha s been further confirmed by the fact that a number of compounds that I classified as listed only in Archispeak in 2008 have more recently been included in the OED, which suggests that many others will be soon consi dered as compound terms in the future and will be listed as such. Channel glass, for example, occ urs three times in the corpus, and thus can be considered a recurrent Noun Phrase, one which might eventually be considered a fixed compound term and included in dictionaries. With the term building perfor mance we may sense that this is a compound in the process of bec oming lexic alized, in that it already occurs as a whole unit embedded in the compound building-performance design. The category of non-listed terms in cludes brand names which are not yet listed as proper names of registered brands but whic h might also have become popularized as common nouns. Such is the case of K cement , a brand name for a type of cement defined in the corpus as “an expansive cement used to create shrinkage-compensating concrete” , a definition which already differentiates it Conclusions  321 from its original meaning. Some terms occurring in the corpus which have been lexicalized despite their origin as brand names are the material terms Lucite (1937) and Kevlar (1974), both of which were or iginally proprietary names. The semantic interpretability of certain compounds, such as mi ssi on statement or design rationale , is only apparent becaus e these compounds in the field of architecture have undergone a terminologization or specialization process, as recorded in Archispeak: these terms gained new semantic nuances that served to shift them subtly aw ay from general langu age, rendering them true architectural terms, and thus they occu r in s pecialized glossaries such as Archispeak. The most common items in the technica l lexicon found in the corpus are related to elements in buildings, namely building typology, materials and attributes and properties; this is due, of course, to the prevalence of descriptions of buildings in many of t he texts in the corpus. Semant ically speaking, howev er, the most important characteristic in AD as far as compounding is concerned is the power of certain compounds to act as models for inductive generalizations by means of which new compounds are created, that is, compound paradigms which become the model for newly cr eated combinations. Caballero (2006- 141/2) refers to such constructions as “stock of constructions” or “linguistic templates”. This form of creating new terms, by analogy with certain models, might seem to be quite mechanical and thus less creative; however, it is a most productive device. Terms are created on analogy with consolidated words which are well-known in the linguistic communi ty; once they are coined, they go through a process of institut ionalization, finally appear ing in dic tionaries. Take, for example, window frame , which occurs in 1703; we can assume that window Conclusions  322 head (1730) was coined after it, as with wind ow shutter (1756), window seat (1778), window grate (1813) and wind ow pane (1819), all of them recorded in the OED, that is, their status as lexi cal units has already been institutionalized; however, window trim , another such compound occ uring in architectural texts, has not yet been registered in the OED . There are other templates or paradigms which are more abstract and metaphor ical, such as the properties building performance , energy efficiency or material authenticity . Those nominal compounds made from a sequence of an adjective and a head noun are very often taken as simp le Noun Phrases. Their semantic recoverability and transparency make them lia ble not to be listed in dictionaries. The most recent one-word compounds of this type in our corpus refer to materials and equipment, such as double-glazing (1943) or grey-water (1970). Recent two-word compounds of this kind include technical expressions such as solar cell (1955) and solar heating (1952), and more abstract concepts such as lateral thinking (1966) or critical mass (1940). These last two specialized concepts are originally from psychology and nuclear physics, respectively; t hey are both listed in Archispeak with an architectural sem antic reading, a semantic change which adds discourse opacity to t he text and a higher le vel of conceptual sophistication, thus contributing to the creation of the effect of gatekeeping, that is, the establishment of a linguistic boundary that se parates experts from non- experts. These are terms which apparent ly do not belong to the technical vocabulary of architecture as such, but which have certain specific nuances when used in texts on architecture. Ther e is also the case of simple common nouns which become architectural terms, such as tall building , an expression used as a synonym for skyscraper , and long gallery , a type of Jacobean gallery, Conclusions  323 which can be classified as cases of specialization. Other cases here might include historic character , ideal city , urban fabric and ecological footprint , all derived from general language terms but resulting in a technical meaning. AD is also sensitive to new phenomena in the field, as is the case with the compound cultural tourism , which already has an entry in the ODA; although still unrecorded in the OED, this term refers to the specific interest in visiting sites of architectural and historic interest. Within Adjective + Noun compounds, a wide number of technical items have not been yet listed in any of the sources used, examples being coffered ceiling and leaded window . Both these expressions oc cur in Harris (2006) in the description of other technical terms, but they themselves have not yet been recorded by either the OED or ODA. It is interesting to note the productivity of a number of adjectives, including sustainable , raw and faux , in the formation of nominal compounds of the type adjective + noun: - Sustainable design, su stainable technology, sustainable building, sustainable material , etc. - Raw metal, raw steel, raw plywood, raw architecture , raw tactility , etc. - Faux finish, faux fieldstone, f aux driftwood, faux architecture , etc. Whereas we can consider these adjectives to have become populariz ed and productive in AD, there are others which only combine with certain nouns, such as dividing or coffered , w hich co-occur almost exclusively in the corpus with wall and ceiling respectively. Some elements can be so useful that they become almost a combining form; consider, for example, the term revival , which might have lost part of its semantic content in expressions such as Romanesque revival, Georgian-revival, Conclusions  324 Gothic revival or Greek revival . But if we really want to see examples of lexical loss in terms that seem to be in the proc ess of becoming a particle, we have to point towards very productive expressions like – shaped , – style or – like , which occur repeteadly in the corpus. The latter is highly productive in building typologies where there is no specific word to name a given concept, and in such cases an approximation is used instead, as with bas ilicalike, bunker-like, castle- like, fortress-like, lantern- like, loftlike, pavilion-like, shopping-mall-like, tent-like or tepee-like . All of these resort to an already -known term, which is associated with a concept in order to create another. In section 6.1.1.6 devoted to neoclass ical compounds, we also saw the same process in initial comb ining forms (ICFs), such as bio - or eco -, whose systematic productivity leads towards a possible transformation into prefixes instead of ICFs. There are also cases of analogy such as suburban sprawl (1949), generated by drawing an analogy with another ex pression, as in urban spr awl (1934). The term vertical sprawl deserves special mention. It is not yet listed in the OED or in the ODA , and it appears to be analogous to the previous terms using sprawl ; howev er, it radically transforms the idea of sprawl, which was traditionally horizontal, thus introducing a high quotient of figurative language here, which illustrates the creativity, versatility and mall eability of AD. As we can see, there is a model, which is r ecogni zable, familiar, and which functions as a point of departure; this is then enriched, while maintaining some coherence. The language is enlarged responding to the new conceptual needs, which emerge constantly. Conclusions  325 Another remarkable example of analogy , which is not yet listed in the dictionaries, is that of structural plastic , born through a similarity with structural iron and structural steel , which are listed in the OED. This type of compounding also shows the importance of the contextualization of architecture vocabulary in that there are many references to the source of materials and styles; consider, for example, the compounds French door, Venetian window, Dutch door, Roman mosaic and Belgian glass . All these, created using a referen ce to a pl ace of origin, illustrate in their coin ing a certain desire for traceability. This cont extual referencing mi ght also be applied to the concept of authorship, both for persons and brand names, as in Botta- designed altar, Mieasian-inspired planes , Palladian window or Kevlar-reinforced thermoplastic . Traceability is important, and so too is t he visibility of the process by which certain materials are obtained, as in wrought-iron, locally- sources glass, oxidized titanium or black-lackered mahogany . These are condensed descriptions which manage to relate significant information about how a material has been obtained. Other cases of personification incl ude examples suc h as the concept self- sufficient housing. This type of metaphorical perception is common in architecture. Some apparent paradox es are also found, such as demountable house , transitional space and transformable space , all of which might sound strangely contradictory to the uninitiated. The complexity of AD is expressed not only through single devices of word- formation but also through the combinati on of various of these processes: structural bravura combines compounding with borrowing, the adjective mi cr o- Conclusions  326 hydro combines two neoclassical c ombing forms in a rhyme-motivated compound, and lo w-e coating combines clipping and compounding, as do eco- tech and acronym and compounding in GPS-guided bulldozer . Another remarkable phenomenon is t hat of making adjectives from nouns. Thus black-box , a noun denoting a not ional location where the act of designing takes place, or the product of a design process that avoids cust om- designed or intrusive st atements, becomes used as an adjective in black-boxed norm. The opposite is also true, with adjec tives that become nouns, as in tactility. Again, these t ransformations point towa rds the ductility of the lexicon in the discourse of architecture which t ends towards the full exploitation of the resources at hand. There is a further feature, which we might call the “architect-centric” character of architecture, that is, the cent ral role of the architect; this is also reflected in the coining of vocabu lary, as in expressions such as brand-name architect, starchitect, authorless architecture and bastard architecture , all of these referring to the author ship of buildings or to the relevance of those who produce architecture. This tendency is indi rectly captured in vocabulary that has been coined and later popularize d by an architect or designer, as is the cas e with Geodesic dome , a term used by the Americ an designer and architect, R. Buckminster Fuller. The tendency for compactness, menti oned above, may also give rise to expressions such as soon-to-be-landscaped square , soon-to-be-talle st building , knock-your-eyes-out building , etc., where a certain tendency towards wordness may lead to a humorous effects. Conclusions  327 There are also examples of int erdisciplinarity, as in urban povera , an analogical term deriving from arte povera , an expression comi ng from the field of art which again shows the conceptual reper toire behind the creation of terms in AD. Also analy zed in this study are long strings of terms not classified as compounding which contribute to the foster ing of a sense of opacity, lexica l density, technicality and the lexical identity of AD . This helps to increase the sense of expertise in a specialized language. As for examples of rule-bending creativity, a neoclassical compound occurring in the corpus was furniphobia , where a modern stem furni - deriving from furniture is followed by a neoclassical final combining form - phobia . This term exploits the productivity of a given pattern in order to create a neologism which is employed ironically, a given tast e in interior design described as a syndrome. The same happens with façade-echtomy , where a modern base is followed by a neoclassical final combining form; both furniphobia and faça de- echtomy recall the metaphorical nat ure of architecture in relation to medicine and they can be regarded as examples of morphologica l creativity: they show the productivity and versatility of a given device and prod uce interesting pragmatic effects. At the extreme there is the term permaculture (1978), which is not a nonce-formation but a relatively recent neologism already listed in the OED. Superficially it follows the st ructure of a neologism but both elements ( perma - and – culture ) are modern, pointing towards the adaptability of the neoclassical paradigm behind it: it is a model wh ich is not dead and it is achieving new ways of being used productively. Some neologisms, like biophilia, were registered in the OED when I co llected the database in 2007/8; however, Conclusions  328 biophilia is now listed in the OE D. The same happened with biofiltration and biocybernetics . The term biorealism , which is not liste d yet, is likely to be fully recognized at some point soon, along with a ll the rest. Another way of looking at the use of the neoclassical devices to coin new words is that they represent a way of legitimizing and enhancing the le xicon of architecture by using a conventional and long-established mechan ism, one which is also typical of scientific discourse. The Initial Combining Form (ICF) neo- is also very commonly attested in the corpus, serving in the creation of many terms, such as neo-primitive, neo- palladian, neo-modern, neo-Italian, neo- baroque, neo-gothic, neo-vernacular and Neo-PoMo . Other ICFs are less common, like proto -, which produces terms such as proto-punk , a compound adjective which wa s not listed in the OED in 2008 but which is now registered. The ICFs mega-, mic ro - and macro - are very frequently used, probably becau se they convey the idea of space, and because they can also expr ess hyperbolic nuances. Ther m o - is also frequent, given its use in describing building per formance qualities. One of t he most recent ICFs is Nano -, which first surfaced around 1947. As Pr ć i ć (2005-317) claims, neoclassical co mpounds are often liable to be paraphrased using English equivalents wh ic h are less learned and formal; from this we may infer that the propensity to wards their use in the corpus may be a pragmatic and stylistic posit ioning that goes beyond me re terminological need and thus draws a linguistic boundary that also contributes to generating a sense of cultural identity. Th is is supported by Pr ć i ć ’s (2005-323) claim that a great deal of the interpretation of neocla ssical compositions depends on the knowledge of the classica l Greek and Latin elements themselves, especially so Conclusions  329 in those cases that show a high degree of technicality and wh ich are thus not always available to all speakers. As for adjectival compounds, it is interesting to attest a number of terms that appear and become gradually institutionalized, as with those lexical items not listed in the OED by 2008 and which are now registered, among them solar- powered. The structure here, with a fi nal adjective ending in – ed , is highly productive in the corpus: mansard-roofed , climate-controlled, steel-fram ed , etc. I turn now to derivation and to pref ixation more specifically. Wit hin the scope of prefixation, the use of the negative prefix non - in expressions suc h as non-spatial or non-place lends these derivatives literary and philosophical undertones. There are also neologisms such as deurbanize and s uperstructure , the latter recently included in the OED, as well as trans m aterial; meanwhile, superstructure is not listed and thus has no recorded date. Recent neologisms coined by pr efixation are ex-urban, re-zoning or pre-planning , which serve as evidence of the extent to which prefixat ion is a productive device for the coining of new words in AD. The use of prepositions as prefixes is also observed, as in conurbation (1915), off-site (1939), in-house (1956) and condominium (1962). The suffix –ing is quit e frequent and is present in recent neologisms such as lands caping (1927), stream lining (1918), daylighting (1937) and streetscaping , the latter not yet registered in the OED. Another suffix which shows a high degree of productivity is –ism (mainly for styles and movements, as in Palladian ism ), to be found in relatively new terms such as Miesianism (after architect Mies van der Ro he, not listed in the OED) and Br utalism (1953). The suffix – ation is still productive, lea ding to gentrification (1973) and pedestrianiazation (1964). Certain significant abs tract concepts in the discourse Conclusions  336 metaphors in architecture are of the scientific type, from fields as diverse as the natural sciences, anatomy, biology, physics, mathematics, mechanics, etc. and, as Forty (2000:11) claims, they belonged to the modern era, since it was not in fact until modern times t hat architecture and science were theoretically separated. Those metaphors related to biology and anatomy are especially relevant and are widely repeated in AD in general, as reflected in the corpus, where we find expressions such as skin, lung, heart, wing, body , shell , etc. All these metaphors emphasize the vision of buildings as living organisms, materials that age and spaces that flow ; although the use of metaphors is of course not specific to AD, this particula r perspective is difficult to find to the same degree in other disciplines. Social metaphors reflect an interest in the social qualities of buildings and those metaphors whic h bring together architecture and language/arts have led to some well-known positions in which architecture is seen as a “text”. The use of visual metaphors based on the resemblance of shapes and images should al so be noted, a fact that reflects the capacity of architects to assimilat e and produce ideas by graphic means and to translate ideas into shapes, as opposed to other dis ciplines where the visual component is often not so intrinsic. From a linguistic point of view, t here are several remarkable processes regarding semantic neology, such as those of specialization or terminologization . As noted in this study, it is very often the case that words from general language acquire spec ialized or technica l meani ngs. The use of such terms implies a high level of difficult y since their nuances may not be perceived by the uninitiated. Through this process architects take general language and transform it through a sort of technical-lin guistic colonization. AD reinterprets Conclusions  337 words, producing new terms which are very often enriched with metaphorical connotations (e.g. dense, concept, intervention, mediate, brief , etc.). Thanks to one of the sources used in the study, Archis peak , we can observe how effective terminoligization is in generating a highly comple x textual fabric. The migration of terms from a specialized language to architecture has also been attested in the corpus (e.g. Metabolism, green, ersatz, charette , etc.), a fact that highlights the complex nature of AD, its intellectu al ambition, and its interdisciplinary nature. We can also notice the “popularizat ion” of architecture terms into general language, subsumed into the ge neral culture, probably the result of architecture having become of general interest in society. Through the close analysis of the lexis of the cor pus, the process es which are most commonly used in the formati on of architectural terms have been described. It seems that language-internal resources of word-formation as a whole exceed the use of borrowed material . If we take process es individually, whereas loanwords have an important impact, it is co mpounding that is by far the most prevelant process. Derivation pr ocesses, especially suffixation are also relatively common. Broadly speaking, syntagmat ic neology is by far the most common type of neology in AD. More specifically, if we analyze the most common processes taking place from 1900 onwards in techni cal and semitechnical terms, that is, the most recently coined architectural terms (here I only take into account those listed in the OED, since only those hav e a recorded date), the current devices employed for coining new words in the fiel d of architectural may be outlined. The analysis of recently-coined terms in th e language of architecture (138 items) reveals that the most common proces s is still compounding, followed by Conclusions  338 loanwords, suffixation, spec ialization and prefix ation; equally minor, although s till present, are blends, acronymy, cli ppings and ex-nihilo formations: FIGURE 25. Recently-coined terms We see here the varied and rich nature of the formation of lexis in AD, in which all processes make at least some contribution. Leaving aside the issue of re cent coinages, if we consider specifically the core architectural terms, that is, those list ed in the ODA, we see that more than one third have a foreign origin, that is , they have been coined by means of loanword neology at some point in th e history of archit ectural lexicon; compounding is the next most common dev ice, followed by derivation and different forms of semantic neology. Ot her word-formation processes such as conversion, clipping, blend, etc., make re latively minor contributions. Apart from word-formation processes, there is a bulk of vocabulary coming m ainly from Old French, Middle English, Old English, Anglo-Norman and Common Germanic. Few expressions are variants, corrupti ons or of obscure/unknown origin. With the lexis of architecture clos ely examined, I have come to c onclude that the word-formation processes in this specialized di scourse (compounding, Recently-coined terms Compoundi ng 38.4% Loan w or ds 13.7% Suffixation 12.3% Semantic Neology 10.1% Prefixation 8.6% Clipping 3.6 % Ex-nihilo 3.6% Blend 3.6% A cronyms 3.6% A nalogy 1.4 % Conversion 0.7% Conclusions  339 borrowing, derivation, metaphor, specializ ation, acronymy, analogy, etc.) are not essentially different from those found in general Eng lish or in other specialized languages. The crucial difference is the frequency in their occurrence and the discourse identity to which they conform. 7.3. Closing remarks Let us here remind ourselves of the defin ition of architecture as found in the Oxford Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape : Architecture might be described as the art and science of designing a building having qualities of beauty, geometry, emotiona l an d spiritual power, intellectual content and complexity, soundness of construction, convenient planning, many virtues of different kinds, durable and pleasing materials, agreeable colouring and decorations, serenity and dynamism, good proportions and acceptable scale, and many mnemonic associations drawing on a great range of precedents ( ODA, 2006:40). This definition encapsulates the ess enc e of what has been described throughout this study; the language of arch itecture, as architecture itself , responds both to art and to science and t hus its nature is somewhat unusual when seen in relation to other technica l and scientific languages . As an art, the language of architecture and its lexic on has creative undertones, and it also draws on other artistic disciplines such as painting, sculpture, literature, music, and the creation of vocabulary by means of semantic neology an d metaphors. As a science, architecture shares terminolog y with mat hematics, physics, biology, engineering and medicine, etc. Architecture enbraces design, driven by beauty and geometry, a fact that explains the frequency of visual metaphors and graphic language; architecture, however, is also dr iven by emotions (the idea of buildings as living organisms, very often personified, that fu lfil functions and needs) and cultivated content, which may explain the apparent need for scholarly references Conclusions  340 and indeed the intellectual recognition of the discipline through its language. Architecture includes sound construc tion, planning, proportion, scale and materials which produce the main bulk of construction terms, most of them adopted long ago, but with new terms derived fr om the influx of new materials and techniques. Finally, ar chitecture has “m any mnemonic associations drawing on a great range of precedents” that constantly feed its voc abulary with references to its own history and its own lexical constructs . Thus, the lexicon of AD responds to the very nature of the di scipline, that is, it repr esents each and every aspect of architecture. But not only is AD an accurate reflection of the kaleidoscopic nature of the discipline; those working in t he field are aware not only of having a discourse of their own, but are indeed fond of this. He nce they allow themselves poetic licence, including rule-bending creat ivity, neologisms, foreign words, metaphors, etc. in the use of their specialized language. Th eir view of architecture is different from that of the uninitiated, and they use all available resources to draw a boundary (by means of all the devic es I have mentioned that encourage opacity and technicality) to keep thei r linguistic identity differentiated. To use a metaphor from the field, Vitr uvian’s definition of architecture as firmness, commodity and delight , we may say that a part of the lexicon of architecture responds to firmness (the sound vocabulary referring to construction, materials, building typology), part to commodity (terms related to properties and functions of architecture) and part to delight (those words inc luded in order to fulfil stylistic needs and creativity). Summary in Spanish/Resumen en español  341 8. Summary in Spanish/ Resumen en español Este trabajo de investigación representa una aportación signific ativa al campo del Inglés con fines específicos dado que constituye una descripción pormenorizada de los aspectos léxico s más reseñables del discurso de arquitectura en inglés desde el enfoque de la Lingüí stica de corpus. Aunque existe una amplia variedad de estudi os que describen distintos lenguajes especializados desde múltiple s orientaciones, no nos consta ninguno dedicado de manera específica al léxico de la ar quitectura desde la perspectiva del Inglés con fines específicos partiendo de un corpus de textos reales diseñado ad hoc . Si bien existe un interesante y deta llado estudio sobre el papel de la metáfora en el lenguaje de la arquite ctura (Caballero 2006), éste parte de una concepción muy distinta y no trata los mismos aspectos que aborda este trabajo, cuya especificidad léxica es muy acentuada y cuyo corpus es mucho mayor que el que se toma como refer encia en ese estudio anterior. Tampoco se centra en aspectos léxi cos el trabajo de Roldán et al (2011), una proximación al lengu aje de la arquitectura y de la ingeniería civil desde un ángulo muy concreto, el de la lingüístic a aplicada; su estudio tiene una clar a orientación pedagógica marcada de ayudar a los estudiantes y profesionales de ambas disciplinas a comunicarse en e scenarios académ icos y profesionales. Entre los lenguajes profes ionales y académicos más representados en la bibliografía especializada se encuentran el inglés del marketing y los negocios, el inglés científico, el inglés de la publicidad, el inglés de la tecnología, el inglés jurídico, etc. En este trabajo se parte de la premisa de que siendo un lenguaje profesional adscrito a una disciplina específica, al igual que los mencionados anteriormente, el lenguaje de la arquitectura de be poseer características Summary in Spanish/Resumen en español  342 propias que lo diferencien y caract ericen frente al lenguaje común y a los demás lenguajes técnicos o especializados . A la necesidad de c ubrir este vacío en el análisis de un discurso especializado, el de la arquitectura, en el campo del inglés con fines específicos, hay qu e sumar la coyuntura que atraviesa el panorama educativo europeo derivado del proceso de Bolonia que ha favorecido la predominancia de la lengua inglesa en un contexto de movilidad estudiantil y de fuerza de trabajo (programas de intercambio, diplomas internacionales, etc.) derivando en un proceso progresivo de internacionalización que se verifica especialmente en el ámbito de la arquitectura cuya práctica está cada vez más globalizada: el lenguaje especializado de la arquitectura es utiliz ado por un gran número de profesionales que se tienen que formar para desarrollar su profesión globalmente, algo que, sin duda, implica la necesid ad de profundizar en el conocimiento del inglés especializado en es te campo; el papel fundamental de la lengua inglesa como ling ua franca en esta disciplina justificaría la realización de estudios como el que nos ocupa para facilitar el conocim iento de dicho lenguaje. Por lo tanto, esta aportación sería relevante, no sólo desde el punto de vista de la investigación en el campo de las lenguas con fines específicos sino también desde la lingüística aplicada a la enseñanz a de un lenguaje técnico y también de la lexicografía, de la li ngüística de corpus y de la traducción. Esta investigación consta de dos par tes diferenciadas: el primer bloque está dedicado a la revisión del marco c onceptual sobre el que se sostiene el estudio, mientras que el segundo bl oque desarrolla los objetivos, la Summary in Spanish/Resumen en español  343 metodología, la descr ipción de los resu ltados y conclusiones del estudio de corpus. Entre los conceptos que se desenv uelven en la primera parte se encuentran aquellos articulados en torn o a las lenguas específicas: las comunidades epistemológicas y las com unidades discursivas, la importancia del inglés como lingua franca a nivel internacional, el grado de carácter técnico de las lenguas específicas, etc. Se presenta así mismo una revisión de bibliografía variada que trata estas lengu as de espec ialidad como son el inglés técnico, el inglés científico, el inglés de los negocios y el marketing, el inglés de la publicidad, el inglés jurídico, etc. Se perfilan brevemente también algunos apuntes sobre el discurso de la arquite ctura en inglés que dejan entrever la conciencia de la existenc ia de una identidad lingüística diferenciada, no sólo desde el interior de los círc ulos profesionales y acad émicos de la arquitect ura sino también desde fuera. A continuaci ón, se introduce un breve apunte s obre el desarrollo del discurso de ar quitectur a a través de la historia destinado a caracterizar el papel de la comunicaci ón en el campo de la arquitectura: el papel de los tratados de esta disciplina, la importancia del lenguaje, la influencia de la arquitectura en el vocabulario, el cará cter interdisciplinar, los intercambios geográficos, las traducciones de los textos de arquitectura, etc. todos ellos, aspectos que, sin duda, tendrán huella en la evoluc ión y carácter de este lenguaje. Un vez que ha quedado perfi lado el cont exto del trabajo a través de las secciones dedicadas al ámbito de las l enguas profesionales y ac adémicas en general y al de la de arquitectura en par ticular, el estudio av anza hacia el campo de la morfología: una sucinta in troducción de los conceptos básicos en Summary in Spanish/Resumen en español  344 la creación de palabras como son la neol ogía, la productividad y la creatividad da paso a la descripción de los principa les métodos de formación de palabras que incluyen procesos de neología sintagmática, se mántica y por préstamo, procesos todos ellos que serán susceptib les de ser identificados en el corpus para la creación del vocabul ario de la arquitectura. Siguiendo como princip al referencia a Bauer (1978,1983,1998,2001) , se apuntan los llamados word- formation devices entre los que se encuentran la co mposició n, la derivación, la conversión, la deriv ación regresiva, la truncación, los acrónimos, las formaciones ex-nihilo, las analogías, etc. De entre ellos, se presta mayor atención a la composición, dado que ha de mostrado ser muy productiva en el campo del ESP como afirmaba Leech (1972:136) cuando ac uñaba el tér mino “compounding propensity”. El siguiente proceso que se describe es el de la neología a través de los préstamos en el que se mencionan los principales conceptos implicados: definición de préstamos, niveles de naturalización, préstamos de lujo y préstamo necesario, préstamos técnicos, calcos, etc. El último proceso de creación de términos que se analiza es el d e la neología semántica en el que se dedica especial at ención a la definic ión de metáfora y, de manera más específica, al papel de la metáfora en el léxico de las lenguas profesionales, como es el caso de la in geniería y la arquitectura. Se expone n también procesos de cambio semántico c omo las transiciones de palabras comunes al lenguaje técnico y viceversa. El bloque teórico concluye con una sección sobre la formación de términos des de la perspectiva de los estudios de terminología. Summary in Spanish/Resumen en español  345 Ya en la parte consagrada al estudio en sí, éste se describe como un trabajo eminentemente descrip tivo y sincrónico que tr ata sobre el discurso de los arquitectos en inglés moderno a partir de materiales escritos. Desde el punto de vista metodológico, este estudio constituye una aportación novedosa, dado que toma como punto de partida un corpus que ha sido diseñado y compilado para este fi n específico. Esta herramienta ha si do creada de acuerdo con un propósito de inve stigación preestablecido y combina la inspección manual y el procesamient o computarizado. Este corpus fue precedido de otro piloto preliminar de 200.000 palabra s que permitió, tras su evaluación manual, obtener una visión global de los aspectos más sobresalientes que serían sujeto de la in vestigación. Este corpus piloto fue elaborado a partir de un listado de conocidas publicaciones en inglés aportado por la sección de documentación del Colegio de Arquitectos de Galicia. A continuación y como consecuencia, se compiló un c orpus definitivo de 500.000 palabras con el asesoramiento de lo s departamentos de documentación y archivo de varios colegios de arqui tectos de este país, siguiendo unos parámetros preestablecidos y científico s que se resumen en tres principios: representatividad (tamaño, temática, fuente, nivel técnico), contemporaneidad (textos reales pertenecientes a la actualidad) y accesibilidad (publicaciones gratuitas y en línea). El corpus resultante se ajusta perfectamente a las necesidades de este estudio, pe ro al mismo tiempo podría ser ut ilizado para otros similares relativos a diferentes aspectos lingüísticos del discurso de la arquitectura en inglés. Para poder manipular y organi zar los dat os obtenidos a través de esta herramienta fue necesari a la creación de una base de datos con 2.865 entradas, una entrada por cada té rmino que sería objeto de estudio. Summary in Spanish/Resumen en español  352 suceden las licencias poéticas como la creatividad que rompe las normas, los neologismos, las palabras extranjeras, la s metáforas, etc. Sus actores ven la arquitectura con ojos distintos a lo s de aquellos no inic iados y crean su discurso a partir de las necesidades te rminológicas propias de cualquier disciplina en continuo desarrollo, así como de la conciencia de identidad de grupo por lo que utilizan lo s recursos a s u alcance para crear una barrera lingüística que fomente y proteja una identidad lingüística diferenciada. [Document text truncated for crawler view.]