The arab and european digital native media coverage about each other, analysis of media in several countries: Spain, Portugal, France and Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia

INTERNATIONAL DOCTORAL SCHOOL OF THE USC MUSHIRA N.S. ALZYOD PhD Thesis Santiago de Compostela, 2022 Doctoral Programme in Contemporary Communication and Information THE ARAB AND EUROPEAN DIGITAL NATIVE MEDIA COVERAGE ABOUT EACH OTHER. ANALYSIS OF MEDIA IN SEVERAL Countries: Spain, Portugal, France And Lebanon, Iraq, And Saudi Arabia DOCTORAL THESIS THE ARAB AND EUROPEAN DIGITAL NATIVE MEDIA COVERAGE ABOUT EACH OTHER. ANALYSIS OF MEDIA IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES: SPAIN, PORTUGAL, FRANCE AND LEBANON, IRAQ AND SAUDI ARABIA MUSHIRA N.S. ALZYOD ESCUELA DE DOCTORADO INTERNACIONAL DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DE SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA PROGRAMA DE DOCTORADO EN COMUNICACIÓN E INFORMACIÓN CONTEMPORÁNEA SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA 2022 DECLARACIÓN DEL AUTOR/A DE LA TESIS D./Dña. MUSHIRA NASR ALLAH SALEM ALZYOD Título de la tesis: THE ARAB AND EUROPEAN DIGITAL NATIVE MEDIA COVERAGE ABOUT EACH OTHER. ANALYSIS OF MEDIA IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES: SPAIN, PORTUGAL, FRANCE AND LEBANON, IRAQ AND SAUDI ARABIA Presento mi tesis, siguiendo el procedimiento adecuado al Reglamento y declaro que: 1) La tesis abarca los resultados de la elaboración de mi trabajo. 2) De ser el caso, en la tesis se hace referencia a las colaboraciones que tuvo este trabajo. 3) Confirmo que la tesis no incurre en ningún tipo de plagio de otros autores ni de trabajos presentados por mí para la obtención de otros títulos. 4) La tesis es la versión definitiva presentada para su defensa y coincide la versión impresa con la presentada en formato electrónico. Y me comprometo a presentar el Compromiso Documental de Supervisión en el caso que el original no esté depositado en la Escuela. En SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA, 13 de mayo de 2022. Firma electrónica D./Dña. Berta García Orosa En condición de: Tutor/a y director/a Título de la tesis: THE ARAB AND EUROPEAN DIGITAL NATIVE MEDIA COVERAGE ABOUT EACH OTHER. ANALYSIS OF MEDIA IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES: SPAIN, PORTUGAL, FRANCE AND LEBANON, IRAQ AND SAUDI ARABIA INFORMA: Que la presente tesis, se corresponde con el trabajo realizado por D/Dña Mushira Nasr Allah Salem Alzyod, bajo mi dirección/tutorización, y a utorizo su presentación, considerando que reúne l os r equisitos exigidos en el R eglamento de Estudios de Doctorado de la USC, y que como director/tutor de esta no incurre en las causas de abstención establecidas e n la Ley 40/2015. En SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA, 13 de mayo de 2022 Firma electrónica DECLARACIÓN DEL DIRECTOR/A DE LA TESIS ACKNOWLEDGMENT As the Palestinian poet, fadwa touqan said about her life, "a mountainous journey, a difficult journey." The three years I spent preparing for my thesis was not a difficult journey, but it is the previous stages and experiences that I successfully overcame. I am proud of myself, the girl from a village who was pushed by the life of herding sheep and farming to dream of something bigger. I never stopped writing dates for my academic stages and was absolutely confident that I would reach the Ph.D. The trip over the past years would not have been possible without the support of my supervisor, Berta Garcia Orosa, and her observations and words of encouragement that she has always given me, during these years, and provided a lot of her very valuable scientific knowledge and experience, and it has been a great honor to work with you. I extend my sincere thanks and gratitude for all the support, advice, and encouragement during our work together. Thank the University of Santiago de Compostela and its professors in general and the faculty of information and communications in particular for their tireless work to provide all knowledge, experience, and assistance, they made the past three years full of knowledge. I would to extend my thanks and gratitude to University of Beira Interior in Portugal and Professor João Canavilhas for the valuable opportunity to have an invaluable knowledge experience, which was a qualitative addition on a personal and cognitive level. Also, I want to thank my loving family for their unconditional support, and their belief in me and my ability to accomplish. I thank 6 and reliance on news agencies as a news source and adherence to the official form could be one of the reasons. The spread of the Covid-19 epidemic during 2020 may have an indirect effect on the language of this coverage, as the six digital native media primarily transmit official press releases, especially with life somewhat disrupted, also global political activity did not have the same strength compared to the years before the epidemic because all countries focused in 2020 on local and health issues first, plus the activity of terrorist groups and wars around the world stopped during the epidemic, meaning that coverage that could provoke hate speech or stereotypes has stopped. In the Arab media, the stereotypical image is not directed at Europeans, but at Arabs themselves and focuses on the Middle East and conflicts in that part of the world. In contrast to the European media, which focused on the Middle East, terrorist organizations, and statements by European officials on peace processes and the search for solutions to conflict in these regions. Also, from interviews with Arab journalists, we discovered that political, economic, and sometimes military agendas control journalistic work, which means that these agendas exist in other Arab countries and control the work of the Arab media in general, and cannot be ignored by media institutions and their employees, or they will be subject to legal action according to the interviewees. In addition to referring to the changes in the journalist's work with the huge technical development that occurred in the world, specifically in the field of media, and the impact of the Covid-19 epidemic on the work of the media and its coverage, clarifying the reasons for relying on news agencies as the main source of news. They also show the differences between the work of Arab and European media, where the journalist in Europe enjoys the freedom of work and monitoring, unlike the Arab journalist. The Arab experts also referred to the image that Arab and Western media convey about each other, considering that the Western media present Arabs in a stereotypical and sometimes 7 oversized way, while the Arab media do not present Europe and Europeans in the same image and way. The importance of the study lies in the comparison and analysis of Arab and European digital native media from various aspects, in addition the importance of analyzing the discourse carried out by these media during a major health crisis that hit the world the Covid-19 epidemic, and twenty years after the events of September, which, according to previous studies, led to the spread of a discourse of hatred and racism towards the other increased by the advent of social networks. In addition, the study compares six Arab and European digital native media to learn about the language of the media during crises, where media discourse is of great importance and of great impact on the world because the media becomes the main means of accessing news reliably and from reliable sources and verifying the credibility of the news in contrast to the possibility of manipulation and fabrication of news and images and videos on social networks. Due to the importance of media discourse and news coverage, it is important to analyze this discourse towards the other and the image in which the news is conveyed, whether negative or positive. Whether it reinforces stereotypes and hate speech, or whether it conveys events as they are to readers and followers, as well as what are the most salient aspects that Arab and Western media focus on when covering events in both worlds and the idea that is reinforced about the Arab world and Europe, may be an indication of media coverage of other peoples and countries. Future studies may consider expanding research on digital native media in both worlds (Arab and European), especially with the development of communication and media technology. Also, it would be interesting to broaden the topics to examine live podcasting, videos, or images, also, audience opinions and reactions to digital native media news posted on social networks, especially with the possibility of hiding identity or creating accounts with fake names and data. Finally, it could be interesting to examine media coverage in digital native media during diplomatic crises or war. 9 RESUMEN EXTENDIDO Esta disertación examina la cobertura de los medios de comunicación nativos digitales árabes y europeos sobre temas relacionados con el mundo árabe y Europa en 2020, veinte años después de los acontecimientos del 11 de septiembre, cuando el mundo fue testigo de muchos eventos que plantearon nuevos desafíos (políticos, económicos, sociales y mediáticos), incluidos los actos terroristas y los grandes movimientos de inmigración del mundo árabe a Europa, la Primavera Árabe y las grandes manifestaciones que recorrieron el mundo. Esta situación en 2016 vino acompañada de la elección de Donald Trump como presidente de Estados Unidos y su fracaso en 2020, además de las polémicas por la injerencia extrajera (en este caso rusa) en las campañas electorales a través del uso de Inteligencia Artificial. Paralelamente, los medios de comunicación digitales se expandían con innovaciones que, en ocasiones, proponían una nueva gestión de la información sobre acontecimientos mundiales y, por lo tanto, modificaban la relación entre comunicación y poder. La tesis analiza la cobertura de los medios de comunicación en los dos mundos desde varios aspectos formales y de contenido. El objetivo principal es analizar la imagen de los árabes en los medios de comunicación europeos y la imagen de los europeos en los medios de comunicación árabes. Las agendas mediáticas, el lenguaje, el discurso de odio, las imágenes estereotipadas hacia el otro, además de la importancia de las noticias, las fuentes de información y los actores externos al periodismo que controlan su trabajo son algunas de las categorías estudiadas. Se utiliza la triangulación metodológica combinando la revisión bibliográfica, el análisis de contenido y las entrevistas en profundidad. Se ha trabajado con seis medios nativos digitales, que representan una muestra de Europa y del mundo árabe (de España, Francia, Portugal, Arabia Saudí, Líbano e Irak). 10 El estudio explora en estos seis medios nativos digitales, las noticias relacionadas con el mundo árabe y Europa específicamente en un período de tiempo que llegó después de años de campañas de lucha contra el racismo, el discurso de odio, los estereotipos y las noticias falsas, y hace hincapié en la necesidad de imparcialidad, honestidad y profesionalidad a la hora de informar, tras el regreso de los sangrientos sucesos terroristas a Europa a finales de 2020, un año difícil para todo el mundo con la propagación del virus Covid-19, que provocó medidas excepcionales y sin precedentes de cierres y toques de queda durante meses, pérdidas económicas y humanas de casi un millón y medio de personas. En primer lugar, el marco teórico hace un recorrido por los estudios anteriores similares a la tesis, por las innovaciones del periodismo digital y la influencia del COVID 19, además de centrar la perspectiva teórica que se utiliza. El estudio pretende cumplir su cometido empleando una amplia gama de estudios científicos que analizan los medios de comunicación, las redes sociales y la difusión de discursos de odio, racismo y estereotipos. Muestra que los medios de comunicación y las redes sociales se vieron afectados por los cambios políticos, económicos y sociales que tuvieron lugar tras el 11-S, la Primavera Árabe y los acontecimientos terroristas en Europa. Uno de ellos es el ataque a la revista Charlie Hebdo, donde el debate sobre los dibujos en Francia ha vuelto a la vuelta de los sangrientos eventos terroristas en Europa a finales de 2020, años después del incidente. Las lecturas del marco teórico mostraron que los medios de comunicación contribuyen a moldear la cultura de las sociedades y que existe una confusión entre lo árabe y lo musulmán en general, ya que los medios occidentales presentan las noticias sin distinguir entre estos dos conceptos. Los investigadores consideraron que la cobertura de los medios de comunicación puede potenciar para la formación de estereotipos, odio y racismo hacia los considerados “otros”, Este discurso negativo se intensifica después de cada acontecimiento terrorista en Europa, además de incrementarse con el uso delas redes 11 socials donde la identidad de los autores es, en ocasiones, ocultadaLa literatura científica incide en que no existe una definición específica del discurso del odio, y la regulación de este discurso es compleja porque suscita, en ocasiones el fantasma de la una restricción de las libertades, concretamente de la libertad de opinión y de expresión. Los investigadores también constataron que el discurso del odio y el racismo tienen efectos psicológicos y morales negativos, que se ven compensados por la falta de tratamientos legales por miedo al impacto de estas leyes. El marco teórico también mostró aspectos de los estereotipos y el discurso del odio en los medios de comunicación árabes, occidentales y europeos en general. Jack Shaheen está considerado como uno de los primeros en presentar estudios y análisis sobre la imagen de los árabes en los medios de comunicación estadounidenses, películas, cómics y novelas, a partir de 1983. En sus estudios descubrió que la imagen de los árabes está distorsionada y estereotipada, vinculada al desierto, la riqueza, la violencia y la agresión a las mujeres, y que esta imagen pasó a estar vinculada al terrorismo tras los acontecimientos del 11 de septiembre. El estereotipo, la incitación al odio y el racismo, según los estudios, no sólo se dirigen a los árabes y musulmanes, sino también a las minorías como los negros, asiáticos, latinos, gays, mujeres y judíos. La imagen de Europa y Estados Unidos como "Occidente" en el mundo árabe también es objeto de estereotipos y está vinculada al papel político que desempeñan estos países, a su política exterior y a su injerencia en los acontecimientos y conflictos políticos del mundo árabe y de los países islámicos. La imagen de los árabes también está vinculada a Oriente Medio, los conflictos, las guerras y el petróleo, ya que es una imagen política, económica y militar. En cuanto a la imagen de Europa para los árabes, está vinculada al continente que salió de dos guerras mundiales y formó una fuerte unión económica, política y de seguridad. Sin embargo, la política de esta unión hacia los árabes y sus problemas fue conservadora, y no consiguió exportar su experiencia democrática al mundo árabe a pesar de la importancia estratégica de la región árabe para Europa. Los escritores árabes también ven que Europa ha fracasado en varios expedientes árabes, 12 como la cuestión palestina, la primavera árabe y los grandes cambios que se produjeron en los países árabes después de 2011. En los países árabes que sufren conflictos y guerras, como Siria, Líbano, Irak, Yemen y Libia, los medios de comunicación forman parte de la difusión del discurso del odio, no contra Occidente o Europa, sino contra las minorías, las sectas y los refugiados dentro del propio país. Además, no existen leyes claras y específicas que responsabilicen a este discurso, y se teme que las autoridades las utilicen para perseguir a los activistas, limitar las libertades y abusar de las leyes, especialmente después de la Primavera Árabe. El marco teórico también discutió el gran desarrollo que se produjo en los medios de comunicación durante los últimos veinte años y el desarrollo técnico que afectó a los medios de comunicación y el papel del periodista, además del impacto de la pandemia de Corona en los medios de comunicación y la difusión del discurso de odio. En el marco teórico también se analizaron las dos teorías de las ciencias de la comunicación por las que se guio la tesis, a saber, el encuadre de los medios y la fijación de la agenda, ya que los investigadores consideran que ambas teorías son complementarias entre sí al medir el trabajo de los medios y la cobertura mediática y el impacto de los medios en el público. Debido al gran salto que se produjo en el mundo de los medios de comunicación y de los medios sociales durante los últimos veinte años, discutimos en el marco teórico las aplicaciones más destacadas que surgieron durante ese período, además de analizar los seis sitios de noticias en términos de diseño y los servicios más destacados que se proporcionan a los lectores así como a la audiencia de estos sitios a través de los medios sociales. Asimismo, debido a que el año cuyas noticias se analizaron fue testigo de una epidemia mundial que se cobró millones de vidas, y detuvo la vida durante meses y la cobertura de los medios de comunicación cambió como se observará en el marco teórico y en el estudio empírico posterior. Entre las metodologías utilizadas, está el análisis de contenido de seis medios nativos digitales (Eldiario de España, Mediapart de Francia, 13 Observador de Portugal, Elaph de Arabia Saudita con sede en Londres, Elnashra de Líbano, y Baghdadtoday de Irak). Los datos se recogieron a lo largo de todo el año 2020, desde el 01/01/2020 hasta el 30/12/2020, y se analizaron cuantitativa y cualitativamente. Se utilizaron diferentes variables: tipo, fuentes y tamaño, estereotipos, discurso de odio, tono, temas, entre otros. También se utilizó la metodología de la entrevista en profundidad. Se programaron entrevistas con los directores y redactores jefe de todos los medios aunque la pandemia dificultó su realización. Se formularon preguntas abiertas relacionadas con la cobertura de la prensa, las fuentes de noticias y sus tipos, las agendas que controlan el trabajo de estos sitios, la cobertura de los medios de comunicación y la difusión del discurso estereotipado y el odio, y el impacto del desarrollo tecnológico y la epidemia del COVID 19 en el trabajo de los medios de comunicación en Europa y el mundo árabe. El estudio encontró que, en los temas que se publicaron, las noticias políticas dominaron en los seis medios nativos digitales con un 74%, las noticias de salud fueron las segundas con un 12% del total de noticias publicadas, las noticias de economía supusieron un 6% y las de deporte y misceláneas fueron iguales con un 4% del total de noticias. Las noticias políticas en los medios nativos digitales árabes fueron el 65% de todas las noticias, mientras que en los medios nativos digitales europeos fueron el 84% de todas las noticias. Las noticias sobre Oriente Medio fueron las más destacadas en los seis medios nativos digitales, ya que el porcentaje de noticias sobre Oriente Medio en los medios nativos digitales árabes fue del 54% del total de noticias políticas, seguido de las noticias que hacían referencia a Europa con un 27%, y las noticias sobre terrorismo ocuparon el tercer lugar con un 12%. En cuanto a los medios nativos digitales europeos, el porcentaje de las noticias sobre Oriente Medio fue del 42% del total de las noticias políticas, seguido de las noticias que hacían referencia a Europa con un 20%, y las noticias sobre inmigrantes ocuparon el tercer lugar con un 19% del total de las noticias políticas. En cuanto al tamaño de las noticias, oscilaron entre las medianas (de 5 a 9 párrafos) y las cortas (de un párrafo a 4 14 párrafos), siendo las medianas en los tres medios nativos digitales árabes las más destacadas con un 60% del total de noticias, mientras que las cortas en los tres medios nativos digitales europeos fueron las más destacadas con un 43%. En cuanto a la tendencia de las noticias, las noticias positivas/neutrales fueron las más destacadas, ya que representaron el 83% del total de noticias en los medios nativos digitales árabes, el 16% algo neutral y el 1% no neutrales/negativas. En los medios nativos digitales europeos, el porcentaje de noticias neutras/positivas alcanzó el 80% del total de noticias, el 19% algo neutra y el 1% no neutras/negativas. En cuanto a las fuentes de las noticias en los seis medios nativos digitales, las noticias sin una fuente clara en los medios nativos digitales árabes fueron las más destacadas con un 25% del total de noticias, los comunicados de prensa constituyeron la segunda fuente con un 20%, mientras que las agencias de noticias fueron la tercera fuente con un 19% y el trabajo de los corresponsales un 13%. En cuanto a los medios nativos digitales europeos, la fuente de noticias más destacada fueron las agencias de noticias con un 70%, el trabajo de los corresponsales como segunda fuente con un 11%, otras fuentes de medios con un 9% y los comunicados de prensa con un 4%. Los medios digitales árabes y europeos no proporcionaron cobertura de noticias sobre el otro a través de un discurso especialmente estereotipado o de odio, y la confianza en las agencias de noticias como fuente de noticias y la adhesión a la forma oficial podría ser uno de los motivos. La propagación de la epidemia de Covid-19 durante el año 2020 puede tener un efecto indirecto en el lenguaje de esta cobertura, ya que los seis medios nativos digitales transmiten fundamentalmente notas de prensa oficiales, especialmente con la vida algo interrumpida, también la actividad política global no tuvo la misma fuerza en comparación con los años anteriores a la epidemia porque todos los países se centraron en 2020 en cuestiones locales y de salud en primer lugar, además de que la actividad de los grupos de terrorismo y las guerras en todo el mundo se detuvo durante la epidemia, lo que 15 significa que la cobertura que podría provocar el discurso de odio o estereotipos se ha detenido. En los medios de comunicación árabes, la imagen estereotipada no se dirige a los europeos, sino a los propios árabes y se centra en Oriente Medio y en los conflictos que se producen en esa zona del mundo. Al contrario que los medios de comunicación europeos, que se centraban en Oriente Medio, las organizaciones terroristas y las declaraciones de funcionarios europeos sobre los procesos de paz y la búsqueda de soluciones al conflicto en estas regiones. Asimismo, a partir de las entrevistas a periodistas árabes, descubrimos que las agendas políticas, económicas y, en ocasiones, militares, controlan el trabajo periodístico, lo que significa que estas agendas existen en otros países árabes y controlan el trabajo de los medios de comunicación árabes en general, y no pueden ser obviadas por las instituciones mediáticas y sus empleados, o serán objeto de acciones legales según confirman los entrevistados. Además de referirse a los cambios en el trabajo del periodista con el enorme desarrollo técnico que se produjo en el mundo, concretamente en el campo de los medios de comunicación, y el impacto de la epidemia de Covid-19 en el trabajo de los medios de comunicación y en la cobertura de estos y aclaran las razones para depender de las agencias de noticias como fuente principal de noticias. También muestran las diferencias entre el trabajo de los medios de comunicación árabes y europeos, donde el periodista en Europa goza de libertad de trabajo y de seguimiento, a diferencia del periodista árabe. Los expertos árabes también se refirieron a la imagen que transmiten los medios de comunicación árabes y occidentales sobre el otro, considerando que los medios de comunicación occidentales presentan a los árabes de forma estereotipada y, a veces, sobredimensionada, mientras que los medios de comunicación árabes no presentan a Europa y a los europeos con la misma imagen y forma. La importancia del estudio radica en la comparación y análisis de los medios de comunicación nativos digitales árabes y europeos desde varios aspectos, además de analizar el discurso llevado a cabo por como fonte de noticias e a adhesión ao formulario oficial podería ser un dos motivos. A propagación da epidemia de Covid-19 durante o ano 2020 pode ter un efecto indirecto na cobertura, xa que os seis medios dixitais nativos transmiten principalmente notas de prensa oficiais, sobre todo coa vida algo interrompida, tamén coa actividade política A economía mundial non ten a mesma forza en comparación cos anos anteriores á epidemia porque todos os países se centraron en 2020 en cuestións locais e sanitarias, ademais da actividade dos grupos terroristas e as guerras en todo o mundo detidas durante a epidemia, é dicir, unha cobertura que podería provocar discursos de odio ou os estereotipos detivéronse. Nos medios árabes, a imaxe estereotipada non vai dirixida aos europeos, senón aos propios árabes e céntrase en Oriente Medio e nos conflitos que teñen lugar nesa parte do mundo. Ao contrario dos medios europeos, que se centraron en Oriente Medio, organizacións terroristas e declaracións de responsables europeos sobre procesos de paz e busca de solucións ao conflito nestas rexións. Ademais, a partir de entrevistas con xornalistas árabes, descubrimos que as axendas políticas, económicas e ás veces militares controlan o traballo xornalístico.Achegaron análises relevantes sobre os cambios no traballo do xornalista co enorme desenvolvemento técnico que se produciu no mundo, concretamente no ámbito dos medios, e ao impacto da epidemia de Covid-19.. Tamén mostran as diferenzas entre o traballo dos medios árabes e os europeos, onde o xornalista en Europa goza de liberdade de traballo e vixilancia, a diferenza do xornalista árabe. Os expertos árabes tamén se referiron á imaxe que se transmiten os medios árabes e occidentais entre si, ao considerar que os medios occidentais retratan aos árabes de forma estereotipada e ás veces esaxerada, mentres que os medios árabes non presentan a Europa e aos europeos na mesma imaxe. A importancia do estudo radica na comparación e análise dos medios nativos dixitais árabes e europeos desde diversos aspectos, ademais de analizar o discurso levado a cabo por estes medios durante unha importante crise sanitaria que azoutou o mundo coa epidemia de 22 Covid-19 e vinte anos despois dos feitos de setembro que, segundo estudos previos, provocaron a difusión do discurso de odio e o racismo cara ao outro, acrecentado pola chegada das redes sociais. Ademais, o estudo compara seis medios nativos dixitais árabes e europeos para comprender a linguaxe dos medios durante as crises, onde o discurso mediático é de gran importancia e de gran impacto no mundo porque os medios se converten no principal medio para acceder ás noticias de forma fiable e verificar a credibilidade das noticias en contraste coa posibilidade de manipulación e fabricación de noticias e imaxes e vídeos nas redes sociais. Pola importancia do discurso dos medios de comunicación e da cobertura da noticia, xorde a relevancia de analizar este discurso cara ao outro e a imaxe na que se transmite a noticia, sexa negativa ou positiva. Se reforza estereotipos e discursos de odio, ou se transmite os acontecementos tal e como son aos lectores e seguidores, ademais de saber cales son os aspectos máis destacados nos que se centran os medios árabes e occidentais á hora de cubrir os acontecementos de ambos mundos e a idea. que se reforza sobre o mundo árabe e Europa, isto pode ser un indicio da cobertura mediática doutros pobos e países. Os estudos futuros poden considerar ampliar a investigación sobre medios nativos dixitais en ambos os mundos (árabe e europeo), especialmente co desenvolvemento dos medios e tecnoloxía da comunicación. Ademais, sería interesante ampliar os temas para examinar podcasting en directo, vídeos ou imaxes. Así mesmo, as opinións e reaccións da audiencia ante as noticias dos medios nativos dixitais que se publican nas redes sociais, sobre todo coa posibilidade de ocultar a identidade ou crear contas con nomes e datos falsos. Finalmente, podería ser interesante examinar a cobertura mediática nos medios nativos dixitais durante as crises diplomáticas ou as guerras. 23 25 INDEX Acknowledgment Extended summary ............................................................................1 Resumen extendido…………………………………......…………..9 Chapter one: Introduction ................................................................27 1.1. The 9/11 attack: The Beginning ……….……………..….…...32 Chapter two: Theoretical Framework ..............................................43 2.1. Literature review........................................................................43 2.1.1. The stereotype about Arabs and Europeans in media..…….44 2.1.2. In Arabic media………………….…………………...….....50 2.1.3. In European and western media……………..……….….....55 2.1.4. Hate speech, racism against Arabs and European in media 62 2.1.5. Hate speech in Europe and western world…..……………..63 2.1.6. Hate speech in Arab world…………………...…………...103 2.2. Digital media era................................................................. 115 2.2.1. Digital native media……………………………………....125 2.3.Covide-19 media coverage ......................................................127 2.4.The theoretical part ..................................................................132 Chapter three: Methodology ..........................................................143 3.1. Research Objectives and Hypotheses……………...………...143 3.2.The source ................................................................................145 3.3.Methods ...................................................................................155 Chapter four: Analysis results .......................................................173 4.1.Results of the analysis..............................................................174 4.1.1. On the Arab digital native media………………………...174 Resumo ampliado …………………………………......…………..17 26 4.1.2. On the European digital native media……….…………….180 4.1.3. In digital native media……………………….…………….187 4.1.4. Media Analysis (one by one)………………………………..190 4.2.The descriptive approach ...........................................................223 4.3.Digital native media multimedia ...............................................369 4.4.The interviews ...........................................................................303 Chapter five: Discussion and Conclusion.........................................319 5.1. Discussion.................................................................................319 5.2.Conclusion.................................................................................330 5.3. Limitation and Future research.................................................332 References..........................................................................................335 Appendix …………………………..……………………………....410 CHAPTER ONE Introduction During the past twenty years, the world has witnessed many transformations and changes at the political, social, economic, and technical levels (Dagher, 2012). Where media products according to Santos et al. (2022) are considered a tool for citizens to learn about various topics, as they are unable to reach large areas in the social reality, and because the media plays a major role in communicating news and information. In this chapter, we focus on the most prominent events that the world has witnessed in the past twenty years and have had a great impact on several levels, including the language and discourse used by the media and the public alike. In the following, we review the most prominent events during the past twenty years, during a successive timeline, starting with the events of September 2001. As this attack was followed by a war in Afghanistan and Iraq, US presidential elections, revolutions in Arab countries, the fall of regimes, global economic crises, terrorist incidents in European countries, wars in Arab countries Syria, Iraq, Libya, Yemen, the rise of terrorist organizations and the elimination of some of them and killing Its leaders, in addition to a huge leap in the world of technology and communication with the rise of social networking sites, to the spread of epidemics that infected millions and led to the death of millions of people. This has raised the number of issues affecting the world and brings back again racism, hate speech, and stereotypes in new forms. After the September 11th, 2001 attack, the so-called global war against terrorism emerged, and this led to foreign intervention in Mushira N. S. Alzyod 28 Afghanistan in late 2001 and Iraq in 2003 (Kadhim, 2018). The September attacks prompted the United States of America to pursue national security interests in Afghanistan, which turned into the longest American war that lasted for decades Goodson (2015). This American presence has continued since December 7, 2001 and the defeat of the Taliban, and it remained for 20 years until August 31, 2021 Popescu (2021). In Iraq, the United States and its allies attacked Iraq in March 2003, and it was quickly occupied, with President Bush declaring in May 2003 that the mission was over (Popescu, 2021). After Iraq and Afghanistan wars, some Arab countries faced the problem of exercising governance and establishing political stability, and some of them lived in a vicious state of unexpected crises due to the events of the Arab Spring, or what was called “popular revolutions” that began in late 2010 and 2011 in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Syria, and Yemen (Kadhim, 2018). The Arab world has also witnessed wars with the Israeli side; the July war (harb tammuz) with the Lebanese Hezbollah (Calculli, 2017; Rey-García et al., 2020). And Gaza war in 2008 (Vicente et al. 2010), and another war from June 29, 2014, until August 31, 2014 (Manor & Crilley, 2018; Zipris et al., 2019). Since 2015, Yemen has witnessed a civil war and an unparalleled humanitarian crisis, and the situation in Yemen is considered one of the greatest humanitarian disasters of the twenty-first century (Edwards, 2019). According to Seabrook (2009), the 2008 US presidential election was one of the most important elections in the history of the United States of America, after Americans elected for the first time in history a candidate of African descent. On May 2, 2011, Obama administration announced the killing of alQaeda leader Osama bin Laden at his home in Pakistan, and on December 28, 2014, announced the end of the war in Afghanistan without withdrawing US forces (Popescu, 2021). CHAPTER ONE 29 Europe witnessed several terrorist attacks, including bombings of the transport system in Madrid and London. On March 11, 2004, terrorist acts targeted a commuter train in Madrid, killing 191 people and wounding 1755 people (Kollias et al., 2011). On July 7, 2005, the morning public transport system in London was targeted, killing 52 people, in addition to the terrorists, and wounding 700 people (Kollias et al., 2011). Paris also witnessed a bloody attack on the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo in January 2015, which led to the killing of 12 cartoonists and magazine employees (Połońska-Kimunguyi & Gillespie, 2016). Paris was subjected again to the most deadly attack on November 13, 2015, in which 130 people were killed in six different places (Zoli & Williams, 2021). In February and March of 2014, Ukraine was invaded by a series of events that eventually led to the incorporation of Crimea into Russian territory (Marxsen, 2014). Europe also faced the migrant crisis in 2015 when the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that more than a million people crossed to Europe by sea, and at least 3,700 people drowned, and the majority of migrants were from ten countries, including Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan (Anderson, 2017). In Iraq and Syria, in 2013, ISIS emerged under the name of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. The announcement came on October 15, following a meeting of a group of armed factions in Iraq, and Al-Baghdadi was chosen as its leader (Shehabat & Mitew, 2018). Other organizations were also established as a result of the Syrian crisis at the end of 2011, such as jabhat Al-Nusra (Shehabat & Mitew, 2018). In Nigeria, Boko Haram emerged as a violent rebel group known as the Ahl al-Sunnah, Preaching and Jihad group, and then the West Africa Province of ISIS (Iyekekpolo, 2020). The organization was known at the national level in 2009 and was classified in 2015 as the most dangerous terrorist group in the world (Iyekekpolo, 2020). On March 15, 2019, the Australian Brendon Tarrant committed a mass murder of 51 Muslims in two mosques in Christchurch, New Zealand, Mushira N. S. Alzyod 30 where he used social media platforms to promote his activism worldwide (Battersby & Ball, 2019). Economically, the world faced the global economic crisis in 2007, as interbank borrowing froze around the world and unrestricted global financial flows collapsed between 2007-2009 (Pettifor, 2017). the value of mortgage-related securities plummted in the late summer of 2008, spreading throughout the global financial system (Kotz, 2008). On June 23, 2016, over 17 million Britons voted to end their relationship with the European Union and leave the European Union (Pettifor 2017). Britain's decision to leave the European Union and elect Trump were shocking decisions in 2016 and among the most turbulent in modern political history Rosenberg and Boyle (2019). In 2015, the Obama administration reached a settlement of the Iranian nuclear issue and signed the Iranian nuclear agreement, but during the era of US President Donald Trump, sanctions were imposed on Iran in 2017 and 2018, and in May 2018, the United States withdrew from the Iranian nuclear agreement, and after Biden took power It became clear that his policy is balanced between hard and soft and is reflected in Iran and the Iranian nuclear issue (Wang & Hu, 2022). New media also emerged as a new concept that represents dynamic media that combines text, image and sound and enabling the public to interact with what is published on it, and social networks such as Facebook and Twitter are considered among the most important tools of new media (AlKhudari, 2016). Technically, Facebook was founded as a social networking website in 2004 and has become one of the world's leading social networking sites (White, 2008). In October 2006, Twitter, one of the most popular micro-blogging platforms was launched, , allowing users to describe their situations with short posts (Java et al., 2007). In June 2007, Steve Jobs launched iPhone, which revolutionized the mobile phone market (Yoffie & Slind, 2008). YouTube, which was launched in 2005 as a hobbyist site, became the third most popular online destination in the world, and the largest provider of video content as well as a major CHAPTER ONE 31 platform for disseminating multimedia information (Wattenhofer et al., 2012). These large and rapid changes may also be a reason for the spread and complexity of epidemics, as Bedford et al., (2019) considered that changes in the environment, climate, travel and health systems, as well as demographic transitions and political instability affect the dynamics of infectious diseases, making epidemics more complex and difficult to contain. During the twenty years, the world witnessed a number of epidemics at the health level. The world is currently witnessing Covid-19, where more than 4 million people have died, and we are approaching 200 million infections (Cohen, 2021). After an outbreak of pneumonia of unknown origin was announced in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and the World Health Organization declared on March 12, 2020, that the virus had turned into a pandemic (Ciotti et al., 2020). According to the American Johns Hopkins University website, the number of infections, as of the day it was viewed on February 17, 2022, has reached more than 418 million injuries and nearly 6 million deaths around the world, and more than 342 million people have recovered, with more than 10 billion doses of the Corona vaccine have been distributed. Oxford University statistics (our world in data) also stated that more than 4 billion people received two doses of the vaccine, and the proportion of the vaccinated population around the world reached 54.9%. Prior to that the Ebola epidemic began in west Africa in 2013, and the outbreak lasted until November 2015, infecting more than 28 thousand people and killing 11 thousand people (Moon et al., 2015). The beginning of 2020 witnessed the assassination of Qassem Soleimani, commander of the Quds Force, one of the elite units of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, at Baghdad International Airport, with an American airstrike (Binkaya, 2020). In his book clash of civilizations, Huntington (1999) expressed that the peoples of the post-Cold War world were not different from Mushira N. S. Alzyod 38 where the story turned from a small blog to a riot that resulted from About 27 people were killed in Afghanistan. Holiday described the media as a group of animals running in a herd where it takes one command to start the stampede. According to Holiday (2012), who details manipulation, misinformation, and deception in the web world, specifically blogging, the fastest thing that spreads on the Internet is anger, as opposed to sadness, which reduces social participation. This manipulation, which began as a game enjoyed by Holiday, has turned with the presence of other players into something difficult to distinguish and everyone has become a victim with a heavy cost. Anger has a greater impact on public opinion than other emotions, resulting in stereotypes and hate speech and racism. Lippmann (1998) considered that stereotypes may be the core of our traditions and defense of our status and a form of perception imposes a certain character on our data, these images are not neutral, but rather that the stereotypes Stereotyping is fraught with feelings. However, not everything that a person knows may be true, or not everything that is reality may be considered reality, according to Farah, (2014). And Wittgenstein expressed this by saying that we can only know the world in which we live by the words we know (Farah, 2014). But is it possible that the views of Sigmund Freud, Gustav Le Bon, and Edward Burns contributed to controlling public opinion? This contributed to controlling the opinions of the public and directing them via traditional and technical media and social media. One of the most prominent views of Burns, the founder of the science of public relations, was that if the mechanism that drives masses is understood, it is possible to control their behavior without knowing (Farah, 2014). Farah (2014) believes that what the media system is doing is displaying a complete pattern of life through films, songs, and advertisements, and later on, the person connected to the Internet has become a consumer only who is affected by what is presented to him, which enables the media to establish a stereotype about the other and to provide the opportunity to broadcast hate speech and racism. Farah CHAPTER ONE 39 (2014) adds through the views of Harbert Marcuse, that societies must possess intellectual freedom and break the restrictions that control them through the means of mass communication. Dr. Bahaa El-Din Farid's opinion may be close to the current reality, as it seems that human beings throughout their history are searching for a parallel world in which they express what they cannot express in their real world, which means to Farah (2014) that today's society is a hypothetical, unreal society. According to the statistics of Eurosat 2018, over the decade until 2017, the percentage of Internet users increased significantly, as the number of users in 28 countries in the European Union more than doubled from 42% to 85% (Sakr & Steemers, 2019). John Zoller's (RAS) model is one of the most comprehensive frameworks for clarifying the relationship of news media and political trends, where the other is affected by the information he receives and the degree to which he accepts it and the influence of the media increases in times of crisis due to the increased interest in news. According to Maxwell McCombs, Lance Holbert and Spiro Kiousis (2012), there is a significant evidence that the news media raises public awareness among the masses on several important issues. Maxwell McCombs, Lance Holbert and Spiro Kiousis (2012) add that the emergence of digital media raised questions about making citizens appropriately aware of major topical issues, as this media occupies an infinite space and needs to be filled with specific content. But new media industries may give people what they want even if the long-term consequences are negative, which is what we currently see in the dispute over Internet content and hate speech, so as these industries mature, they become more responsible and ready to censor controversial content (Baran & Davis, 2018). The project Media, Conflict and Democratisation (MeCoDEM) investigates the role of media and communication in processes of regime transformation from authoritarian rule to a more democratic order. Katrin Voltmer argues that the media cannot be adequately Mushira N. S. Alzyod 40 understood in isolation from one another. Rather, it should be viewed as an arena for public communication in which there are many actors, and each one provides explanations and results for conflicts (Voltmer et al. 2019). Chadwick and Stromer-Galley (2016) believes that social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Templates, Snapchat, and mobile phone images) are essential elements in the American elections, where electoral politics have witnessed transformations to attract the public through digital media. Unlike other media, the Internet provides an opportunity for the public to interact with news makers and producers and with each other (Shoemaker & Vos, 2019). Shoemaker & Vos (2019) rejects what some say about the death of the gatekeeper theory with the existence of the Internet, arguing that the interaction that takes place makes the public gatekeepers, and the information is spread through the media accounts and the personal accounts of bloggers and their employees. In a book review when the news was good, Gleason (2010) believes that news work is in the midst of a radical transformation stemming from the disruptive effects of digital technology and the Internet, even the definition of news is in flux. Also, understanding news requires an educated media audience. Terhi Rantanen the author of the book believes that as a result of the development of the Internet, the differences between events and news, between information and news, and between news and comment, have disappeared (Gleason, 2010). Also, in a review of the book "Gatekeepers", Johnson (2009) believes that the authors of the book have changed the fundamentals of maintaining the portal and the Internet has allowed people more control to bypass traditional gates to access information such as government reports. The gatekeepers have transformed in the 21st century as information no longer passes only through source and media channels, but also through audience channels (Johnson, 2009). CHAPTER ONE 41 Social media platforms are fertile ground for inflammatory political disinformation as people are increasingly concerned about fake news and other misinformation, and these concerns emerged in India and America after low-quality news spread widely before the 2016 US presidential election, creating fears that the news could lead False to mislead people (Guess et al., 2020). The widespread use of smart phones in India has created a fertile environment for rumors and misinformation, and their spread through What's App has led to violence and hate and has become a source of concern before the Indian general elections in 2019 (Guess et al., 2020). In a campaign to eradicate digital media literacy in the two countries to distinguish between false and mainstream news, Guess et al. (2020) found that the lack of media literacy was important in why people believed the wrong information they encountered online. Despite the need to develop the work of these campaigns, their impact is modest and did not destroy the belief in false news headlines (Guess et al., 2020). CHAPTER TWO Theoretical framework In this chapter, we review the literature review of studies and research related to the image of Arabs and Europeans in media. The chapter includes the stereotyped, hate speech, and racism, and these subjects are linked to several sub-points: monitoring hate speech in Europe, new racism, the role of political parties, the impact of hate speech, discourse directed at immigrants and refugees and hate speech in the Arab world. The chapter also reviews the era of digital media and its impact, the COVID -19 epidemic and its impact on the media, because the year 2020 is being studied is the same year that witnessed the spread of the epidemic around the world, and finally, the theories that have been illuminated in the thesis. 2.1. Literature review In his book "Orientalism" Said (2008) describes the relationship between Arab and European (east and west) as a fundamental relationship on the political, cultural, and religious grounds, a relationship between a strong partner and a weak partner. The Oriental is irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, different; thus the European is rational, virtuous, mature, normal. According to Sharabi (1984), western imperialism affected after 1918 the psyche of the new generation of Arab youth and also led to a feeling of inferiority and suppression. As we mentioned in the introduction, in the 20th century, we witnessed a lot of events and one of the most powerful ones was 11 Mushira N. S. Alzyod 44 September 2001. This was followed by a large number of major events and crises in the Arab world and Europe and affected the media coverage. In Arab spring in 2011, the media has been changed and social media took a big space in the media field Nocetti (2019). Since the Second World War, the media has become a public opinionmaking tool and participates in determining political decisions in favor of the dominant parties, rather than becoming a tool for expressing a public opinion Dagher (2012). In terms of media influence, Al-Nuwaihi (2014) considered the media is more like a major university open to its daily curricula renewed and changing with conditions and events, this media in both sides Arab and Western had a role in shaping the culture of society, Especially after the technological development in communication information and direct satellite broadcasting. And the spread of the Internet, mobile communications, and digital media has led to the development of an interactive communication network that connects the local to the global at the same time, so those in power are trying to assert their dominance in the field of communications and the media is used to achieve this control Castells (2007). 2.1.1. The stereotype about Arabs and Europeans in media According to Harper's Dictionary of Modern Thought, New York 1977, a stereotype is defined as an oversimplified image of a particular group by large numbers of people (Gumpert & Cathcart, 1983). But in the modern age, there is a gap between what exists and the impression we keep (Gumpert & Cathcart, 1983). Also, the definition of a stereotype as a mental image or belief of social groups has been questioned (Kurcz, 1998). Also, Oxford English Dictionary defines it (Bordalo et al., 2016): A widely held but persistent and overly simplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing CHAPTER TWO 45 These stereotypes cover ethnic groups, political groups: demographic or gender groups such as Asians being good at math, Republicans being rich, or women being bad at math (Bordalo et al., 2016). Stereotypes are an important part of the discourse as well as the information production system of European digital media (Gallur Santorum & García Orosa, 2016). The concept of stereotype can be indicated by Vicente et al. (2010) study also, which analyzed the entire press production of six major Spanish periodicals on the image people have of the Arab and Islamic world that comes from stories in the media. Vicente et al. (2010) considered that the Western media contributed greatly and played an important role in the formation of a stereotyped image of the Islamic world based on distortions and clichés. Abdalrahman, (2020) define the stereotype as the limited perception that a person keeps in his mind about a person or a matter, and people get to know each other with simple fixed perceptions about them. And our attitudes towards others are affected by the media image presented by the media, and the editorial and production staffs are human beings who have attitudes, values, emotions and stereotypical attitudes that affect what they see and what they choose and share with the public (Gumpert & Cathcart, 1983). So, the fear of Islam and Muslims produces a negative image about Arabs and the Arab world, especially when most writing about Arabs confusion between Arabs and Muslims Hamada (2001). But the truth is not all Arabs are Muslims, John Morreall and Sonn (2017) clear that: In fact, the overwhelming majority of Muslims are not Arabs; Islam is the second-largest religion in the world. Where the number of Muslims is about 1.6 billion people or 23% of the global population, and there are 22 Arabic speaking countries, but they constitute less than 20% of Muslims in the world, the overwhelming majority of Muslims are not Arabs Mushira N. S. Alzyod 46 And the events of September 2001 added distortions to the image of Arabs after linking Islam with terrorism and the fear of Islam, Muslims and Arabs prevailed (Moneim, 2016). GUEDES et al. (2011) agrees that peoples of Arab origin are at the fore in Western newspapers, and the fundamentalists' use of violence reveals the manipulation of Western media because the Arab is a citizen who wants to show that Islam is part of the world, not a suicide bomber. 2001 marked a profound mark in US history, and the attack contributed to the poor impression of Arabs in the West (GUEDES et al., 2011). In most North American and European countries, the Muslim/Arab conflation is stigmatized (Bartkoski et al., 2018). Also the stereotypes and prejudices associated follow the individuals even if they are members of one group Muslims or Arab (Bartkoski et al., 2018). that's why it is imperative for researchers to clear the distinctions and distinguish between Muslims and Arabs separately because they might have different stereotypes that lead to different reasons for discrimination (Bartkoski et al., 2018). Belkhiri and Haroun (2019) searched how the Western media strategies in distorting the other, and found that Western media presented the Arabs through stereotype and distortion and linking them to backwardness and terrorism. "Unlike the rest of the world, Arabs absorb the crime of mother’s breast" Louassini (2002) describes the image of Arabs in western media. Adds "the western media sell the Arab as they are "commodity" for historical reasons" because the western public opinion carries Specific ideological convictions it's difficult to separate it (Louassini, 2002). Semaan (2014) claims that scientific and academic research on Arab Americans began in 1923, and Jack Shaheen is the best-known scholar addressing the Arab stereotyped image start from 1983 through analysis Arab images in films, novels, cartoons, comics, and newspapers (Semaan, 2014). Stereotype against Arabs appears in Shaheen (2003), Shaheen (1994), Shaheen (1985), he found after analyzed Hollywood movies, CHAPTER TWO 47 American Comic Books and the media coverage of the Middle East, how they Vilify a People especially Arab and represented them as Fanatics, brutal, uncivilized and others crazy about money. Shaheen (1985) mentioned how this affects the American public opinion about Arabs and Foreign policy formulation. This image about Arabs in comics and cartoons in America according to Stockton (1994), is not isolated from cultural roots and ancient conflicts. In his book "Covering Islam" and After analyzing the news coverage of the hostage crisis in 8 newspapers, three news networks, two magazines, and a radio station, Edward Said found that over the course of weeks, the image of Islam in the media reveals a lot not only about Islam but also the cultural institutions and political approaches in the media. Since the media are companies that seek profit, they are interested in promoting a certain image and advance it on others (Said, 2006). The media coverage of the hostage crisis presented an old stereotype of Islam that did not change in history books, comics, cartoons, films, and series. Rather, they are suppliers of oil, terrorists, and later considered them as bloodthirsty mobs (Said, 2006). In the Western media, Ridouani (2011) sheds lights on how the Arabs and Muslims are represented in the Western arts, and found that Western media reports maintain a constant distorted image of Arabs and Muslims, create inaccurate preconceptions about the principles of Islam, term fundamentalism and Arabs costumes, bearded Muslims, even "terrorism" as a word used with reservation when dealing with individuals who are not Arabs. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 54 evaluation method, and most of the texts contained Arab and Islamic quotes that give an indication of the affiliation of these newspapers (Hakam, 2009). The 19 newspapers chose articles that did not require editing and bear an Arab-Islamic alignment, and the selection of texts bearing hostility to the Arab and Islamic world was avoided (Hakam, 2009). The selected European texts can also be softened or edited to be compatible with the Arab and Islamic ideologies (Hakam, 2009). The Arab media, according to Dagher (2012), is divided over the relationship with the other, between media that defend modernity, media that pacify the other in the name of the regimes, independent media that try to defend Arab and Islamic identity, secular media, media against the American conspiracy, and media that defend extremism from within and espouse open media. By analyzing four Arab newspapers on issues of tolerance and dialogue with the other, Dagher (2012) found that the features of the image of the other are negative and aggressive, as the Arab newspapers were interested in the Arab domain by 40%, then the international 33%, and the local 27%, and found that what hinders tolerance in the Arab media discourse is negative stereotypes, contempt for others and discrimination (Dagher, 2012). This stereotype about Arabs and Muslims even European and united state related to some political parties and political issues, for example Arab-Israeli conflict. Rugh (2007) analyzed the Arabic media from the political system side and found they have 3 types of media: the first is controlled by the political system, and this media cannot critic political power; the second is national media, which is not controlled by a political system but through people allies to the system, and the third can criticize the political system owned by privet sector. This control to the media means the political system also control the image in media and what they want to say. Douai (2019) discusses the Policies that affected on the Arab Media in the Post-truth Era, and The digital revolution that affected the information and media system at various levels (local, national, and global), and the Appearance of “post-truth” as the international word CHAPTER TWO 55 of the year in 2016, which was defined by Oxford Dictionaries, “growing distrust of facts offered by the establishment.” with examples happened in 2016 like Brexit of the United Kingdom, election Donald Trump, the social media has been used as a disruptive political tool to defraud the media (Douai, 2019). This “post-truth era” exposes deep structural flaws in our existing information ecosystem and doubt on the values of public service journalism exacerbates the problem of fake news (Douai, 2019). In the Arab world, the freedom of media Controlled by some authorities and this causes stereotypes (Douai, 2019). After analyzing the structure of Arab media in general and the Gulf in particular Ortega-Pérez (2019) found in her thesis that the Arab media exists within the global media structure but there is a clear discrepancy in the global presence due to political, social, religious, and economic contexts that make up the media landscape. Also, the Arab media according to Ortega-Pérez (2019) has the ability to provide information according to the needs of those who own it and not according to the needs of citizens, especially with the presence of shareholders and members of the boards of directors or owners of the media linked to politicians, leaders, ruling families, and clerics, and this come despite the apparent abandonment of Arab countries from their control over the media and with the development of communication technologies And oil revenues and the change of ownership of the media, but in-depth the Arab media work not changed. 2.1.3. In European and western media In European media, (Vicente et al., 2010) analyzed 6 Spanish national journals (El País, El Mundo, ABC, La Vanguardia, El Periódico de Catalunya and La Razón) during 2008, to look for any reference to Muslims and the Arab presence. The authors considered that their study was comprehensive and unprecedented in the specialized Mushira N. S. Alzyod 56 scientific literature and combined content analysis and analysis of press discourses. Vicente et al. (2010) emphasized that since the September 11th attacks in New York, as well as the attacks in Madrid and London, the relations between the Islamic and Western worlds have taken center stage in the political problem, the media, and public opinion. They found that the Western media contributed greatly to the formation of a stereotyped image of the Islamic world, is an image based on distortion and clichés (Vicente et al., 2010). Soukah (2017) monitored the image of the young Arab refugee in the German magazine Der Spiegel between 2015-2016, adding to it other journalistic models from Germany, Austria and France. Soukah (2017) found that there are three trends that constitute the first media discourse a stage that goes along with popular sympathy, then a stage of intimidation by young Arab refugees and the third is a utilitarian stage. The last stage indicates that there is a demographic and economic benefit for young asylum seekers. These three trends are based on the ideology of the European self-glorification, which sheltered the weak, backward one (Soukah, 2017). Soukah (2017) also found that the media's view of the refugee is not different from the stereotypical image of the immigrant who preceded him in settling in European lands, where he is seen as backward and different from the European human being, and this image remained attached to him even after he passed the stage of asylum. In Spain as well, Corrales (2004) noted that there was a conflict in the Spanish imagination between morphophobia and Islamophobia, which resulted in the negative image of Muslims in general and Moroccans in particular. Corrales (2004) presented an explanation and a historical account of the Arab-Islamic presence in Spain in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the hostility and clash between the Ottomans Empire and the Spaniards in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and the resulting transformations of thousands of Christians and Muslims into the rank of slaves. CHAPTER TWO 57 Corrales (2004) presented a historical account of Spain's relations with Morocco and the Ottoman Empire to clarify that the Spanish position on Moroccans in particular, Muslims and Arabs in general has historical links. Corrales (2004) assumed that the vast majority of the populations reluctantly accept the values of solidarity and tolerance. It was also noted that the Spanish society was divided regarding the treatment of immigrants, and that there was great sympathy with the Palestinian cause and did not accept the 1991 Gulf War or the Spanish support for the US army in the Iraq war in 2003 (Corrales, 2004). Regarding the image of Arabs in the minds of Western image makers who are the correspondents, technicians, columnists, writers and editors in Europe and America, Hamada (2001) found that Arabs were portrayed before the establishment of Israel from the perspective of camels, dancing girls, and pyramids, and after the Arab-Israeli conflict, Arabs were seen as backward and extremists. Those image makers are responsible for the compilation and production of writing and editing the content of Western newspapers and magazines Hamada (2001). Hamada (2001) found that the negative image of Arabs dominance the western image makers and consideration of Arabs as fundamentalists, aggressive and anti-western and this image feeds the negative image of Arabs in the western media, Where the Western media is relied on as a source of information about Arabs, while the influence of books and references came in second place. This image of Arabs and Muslims in the minds of Western image makers according to Hamada (2001) remained the same, they were biased while presenting a false and distorted image, which resulted in the formation of international public opinion towards Arab and Islamic issues and the formation of anti-Arab and anti-Muslim policies. Aday et al. (2005) Analyzed 1820 story from the Coverage of the Iraq War in 2003 published in 5 TV networks in the United States (CNN, NBC, CBC, ABC, FOX news channel, and Aljazeera from Arab channels). The coverage was balanced in Aljazeera and the American Mushira N. S. Alzyod 58 networks more than FOX which supported the American-led war effort (Aday et al. 2005). But even when the coverage in general, was good, American channels ignored the voices opposing the war, while Aljazeera was focusing on protests and diplomatic efforts (Aday et al. 2005). According to Mousa (1987) after analyzed the New York Times for 33 years, the image of Arabs in the American press is linked to the conflict in the Middle East, and later was linked to global oil supplies and price increases, as Arabs were ignored before 1948. Mousa (1987) explained that studying and analysis of the image explain the internal dynamics of the media institutions, and that the selection of materials published in a newspaper determines how the images are formed and which ones will be emphasized, and found that the analysis of the prestigious press as a source of public opinion helps explain the impact of coverage on the Arab image and if it allows the formation of a conscious and balanced image of the Arabs. While the image of Arabs in general is within political contexts, but the image of individuals is at the level of social and religious contexts linked to the image of the sheikh surrounded by women Mousa (1987). The study showed that half of the topics that were published were related to the conflict and the emphasis was increased in the years 1944 and 1947. Mousa (1987) explained that the newspaper relied on (French, British and Jewish) sources for news and did not rely on Arab sources, which reflects an imbalance in the reports and gives a picture of part of the Arabs, but not all of them, and confines Arab life to political, economic and military contexts, which creates a more strict and rigid image that closely resembles Stereotype. This unbalanced coverage according to the study contributed to spreading misunderstandings about Arabs, creating stereotypes that distorted the Arab image as a whole. The image of the Arabs as the study indicate developed between the First World War and the Great Arab Revolt and the late 1940s (the First Arab-Israeli War), the first image was unromantic and then CHAPTER TWO 59 turned to talk only about politics and wars, and Arab activities were distorted because they were transmitted through unsympathetic eyes, which created distortions and misconceptions and inaccuracies In his book World Orders Old And New, Chomsky (2007) says that the allegations made by American newspaper editors during the Gulf War, that President Bush paved the world public opinion before his war against Iraq in January 1999 were full of falsehoods, so world public opinion was nothing but the American public opinion. Chomsky cites several examples that have shown hostility to Arabs in the American and Israeli newspapers, in an article published Ha’aretz columnist Ari Shavit: we believe with absolute certitude that now, with the White House and Senate in our hands along with the Pentagon and the New York Times, the lives [of Arabs] do not count as much as our own In Book Review Neumann (2015) presents Transforming Media Coverage of Violent Conficts the New Face of War, the article talks about who covered the war transformed especially with increase the terrorist attacks. The book takes 10 years for the writers to finish, they said that three categories lost part of their importance and influence because of the new rules govern the media, and they are news editors, political and military elites, also the peace press was absent (Neumann, (2015). In the public opinion field, (McCombs et al., 2012), in their book, talk about the news and public opinion, they said that Media organizations are commercial entities that earn money to survive, and thus can affect the media content by advertisers and consumers. Also, the believers of the control theory consider that media organizations have an interest in maintaining this situation. That's why in the last decades, European countries try to reach the Arab audience and they launched channels in many languages including Arabic (McCombs et al., 2012). One of these channels, France 24, explains the role of the channel in French cultural diplomacy directed to the Arab world Boukhari (2018). And the channel came as part of the project of late President Jacques Mushira N. S. Alzyod 60 Chirac, who wanted to launch French international news channel to convey the French vision of events and repel the impact of CNN and Aljazeera (Boukhari, 2018). The channel came within the frame of news competition after the war in Iraq, where France was against the war, but this position remained Dimmed, in the presence of channels monopolized information during the war (Boukhari, 2018). In the Arab world and globally the Arab-Israel conflict one of the most issues the politicians did not solve (Brieger, 2010). And media is part of this conflict, Brieger (2010) Explained that One of the characteristics of this conflict is the media and propaganda battle. Each term is part of a dialectical game that seeks to impose definitions on the mass media. It is not easy to choose a path that tries not to get caught up in mere propaganda from one side or the other And when the Arab-Israeli conflict meets with the events of September 11, the media coverage becomes more biased for one party at the expense of another (Obermann & Dijkink, 2008). Obermann and Dijkink (2008) discussed reframing international conflict after 9/11, by analyzing the pre-9/11 news that started on 7 March 2001 in four quality dailies in the Netherlands, the study starts with the new Israeli government on that day and ended when the government left on 30th October 2002. The study found that the perception of the IsraeliPalestinian conflict in the Dutch press was changed that occurred after September 11, 2001, Israel is pictured less as the aggressor and more often as the victim, in addition, there is at least a shift from a negative focus on Israel to a more or less equal distribution of criticism over both parties, particularly if one accounts for the facts in the political arena. The possible sources of changes observed in news reports to the notorious events were actual developments in the conflict arena (the Middle East), political events elsewhere in the world, including Netherlands, that affect the perception of the conflict, and changes in the editorial policy or staffs of newspapers analyzed (Obermann & Dijkink, 2008). Between the October 1973 Arab-Israeli war and the June 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, Sandra Whitehead (1987) CHAPTER TWO 61 found the diversified portrayal of Arabs in The Economist in 1973 than in 1982 after analyzed Arab Portrayals in two weekly news magazines in the United States and England Time and The Economist. There is an ideological link between the cultural-political-economic factors of the two nations and the portrayal of Arabs in their media, this result is related to the British historical role as a colonizer, and the American and British dependency on Arab oil (Sandra Whitehead, 1987). Just as wars and conflicts dominate media coverage, peace treaties have the same control, Morsy (1986) shows this through a comparison for unfavorable portrayals of Arabs, and took Egypt as an example of how the U.S media deal with Arab during the Energy Crisis 1973-74 and 1978-79, and how it changed after Camp David Peace Treaty by Sadat regime. The media during the U.S. Energy Crisis made Arabs as enemies because of the oil embargo and its high prices, the Arabs became regular features of the U.S. media as villains who threaten the American way of life (Morsy, 1986). And because The degree of bias in covering Arab world news changes according to US foreign policy the media coverage changed after Camp David Peace Treaty In the major American television networks, the Egyptian regime became a partner of the United States of America after the agreement, and its leadership appeared positively (Morsy, 1986). Sadat became the face of news magazines and selected “Man of the Year” by Time magazine (Morsy, 1986). Also, everything related to Egypt became famous, the image of Egyptian women was modified in the American mass media and presented them as westernized and liberated (Morsy, 1986). Noakes and Wilkins (2002) found that the news of the Palestinian movement shifted in US news after analyzed recognition and framing of Palestinian issues between 1984 and 1998 by the New York Times and the Associated Press wire service. The US news media gave big attention to the Palestinian news in the 80s with the negative image most of the time, but it was short-lived where the both news media reduced their coverage of Palestinian issues by 1990, this was linked Mushira N. S. Alzyod 62 to the US government because this weak coverage ended suddenly in 1993, the year of sign Oslo Accords Noakes & Wilkins (2002). 2.1.4. Hate speech, racism against Arabs and European in media In the first place, one of the researchers' problems was the lack of a unified definition of hate speech (Georgiou & Zaborowski, 2017; Nielsen, 2002; Kuş, 2016; Slagle, 2009; Shepherd et al., 2015; Barlow & Awan, 2016; Boeckmann & Turpin-Petrosino, 2002; Farkas et al., 2018; Herrera, 2014; Lillian, 2007), especially with social media because it is difficult to distinguish ridicule, criticism, and hatred in some cases. Identifying toxic language is a difficult task because it depends on the social context in which it was said (Sap et al., 2019). Also, current methods of detecting toxic language have racial biases and the text alone does not define it (Sap et al., 2019). Koncavar (2013) considered that hate speech can be described as racism, religious discrimination, xenophobia, and homophobia. It is an emotional discourse that many may claim that they can define its concept, but the criteria for doing so are often elusive and contradictory (Article19, 2015). This discourse has ideological functions to the extent that its true meanings are not recognized and prevents democratic solutions from being found (Koncavar, 2013). This multifaceted discourse can attribute false assumptions to a religion, hateful facts about a religious community (AguileraCarnerero & Azeez, 2016). Also a particular statement may or may not be considered hate speech, depending on the person's cultural background and personal feelings (Ross et al., 2016). To narrow hate speech, the methods are similar in that they leave a large space for personal interpretation, because there may be differences in what is considered offensive (Ross et al., 2016). Therefore, it should be avoided easily defining expression as hate speech because its use may lead to negative consequences and may be misused to justify restrictions on the right to expression (Article19, 2015). Also there is CHAPTER TWO 63 some advocate alternative concepts such as “dangerous speech” or “fear speech” in a way similar to avoiding the decisions of the Human Rights Council using the term Hate speech” and replacing it with formulas such as “intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigma or discrimination” (Article19, 2015). 2.1.5. Hate speech in Europe and western world The refugee crisis in 2015 showed that the media played role in framing refugees (Georgiou & Zaborowski, 2017). Georgiou and Zaborowski (2017) found that Press coverage promoted hate speech and hostility towards migrants and refugees, considered their arrival to European shores in 2015 as a crisis for Europe, and seen them as vulnerable or as dangerous without giving them any opportunities to speak about their experiences and suffering. These results came after analyzing 1200 articles in European influential press in eight member states of the council of Europe, and two major Arabic-language newspapers through three events, the Hungarian barrier along the border with Serbia, Alan Kurdi’s images, and Paris terrorist attacks (Georgiou & Zaborowski, 2017). Also, social media showed new levels of hate speech in "the digital hate discourse" (Kuş, 2016). Kuş (2016) analyzed hate speech in the comments on the BBC world's Facebook page about refugees and the sentiment of these comments, which shows a type of hate speech like describing refugees as illegal immigrants, economic migrants, and Jihadist invaders. The study considered that hate speech has destructive effects on the social and human sense, and more than 7000 comments scanned from 300 pages to BBC World Service's Facebook fan pages showed 4 types of digital hate speech against Syrian refugees, hateful discourse with territorial advantage, securityoriented, economy-oriented and religious belief-oriented hate speech (Kuş, 2016). The study found that social networking may become a platform for the spread of hate speech, in addition to the emergence of a clash of civilizations in the form of digital hate speech. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 70 the IPOB Facebook and Twitter page totaling 500 samples, in time period January 2016 and October 2017 during the crisis. Later in 2013, the separatist group IPOB appeared; they adopt radical and aggressive speech in their campaigns via the Internet, as well as heading to armed conflict against Nigerian authorities which used violence in suppressing the members of the group from killing and torture, and considered them as a terrorist group (Chiluwa, 2018). After a presented number of models on group's speech, the counterdiscourse, contents of linguistic violence and hate speech, Chiluwa (2018) found group speech affected the support was provided to them and does not served their goals, and led to the emergence of another separatist group against them. This indicates that hate speech, even if it is the result of political goals some people seen right, does not serve groups that embrace it because it alienates the people from it and loses much of its support (Chiluwa, 2018). And how social media users impose on organizing speech and creating a virtual identity in the virtual community? Chua (2009) conducted an in-depth and exploratory analysis four virtual communities that are Soc.Culture.Jewish (SCJ), Soc.Culture.Jewish.Moderated (SCJM), Soc.Culture.Singapore (SCS), and Soc.Culture.Singapore.Moderated (SCSM). Some of these societies succeeded in managing their forums, while others failed, this success and failure were evaluated through three factors: member comments, number of posts, and responses (Chua, 2009). The study indicates that the regulate speech of the virtual community was necessary in some cases, one of the virtual communities succeeded in managing speech while another failed (Chua, 2009). This success requires the presence of an adversarial collective identity and the presence of a target collective identity, and this imposes conditions on these communities and the nature of speech in them (Chua, 2009). Just as these virtual communities were moving away from talking about controversial issues, this does not mean that there are no other hostile virtual communities and broadcast hate speech towards others (Chua, 2009). CHAPTER TWO 71 Also in homophobic discourse, Draper and Lotz (2012) analyzed FX series "Rescue Me" by use working through is an ideological strategy, they found that the importance of the strategy of "working through" in "Rescue Me", not the result, but rather negotiating on the ground with ideological transformation and how they work during the transition. Draper and Lotz (2012) discussed how to "Rescue Me" worked through the identity of homosexuals in the first three seasons, and considered the series challenge ideological assessments by adopting new hybrid novels, story-telling techniques, and characterization patterns, and showed the need to make scholars and media scholars studying representations and discourses "of the increasing complexity of some television storytelling" of social issues, also proposed using "working through" as a new textual strategy for television criticism (Draper & Lotz, 2012). Evolvi (2017) discusses hate speech towards Muslims on Twitter after the British referendum on European Union membership "Brexit" in 2016. Evolvi (2017) suggests understanding group polarization on Twitter as antagonist confrontations that exclude the claims of part of the population. Evolvi (2017) found after analyzing 2005 tweet, written by 1789 users in Brexit hashtag between 23 June 2016 – the date of the referendum – and 30 June, that UK exit from European Union contributed to the emergence of Islamophobic discourses, "the majority of tweets 1328 frame Islam negatively, 362 tweets frame positively, and 315 tweets are neutral". Islamophobic tweets frame Muslims as foreigners different from white British, reveals a gender dimension, and frame Islam as a misogynistic religion (Evolvi, 2017). And in a minority case, the hashtag #Brexitis was used to counteract Islamophobic discourses (Evolvi, 2017). Also, social media can be a space for fake propaganda; Farkas et al. (2018) studied Facebook pages in Denmark created for political advertising purposes, the user's identity is hidden, and it mimics the opponent's identity to provoke aggressive reactions. The 11 cloaked Facebook pages claimed to be administered by radical Islamists living in Denmark disguised as radical Islamic pages, which provoked Mushira N. S. Alzyod 72 hostile racist responses to Muslims in particular, immigrants and refugees in general (Farkas et al., 2018). Farkas et al. (2018) faced the difficulty of tracking cloaked pages because they do not remain for long periods, as well as verifying the identities of those responsible for these pages, they concluded that the cloaked pages were created by the same person or group, and found that the mechanism to create a page on Facebook allows hiding the identity of those responsible for it and controlling the content. This mechanism support cloaked Facebook pages to publish hostile comments, posting offensive images, drawings, and extremist phrases against Danish society, and inciting anti-Muslim hostility (Farkas et al., 2018). The reaction to these pages came with the spread of hate speech and hostility towards Muslims and refugees in Denmark; also a counter page was created to show the falsehood of these pages and proved successful in eliminating the hostile pages (Farkas et al., 2018). George (2014) Drawing on legal discourse, suggest a framework and language for journalists to use when dealing with hate speech issues, due to the dilemma that results from the struggle between freedom of expression and respect for religious identity. Because a journalist needs to assert freedom of expression without being an unintended facilitator to hate speech campaigns against a specific class (George, 2014). Also, journalists followed many international events that increased hate speech and attacks on religious freedoms this made the journalists face a key analytical challenge to "Distinguishing between hate speech and hate spin" (George, 2014). Therefore, journalists must defend freedom of expression and not abandon their social responsibility and address the dynamism of hate speech, without neglecting the role of ethical codes of conduct for media institutions and guiding journalists (George, 2014). Besides, it is dangerous to accept the justification for hate speech that it contributes to democratic debate and social rendering because hate crime sometimes comes as a reaction and retaliation to hate speech (George, 2014). CHAPTER TWO 73 Handler (1992) explained that since the late 70s, the alternative western vision of society has disappeared, leaving the field in front of liberal capitalism, which lacking a global vision will lead to structural racism, by raising a question about the value of postmodernism for transformative politics, and discusses the concept of postmodernism, changes that have occurred for the struggle and worker's movements through stories of old protests in the 50s and 60s and new social movements related to "feminism" laws, race, color, and gender. Harlow (2015) pointed out that racist discourse developed with the development of technology and the Internet because users can hide their identity and show racism in comments on stories published in newspapers. by analyzed articles and comments published in 24 American newspapers in 8 states, the study found that readers write racist comments and stereotypes about race even if this not mention in the article or news story, and the most exposed group are the Latinos (Harlow, 2015). These racist comments lead some newspapers to stopped comments on stories and news related to crime, Muslims, suicide, and homosexuals, while other newspapers asked readers to comment using their accounts on the communication sites to end the unknown comments (Harlow, 2015). Awan (2016) analyzed 100 Facebook pages, posts, and comments, and 550 results were collected after 4 main events: The Rotherham abuse scandal in the UK, the beheading of journalists James Foley, Steven Sotloff and the humanitarian worker David Haines and Alan Henning by the group (ISIS), the Trojan horse scandal and the Woolwich attacks in 2013 Awan (2016) found that 494 of collected comments and publications carry hate speech, incitement to violence and physical threats outside the Internet and considered them: Murderers, rapists, torturers and sexual predators" Even Muslim women considered "part of the ‘Islamic problem’ Mushira N. S. Alzyod 74 Also, the individuals and far-right groups contributed to igniting religious and ethnic tensions (Awan, 2016). And believes that freedom of expression is used to direct hate speech and thus create an intolerant society. As we indicated earlier, hate speech is not limited to Muslims or Latinos, but other groups are exposed to it, such as same-sex marriage. Jowett (2017) discussed reactions after the British government’s decision in 2013 to allow same-sex marriage in the marriage law as a matter of equality where the opponents were accused of homophobia. By analyzing 3000 opened articles and comments in British press coverage of same-sex marriage, Jowett (2017) found that denial of homophobia was an important feature in the articles expressing opposition to this marriage, as well as interest in the concept of homosexuality and considers themselves from a third party that reflects this view. With reference that defense of non-racism carries with it a racist discourse (Jowett, 2017). After the southern borders were closed in Germany, Kreis (2017) analyzed 100 tweets published in 2016 in hashtag #refugees not welcome, explored how the hashtag had been used to spread negative sentiments and ideologies towards refugees and migrants in Europe. Kreis (2017) found that tweets in the hashtag carried negative descriptions of immigrants and refugees such as terrorists, invaders, criminals, and that they are different from "us", with criticizing those who try to help refugees and describing them as "these", and Europe is for Europeans of "white" ethnicity and the others should be deported. Feminism had suffered from hate speech, Lillian (2007) assumed that sexist discourse is another type of hate speech, after analyzed sexual discourse written by Canadian author William D. Gairdner as a were representative of ‘mainstream’ sexist discourse. Lillian (2007) found that Gairdner distorted feminism/women through various methods such as his lexical options, linking feminism to cancer, using humiliating images and ridicule, and depicting them in animal terms instead of providing processors of ideas. And indicate that discourse CHAPTER TWO 75 analysts or feminist linguists were unable to consider sexual speech as hate speech (Lillian, 2007). By adopting the criteria for race, ethnicity, nationality, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, and gender in defining hate speech, Lillian (2007) also found that Gairdner speech can be considered hate speech, and thus sexual speech is generally considered hate speech. McDevitt et al. (2002) found that sometimes hate crimes were committed for the sake of the thrill or excitement of the act and that the majority of those who committed it was youth, who expressed their feeling of boredom and looked for fun and went to specific places to choose their Targets, whether homosexual, black or Latino, or committed for purpose of defense (From the neighborhood). That's what McDevitt et al. (2002) found after research on hate crime perpetrators and their motivations through analyzing 169 police files in the American state of Boston. With relied on the definition of Federal investigations office (FBI) to hate crime, McDevitt et al. (2002) pointed out that the victims feared to report hate crimes to the police because of their fear of police officers. Comments on YouTube, the site that specializes in video content, reflect racisim and hate speech after Murthy and Sharma (2018) analyzed comments on 5 videos to musical group Das Racist. With difficulty to track down the perpetrators of hate speech, especially with users using pseudonyms and fake accounts, Murthy and Sharma (2018) collected 7224 comments on the five videos and found that there are a racist speech and hostility, considered that distinguishing between different kinds of “hate" is the challenge from analyzing YouTube comments. Merrill and Åkerlund (2018) reached a concluded that Facebook postponed responsibility for combating racist discourse, provides an environment for racist networking, and encourages racist opinions to master their means of expressing them. This result came after analyzed discussions on immigration in a Swedish group on Facebook Mushira N. S. Alzyod 76 entitled "Stand up for Sweden", which has 220,000 subscribers had been described as the largest hate group in the country (Merrill & Åkerlund, 2018). These discussions are largely found in the rhetoric of the Sweden Democrats (SD), the country’s largest far-right political party (Merrill & Åkerlund, 2018). Therefore, Merrill and Åkerlund (2018) demanded that Facebook develops functions in its platform that allow content to be reviewed and removed. even in forums; Sobkowicz and Sobkowicz (2010) analyzed the number of sections and networks in one of the most popular Internet forums in Poland in political, mathematical and scientific fields, political section had more interaction with an aggressive language more than the sports and science sections. On the ground and outside the Internet and social media, Nielsen (2002) searches for racist and sexist remarks in public places in northern California by chosing field sites that are characterized by ethnic and economic diversity in three societies. After visiting these sites at different times to record observations and selected randomly 100 participants, Nielsen (2002) emphasized that they had been subjected to a racist and hate speech, women were subjected to sexual prejudice, offensive comments and a repetition of the sexual hate speech, and their response to this speech was silence, fear and a sense of threat because the response has many consequences. While other people were subjected to hate speech related to race and racism, their reaction was also to ignore it despite feeling fear and anger (Nielsen, 2002). Three media outlets (IlGiornale.it, Repubblica.it and Avvenire) represent the right-wing parties, the left-wing parties, and the catholic area. Palazzetti et al. (2017) analyzed hate speech against refugees, migrants, and asylum seekers. By using the Council of Europe definition of hate speech, the report deals with the rise of hate speech in the Italian media and Internet, CHAPTER TWO 77 specifically against refugees and migrants, and considered the media contributed to creating a negative image of refugees as enemies and use of stereotypes and non-discrimination between terrorists and refugees (Palazzetti et al., 2017). This speech increased because of the lack of legal controls and supervision on social media, but the Italian government was confronted that with issuing a law in 2017 to combat cyber bullying and hate speech (Palazzetti et al., 2017). McNamee et al. (2010) examined 21 hate groups' sites in the US state of Texas out of 55 sites, and found that education is the most important category in group messages, as the groups consider themselves educational institutions for others. These messages also encourage participation and belonging to the group, in addition to invoking divine excellence and condemning external groups and organizations (McNamee et al., 2010). Although the messages are harmless on the surface, they considered that it constitutes a state of motivation against others and carries an exclusionary discourse, and create a group with special ideas and identity that may transform or result in harmful behaviors (McNamee et al., 2010). Slagle (2009) provides a historical analysis of the opinions and arguments that defend classic freedom of expression and opinions that hate speech considered a major defect in this freedom and assume that the emergence of the Internet was a reason for increasing hate speech and increasing the concern of opponents this speech. The opinions that dealt with freedom of expression completely they considered that restricting hate speech is a restriction of freedom of expression will lead to unintended consequences such as harming minorities, they called for tolerance of this speech on the pretext that the speech does not cause harm to people (Slagle, 2009). Slagle (2009) tends toward the liberal model by considering racism and anti-Semitism ideologies are doubtful in western society, and words are not weapons, that the existence of some opinions contributes to the complex debate that pushes society forward and that removing these views hinders the debate and slows down society. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 78 The new social movements according to Handler (1992), emphasize solidarity and joint struggle and reject the hegemony of the bourgeoisie and liberal and Marxist traditions, also emphasize popular democracy and envisions a better society. But these movements lack several elements that enable them to develop an institutional form or produce strength or a vision that fulfills their demands, as well as it did not result in comprehensive transformations but it is difficult to predict the future of postmodernism, as it is not based on any old movements or trends, intellectual and political trends (Handler, 1992). In a book "The Content and Context of Hate Speech: Rethinking Regulation and Responses", Neier (2014) reviews the articles in the book assembled by Michael Herz, Professor of Law at Cardozo Law School in New York, and Peter Molnar, Senior Research Fellow at Central European University in Budapest. The essays agreed that hate speech is one of the greatest difficulties of our time and must be faced, but Ban it legally was the most prominent point discussed by the scholars in the book, as they were divided between criminalizing speech or not criminalizing it and considered imposing a block on hate speech causes harm to freedom of expression compared to the minimal harm to hate speech, as it opens doors to restrictions on speech (Neier, 2014). Racial classification of human beings is an integral part of racial ideas which assume that people are classified into natural ethnic groups (Entman & Rojecki, 2001), and this race is a legitimate basis for the discriminatory distribution of valuable resources according Entman and Rojecki (2001), as the stereotype is not an easy habit to fall into, but rather it is a natural way of thinking. The media is an exception, and despite their opposition to racism, some methods can preserve the foundations of hostility and reinforce tendencies towards biased thinking (Entman & Rojecki, 2001). This race in America, according to Entman and Rojecki (2001), is highly politicized, and it is not surprising that these workers made a decision influenced by organized political pressure. CHAPTER TWO 79 Alsultany (2012), in her analysis of American dramas at prime time, made it clear that there is a positive image versus a negative one as a kind of balance between the two images, but the good image is conditional on emotions and loyalty to the American nation, and this combination of the two images created a new type of racism. Despite the use of strategies in drama by writers, television and movie producers, on the ground, Arabs and Muslims were arrested and deported or detained without legal procedures (Alsultany, 2012). One of the issues that emerged years ago was the Danish cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad, which angered the Arabs and Muslims against the media that published the cartoons (Hussain, 2007). Hussain (2007) raised questions about freedom of the media, expression, and respect for religious sensibilities. Hussain (2007) found that European media did not paint Jesus in the same way they do with Prophet Mohammed, which is considered as double standers and this fueled the problem without a real debate about it. By analyzing 13,000 tweets (19600 in English and 6600 in Spanish) Bauwelinck et al. (2019) found that discovering hate speech against women and immigrants in micro-blogging texts poses a challenge. The anonymity of the user on social media makes them more dangerous and harmful ) (Bauwelinck et al., 2019). The focus on hate speech comes for several reasons (Fortuna & Nunes, 2018), European commission directives, unavailable automatic technologies, lack of data on hate speech, elimination of hate speech, and quality of service. Fortuna and Nunes (2018) admit that defining hate speech is a complicated matter, so they put their definition: Hate speech is language that attacks or diminishes, that incites violence or hate against groups, based on specific characteristics such as physical appearance, religion, descent, national or ethnic origin, sexual orientation, gender identity or other, and it can occur with different linguistic styles, even in subtle forms or when humour is used. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 86 high school English classroom about Harper Lee’s (1960) novel: To Kill a Mockingbird (TKAM) in nine schools across the USA. After collecting 70 student interviews, 9 teacher interviews, and approximately 50 hours of classroom observation, the study found that white students "employed several strategies associated with the new racism, including racial reversals, mitigation, and trivialization". And black students "asserted the existence of shared symbols and the effects of the historical wounds of slavery on both black and white Americans’ psyches to highlight the persistence of racial inequality and injustice" (Anagnostopoulos et al., 2013). Anagnostopoulos et al. (2013) agreed that hidden identities on social media contributed to an increase in hate speech and racism (Farkas, Schou, Neumayer, 2018; (Murthy & Sharma, 2019); Merrill & Åkerlund, 2018), due to the inability to pursue this person and his ability to cancel the account without any consequences. Archakis et al. (2018) pick up racism in an online campaign launched by the Greek branch of the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) after analyzed 3 clips uploaded on YouTube published online between September and November 2014. By using humor the campaign aims to dissolve the disclaimer “I’m not racist but…” but they fall in racism and defeat the purpose of it, because of "the representation of immigrant characters and voices" they summarize the content of these clips: “We stigmatize racism and racists, but we expect immigrants to assimilate to our language and culture” (Archakis et al., 2018). Cisneros and Nakayama (2015) argue that social media had created an atmosphere to express racism, after controversy over racist tweets about the first Indian American Miss America, Nina Davuluri, and these tweets brought a new form of old racism transformed under the name "color-blindness". The tweets attacked Miss America because of her origins, some said she is Arab, which means victory of al-Qaeda and not respect the CHAPTER TWO 87 victims of September 11, while others expressed their shock at the representation of a woman of Indian origin to "America" and consider it as a threat to the American identity, some considered her choice was a response to racism (Cisneros & Nakayama, 2015). Cisneros and Nakayama (2015) claim that: Controversies over racist speech on social media have become a recognized and recurring cultural phenomenon This phenomenon of racist has not received explicit scholarly attention and reaffirms that anonymity on social media contributed to racism (Cisneros & Nakayama, 2015). In Australia; political rhetoric and political elites generated "new racism" towards African refugees, specifically Sudanese refugees, after Hanson-Easey and Augoustinos (2010) analyzed 7 interviews with Australian Minister Kevin Andrews in 2007 when the Australian government's decided to reduce the size of African refugee quotas from coming to and resettlement to Australia. The minister used the descriptive category "Sudanese" which increased public racial connotations and justified the government's decision of the refugees' inability to integrate (Hanson-Easey & Augoustinos (2010). The study found that discourse linking denying refugees access to Australia with factors such as race and culture and using it as a justification for the policy of reducing the number of African refugees is a speech is essentially a racist. In Kenya, violent incidents on the background of racism in the 2007 elections caused the deaths of 1,200 people and the displacement of 350,000 people due to the presence of 42 tribes (Kimotho & Nyaga, 2016), as race is permeated in all aspects of life and is clearly in politics due to the politicization of race to hold public office, and the various media In elections it is used in a manner that leads to ethnic competition and hatred (Kimotho & Nyaga, 2016). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 88 However, this differed in the 2013 elections, where no violent incidents were reported (Kimotho & Nyaga, 2016). Rather, the elections witnessed a change in the tools of the battle to become social media platforms the place of war of words, specifically Facebook (Kimotho & Nyaga, 2016). The results showed that Twitter and Facebook are the two main platforms for expressing hate in which everyone can express their opinion without regulation or restrictions, as well as the spread of citizen journalism. The study defined digital hate speech as any use of electronic communication technology to spread messages or information that incites hate. People on ethnic groups contribute to the formation of beliefs and perceptions about ethnic groups and how they are viewed (Kimotho & Nyaga, 2016). In his studies about denying racism, T. Van Dijk (1992) explains that accusations and suspicions of bias and direct and indirect racist attitudes maybe denied by resorting to justifications, such as justifying political discourse about immigration and restricting it to saving refugees a bad situation or avoiding more unemployment, or justifications such as blaming the victim if she did not get a better education and was involved in crime. Also denying racism in the press comes from the journalist's assumption that his group and state are tolerant towards minorities or immigrants, and therefore positive selfpresentation is a step in justifying and denying accusations of racism (T. Van Dijk, 1992). T. Van Dijk (1992) considered that: Many forms of racism denial are routine movements in preserving social face so that group members can come to terms with their own prejudices In a study that included media coverage in the 1980s, T. A. van Dijk (1991) found that the relationship between the media and ethnic minorities and immigrants is not ambiguous and has become more intelligent, considering the press to be the main "enemy" of blacks and minorities as a representative of the white power structure. CHAPTER TWO 89 In the parts and details of the news, T. A. van Dijk (1991) made it clear that news headlines cannot be overlooked because they are not random labels and have an indicative role and cognitive consequences, as well as quotations as interpretations or subjective opinions about current news events, and they have many functions that make news reports more convincing. The study also found that minorities are quoted less, even if there are experts among them, and if their opinions are cited, they are in marginal and safe issues, while the authorities, such as the police and politicians, are the main speakers and they determine ethnic parity or biased speakers are chosen or express the position of the newspaper. T. A. van Dijk (1991) considered that the media in general and the press in particular are able to define the public debate and convey basic contents that affect people's social knowledge. Political parties, like stereotypes, have a role in making hate speech. Ben-David and Matamoros-Fernández, (2016) examined Facebook ages of seven extreme-right political parties in Spain (España 2000 and PxC, MSR and AES, FE-La Falange, Nudo Patriota Español (NPe), DN.6 and PP) in time period between 2009 and 2013. BenDavid and Matamoros-Fernández (2016) "Brings together the rise in the popularity of social media with the rise in the popularity of political extremism", and Spain as a case study to this type of speech. The study analyzed 272 images and 306 links because they took the most engagement (number of likes, shares, and comments received). The result of negative targeting was in 9 categories (Anti-immigration, Antiestablishment, Anti-ETA, Antileftm, Antiseparatism, Party general information, Religious symbolism / Catholic values, Spanish nationalism and Fascist symbolism/Francoist nostalgia). The immigration category was related to words such as ilegales (illegals), islamistas (Islamists), amenazan (to threaten), and trabajan (to work), and in most cases, anger was mainly expressed against Moroccans, Islamists, and Black people (Ben-David & MatamorosFernández, 2016). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 90 Immigration in Europe became a rich topic for the political parties and they made programs how to deal with immigrants especially Arabs and Muslims (Muhammad, 2019). Muhammad (2019) takes France as a case study from 1984 until 2017, to discuss the Rise of Extremist Right Parties in Europe. And found the French far-right parties portray immigrants as a threat to the French national identity, a major source of Retro, unemployment, crime, and inhumanity, for example when Jean-Marie Le Pen the leader of the French National Front Party aimed to expel 23 million foreigners residing in France. After that his daughter Marie Le Pen considered in 2017 that French nationality must be "either hereditary or due" but the illegal immigrants, Muhammad (2019): There is no reason for them to stay in France because these people violated the law since they set foot on French soil Freedom Party in Austria and his leader, Dr. Jörg Haider in his election campaign (2001) brought according to Wodak (2002), antiSemitic expressions to the fore and used old stereotypes as political weapons, especially that anti-Semitic was banned in official contexts after 1945 in Austria when the war ended. By analyzed two speeches to Jörg Haider in his election campaign, Wodak (2002) provided a survey of a number of characteristic quotations, which illustrate the anti-Semitic discourse and found that anti-Semitic rhetoric was justified and that abuse, insult is “legitimate criticism” and this makes it acceptable, but according to the definition of criticism, this argument collapses because criticism does not mean mistreatment or defamation, and free expression does not tolerate criticism (Wodak, 2002). Some right-wing parties in Europe reinforce hate speech; Cammaerts (2009) analyzed discourses of the North Belgian extreme right after 3 crimes that happened in 2006 which produced public debate and racist discourse, and asked questions if racism is a democratic right? Or freedom of expression includes opinions against democratic values? CHAPTER TWO 91 Cammaerts, (2009) discusses the importance of the Internet as a general field of discussion and the controversy of freedom of expression that is used as a justification for hate speech, this prompted many countries to impose laws fighting hate speech. After analyzed 3 right-wing extremist letters in 2006 published online in a blog to US organization called Stormfront – the Dutch-speaking part, which is implicitly supported by the second largest political party, Cammaerts (2009) found that radical and marginalized groups found a space on the Internet to broadcast their ideas, this prompted the Belgian politicians to demanded government income against hate speech, and found that democracy may lose if it escalates Racist forces, as well as restricting Internet freedom, which may prevent those who express their opinion far away from hate speech (Cammaerts, 2009). Herrera (2014) clarified that fears increased in Switzerland with the increase in the parliamentary representation of one of the political parties (Union démocratique du center / Schweizerische Volkspartei (UDC / SVP) known for their racist campaigns and programs that carry a hate speech towards foreigners and immigrants, which is contrary to the criminal law that punishes those who incite discrimination and violence. by mentioned several events that took place in Switzerland reflected that fear such as the confiscation of propaganda materials for the PKK, initiatives for naturalization in front of people in Zurich, naturalization in the municipality of Emmen, naturalization, and the Islamic hijab, and the famous minarets issue (Herrera, 2014). This led to the creation of a specialized group under the leadership of the Federal Police, the amendment of the Criminal Code in 2009, and training police officers, judges, and prosecutors in the field of human rights and combating racism Herrera, (2014). The study demanded the necessity of protecting freedom of expression, society, and minorities in it by defining what is hate speech, discrimination, violence, and distinguish the campaigns that call for this. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 92 Yamaguchi (2013) discusses the emergence of hate speech in Japan, by the Action Conservatives Movement (ACM), which has used the Internet very actively to spread its messages to the public against minorities, particularly Koreans. ACM considered the first anti-foreign hate movement in Japan their slogans carried a hate speech and linked these ideas to the new rightwing (Yamaguchi, 2013). As that activists of this movement have turned away from demonstrations and the Internet and went to support political candidates "right-wing" or to run for political positions themselves (Yamaguchi, 2013). In Europe, with the diffusion of populism in public debates in western European media, Rooduijn (2014) focuses on the success of populist parties and if affect the degree of populism in public debates in the media and found after analyzed opinion articles in 15 newspapers in 5 western European countries: France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom that the populist message transcended the arena of party politics and become more prevalent than before in general public debates in the media in the last two decades. Also, the role of the gatekeepers in providing a stage for the populist message, and the gatekeepers of tabloid media differ from gatekeepers of elite media (Rooduijn, 2014). In social identity theory, Rivenburgh (2000) searches about the utility of this theory to the understanding of ethnocentrism as an enduring news value. After analyzed three national newspapers, La Prensa (Argentina), The New York Times (United States), and Berlingske Tidende (Denmark), the results reveal that all three newspapers are more likely to engage in news treatments that reflect favorably upon the national self and protect national identity (Rivenburgh, 2000). This can be considered as a factor for publishing news to support national identity and defense it which maybe carry stereotype for another community (Rivenburgh, 2000). Effect of hate speech: In some articles, researchers discussed the impact of hate speech and racism on the Internet (Boeckmann & Turpin˜Petrosino, 2002; leets, 2001; Waldron, 2012; Calvert, 1997; CHAPTER TWO 93 Tsesis, 2002), which does not leave physical traces but psychological and moral effects, and this is what has caused the emergence of a conflict between criminalizing hate speech and not criminalizing it (Slagle, 2009; Waldron, 2012; leets, 2001; George, 2014; Handler, 1992, Neier, 2014; Noorloos, 2011), by linking it to freedom of expression and thought and protecting others from harm. Hate speech is not restricted only to Arabs and Muslims; it is also exposed to other minorities, religions, and some groups of society, such as Jews (anti-Semitism) and homosexuals (anti-gay). Leets (2002) asked 120 university students about how they feel to be a target of hate speech? To gain a more complete picture of how hate speech is received. It appears that shortand long-term consequences of hate speech might be similar in form but not in intensity the "participants attributed hate comments to two primary motives, ignorance and repressed hostility", and the main problem behind that is individual prejudice, educational and psychological problems, ignorance (Leets, 2002). However, the treatment of this discourse varies from place to place for example in a country like the United States, maybe there is no chance to legal sanctions will be imposed against hate speech, but can find restorative justice intervention programs to repair the harm (Leets, 2002). Boeckmann and Turpin-Petrosino (2002) focused on hate crime harm and how society chooses to respond to it through eight articles and present victim's views. the influence of hate speech and hate crime on them, and confirmed that hate speech is related to civil rights, some writers describe it as a form of terrorism and explained the measures that must be taken to address this matter socially and legally (Boeckmann & Turpin-Petrosino, 2002). The study called to understand the perpetrators of these crimes and their motives and who they are. in addition, hate groups and their role in the spread of hate crime, and reform policies related to victims of hate crimes because they found that victims of these crimes do not play a sufficient role in support by reporting on what they are experiencing (Boeckmann & Turpin-Petrosino, 2002). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 94 Tsesis (2002) argues that hate speech is dangerous when it poses an immediate threat of harm, and when it is systematically developed over time to become part of a culturally acceptable dialogue that promotes persecution of minorities. And uses historical evidence of the role that racist discourse played in violating human rights such as: the Holocaust, slavery in America, Indian removal, and the current slavery in Mauritania (Tsesis, 2002). Waldron (2012) asked about the harm from hate speech and who we want to protect, is it the dignity or protection from the crime itself? And considered that the goal of the laws against hate speech is to prevent people from offending because protecting people from attacking their dignity indirectly protects their feelings (Waldron, 2012): Persons and peoples have to be free to address the deep questions raised by religion the best way they can The debate on religious matters is hate speech, but rather what happens after that and addressing this debate is what needs reconsideration (Waldron, 2012). And it discusses the politics of identity and its control over people, where it is considered that the needs of people and their preferences for religion are among the individual interests that must be protected and no one should be required to waive the demands of worship, in addition to that (Waldron, 2012): The only way in which we could secure compossibility of individual rights and not be offended would be by suppressing any religious speaking, thinking, or consideration in public Leets (2001) found that the harmful effects of racist speech cannot be repaired; also, legal remedies are unable to comprehend the harmful nature of speech, which may result in isolation, decreased self-esteem, and inferiority. Even when the theory of social identity is a strong and appropriate basis for understanding racial speech, but the dynamics of social identity cannot alone calculate the level of damage resulting CHAPTER TWO 95 from the racist discourse (Leets, (2001). That's why there is a necessity of providing a space for legal accountability or compensation for victims of hate speech or providing restorative justice, an alternative to legal and punitive action, considering that compensation for victims and building relationships between groups is more productive (Leets, 2001). Appel and Weber (2017) found that the stereotype threat theory indicates that negative stereotyping and the devaluation of content in the media impair the cognitive and educational achievement of members of negatively photographed groups such as Latinos and women, while those who are not photographed are not negatively affected. Despite analyzing the content over decades and how it portrayed women, immigrants, ethnic groups and the elderly, and despite the change in this portrayal, the disparity still exists (Appel & Weber, 2017). Latin's are underrepresented on American television channels, and the Latin lover is portrayed as a clown and an unintelligent and lazy person, while African Americans are portrayed as criminals (Appel & Weber, 2017). Al-Hassan and Al-Dossari (2019) believes that the hateful and hostile content that is spread through social networks has the potential to cause harm and suffering on an individual basis and lead to tension and social unrest outside the cyberspace. Refugees and immigrants, also they are part of the Arab image in Europe and the entire world, some countries consider them a big problem but other countries help them as a humanity issue. Esipova et al. (2015) asking for, How the World Views Migration? the survey interview more than 183,000 adults across 140 countries between 2012 and 2014. They found that's in a major region of the world – exception of Europe – people are more likely to want immigration levels in their countries Mushira N. S. Alzyod 102 negative image of the media causes harm, annoyance and hatred in the general community, exclusion, silencing and fear (Gelber & McNamara, 2016). Muslims and Afghans are portrayed in the media as terrorists, and certain nationalities are accused if the perpetrator is from the Middle East, while Jews are portrayed in some media as evil (Gelber & McNamara, 2016). In America, the report about hate and extremism in the US and internationally stated that hate crimes rose by 9% in 2018, the highest level in a decade (Levin & Nakashima, 2019). The motive behind these crimes varies, but anti-blacks are the most common, in addition to Jews, whites, homosexuals and Muslims. According to the report, these crimes are linked to specific events such as terrorist attacks, elections or political events (Levin & Nakashima, 2019). The study found by analyzing the 4chan website in July 2019 that bigoted and sexist insults have increased by 40% since 2015 and that bigotry and hate speech are also rampant. Nearly 20 million visitors visit this site per month compared to major news sites (Levin & Nakashima, 2019). September 2001 was the worst month in which hate crimes and antiMuslims and Arabs occurred, and crimes returned to the rise, according to FBI records, after the San Bernardo attack on December 2, 2015, and according to the report, it is the deadliest after September 11, and December 2015 is considered the third worst month for hate crimes against Muslims, these crimes rose to 67% (Levin & Nakashima, 2019). The report revealed an increase in anti-Semitic crimes in Europe and America, as well as an increase in hate crimes in western Europe in recent years due to divisions over nationalism, immigration and extreme right-wing parties (Levin & Nakashima, 2019). Of the 19 EU member states that publish data on registered hate crimes, only 15 separate this data by motives of bias (Salaverría, 2020). It is well established by FRI surveys and other research that the majority of hate crimes go unreported to the police (Salaverría, 2020). CHAPTER TWO 103 Criminal victimization surveys indicate that even in countries where police record relatively large numbers of hate crimes, there is a significant under-reporting by victims (Salaverría, 2020). The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Antonio Guterres, considered that brutal crimes do not occur without reasons, and one of the most prominent of these reasons is the spread of hate speech, which is messages in public discourse and the media, and this speech spreads hostility and encourages people to commit violence against local communities (United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, 2017). In societies experiencing tensions as a result of political or security disturbances or other forms of instability, hate speech in public discourse and media messages is one of the causes of violence and, consequently, genocide because it spreads hostility and encourages the population to commit acts of violence against specific communities (United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, 2017). Amnesty International's report for the year 2020/2021 on the state of human rights in the world stated that the general landscape of the world was in chaos, and the measures taken to address the Corona epidemic during the year 2020 had a devastating impact on the lives of millions of people, and these measures exacerbated violations and inequality and some of these The violations have roots in discrimination related to race and gender (Amnesty International, 2021). 2.1.6. Hate speech in Arab world The Arab world is not an exception to the spread of hate speech and racism, especially since many Arab countries are experiencing turmoil, wars and conflicts such as Lebanon, Iraq, Yemen, Syria and Libya. Internal disturbances, internal fighting, refugee situations and displacement increase hate speech and racism, as mentioned by Antonio Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations (United Mushira N. S. Alzyod 104 Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, 2017). Lebanon is facing a struggle with hate speech within the society itself and a struggle for freedom of expression, specifically after the Arab Spring (Mendel et al., 2018; Touma & Zaghbour, 2020; Mikhael, 2018; Sadaka et al. 2015; Aljazeera Media Institute, 2019). Despite the lack of clarity of hate speech in the Jordanian media, this did not prevent the presence of some cases specifically against Syrian refugees (Mendel et al., 2018; Aljazeera Media Institute, 2019). Hate speech in Iraq is between the same community of sects, politicians and minorities, and the Iraqi media contributes greatly to the spread of hate speech (Iraqi media house, 2018 ; Mena media monitoring, 2020). Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya and Morocco have political conflicts, in addition to religious ones, highlighting hate speech against social groups (Mendel et al. 2018; Mena media monitoring, 2020). While the hate speech in Saudi Arabia is concentrated against the Shiites, and this discourse is spearheaded by clerics and some politicians Human Rights Watch, (2017). Legally, there are no direct laws that combat hate speech or set a specific definition for it, but other laws are adapted to confront hate speech, and these laws may be used to combat freedom of opinion and expression under the pretext of fighting terrorism and extremism, in refusal to criticize the policies of the regimes and governments in these countries (Zakaria, 2017; Hassine, 2016; Mazoz, 2016). In the Arab world, Alshalan and Al-Khalifa (2020) considered that the research that examines the problem of hate speech in the Arabic language is limited and this attributed to the existence of challenges that complicate the task of detecting hate speech, most notably the complexities of the Arabic language on multiple levels, such as dictation and dictionaries, in addition to the diversity of dialects, as they do not differ from one country to another, but differ in the same country. Therefore inferring hate speech is still a difficult phenomenon and is highly context dependent (Alshalan & Al-Khalifa, CHAPTER TWO 105 2020). Sabah (2016) also considered that there are difficulties in defining hate speech because there are types of speeches that fall within the framework of public debate that should not be restricted. Twitter in the Arab region is considered one of the most popular platforms and has revolutionized the way people communicate and share opinions, but it has been increasingly exploited to spread offensive and hateful content Alshalan & Al-Khalifa, (2020). Also, Sabah (2016) contemporary media has become platforms for spreading hate speech. The media may work in two directions, either to promote knowledge and acceptance of diversity, or to be a tool of discrimination and exclusion, and may amount to incitement to violence, due to its immediacy, global scope and ease of use (Sabah, 2016). Sabah (2016) linked the spread of hate speech in the media to the absence and lack of clarity of legislation on hate speech and the dissemination of negative stereotypes about minorities, in addition to the lack of great potential for minorities to access the media, but the legislations to combat hate speech use varying and inconsistent terms with Article 20 of the "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", also the more the definition of hate speech in national laws increases, the more arbitrarily these laws are applied. Legally, the Arab Charter on Human Rights issued by the Council of the League of Arab States in 2004 emphasized in Article Two the nondiscrimination on the grounds of race, color, gender and other reasons that lead to inflaming feelings of hatred among individuals, the charter also stressed in the second paragraph of the same article that the signatories to the charter must take the necessary measures to ensure effective equality and protection from all forms of discrimination, In addition to protecting minorities and enabling them to enjoy their rights, because detracting from them leads to racial discrimination and hate speech (Zakaria, 2017). Among the Arab legislation on discrimination is UAE Legislation No. 2 of 2015 on discrimination and hate speech, this legislation defined Mushira N. S. Alzyod 106 hate speech as every word and deed that would provoke discord and strife or discrimination between individuals and groups, also the legislator stressed that hatred directed at religions is punishable (Zakaria, 2017). And because hate speech and discrimination against others lead to revenge, bloodshed and chaos, this is what prompted the United Nations to adopt conferences against hate and discrimination in light of the shortcomings of international legislation in this aspect, also, the absence of an agreement at the international level to combat intolerance and hate speech resulted in the issuance of the UAE Declaration in February 2017, to eliminate all forms of extremism, discrimination and incitement to national, religious and racial hatred (Zakaria, 2017). In a report that tracks the state of freedom of expression in four Arab countries (Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan and Saudi Arabia), specifically after the Arab Spring and the emergence of ISIS, the report follows how these four countries interacted with the events and responded to them in creating laws to combat terrorism and religious fundamentalism on the Internet ostensibly, but they were exploited to stifle dissent and criminalize those who criticize governments, as such criticism threatens their legitimacy (Hassine, 2016). The report tracked targeting of those who write their opinion online since 2011 and found that Jordan and Saudi Arabia use anti-terrorism laws to prosecute online activists, while Egypt uses a new law issued in 2014, while Tunisia relies on old laws, and the four countries meet in prosecution and imprisonment people who express their opinions online. The report considered that the Arab world lacks terminology related to national security laws, such as cybercrime and cyber terrorism, and the laws related to the Internet in the Arab world are considered laws against certain types of online discourse. And also found that the regional approach to addressing Internet freedom issues in the Middle East and North Africa no longer exists, but rather that each country has a different social, political context and institutional history that CHAPTER TWO 107 affects the use of laws. Where anti-terror laws are used to arrest the opposition and shut down any unwanted speech (Hassine, 2016). Another report on hate speech and racism in the southern Mediterranean region, the report confirmed that the countries of the southern Mediterranean have witnessed an unprecedented degree of authorities' control of the media, and the Arab revolutions have affected the Arab Spring by giving new freedoms to the media (Mendel et al., 2018). The report stated that studies indicate the spread of racist content in the southern Mediterranean media, and journalists find themselves in a battle of hatred and racism, and in some cases they have become victims and perpetrators of incitement. The report focuses on Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Morocco, Palestine and Tunisia. In Algeria, the report indicates that the struggle of the media profession against hate speech is a source of concern. The media reported that the content of newspapers has become increasingly exciting and the press resorted to dazzling to sell more copies while avoiding criticism of the authority. Some media outlets also used racist descriptions against certain groups such as African immigrants and Chinese workers, and increased hate speech against secularists, liberals and Islamists alike. The dispute between Algeria and Morocco over western Sahara caused the spread of hate speech in all Algerian and Moroccan media (Mendel et al., 2018). In Egypt, media sector was affecting the region and changed after the revolution of January 25, 2011, with the flourishing of the media, this was accompanied by general chaos, and hate speech of a political, religious, ethnic and xenophobic nature began to increase in the national media, and hate speech against political groups and figures, religious minorities and foreign forces flourished. Jordan, during a specialized conference on hate speech in Amman 2014, media professionals confirmed that the refugee crisis was the biggest issue in Jordan, and the media did not engage in any racist, inciting or hate speech against them. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 108 In Lebanon, media reflects the historical conflict in the country, pluralistic religious identities, and the interference of religion and politics in the media. Syria's interference in political life and the Palestinian and Syrian refugee crises affected the media, whose coverage of news is affected by dependence on political loyalty, and coverage of refugee issues has turned from a humanitarian nature to an aggressive one. Civil society organizations in Algeria, Egypt, Jordan and Morocco are working to add legislation, laws and initiatives to combat hate speech, while in Lebanon, despite this, the country lacks an effective mechanism to hold the media accountable (Mendel et al., 2018). As for Morocco, despite the stability and the absence of a significant impact of the Arab Spring, this did not prevent the confrontation of hate speech; one of the most important of these challenges is the increase in immigrants and refugees. Social issues are also reflected in hate speech in the media, such as religion, violence against women and discrimination against persons with disabilities. In Palestine, which is experiencing an ongoing conflict, wars and actual occupation - as described in the reportbut there are efforts to set standards for the journalism profession, enhance journalism ethics, and combat hate speech in the media. In return, Israel accused the media of inciting hate speech and violence and closed dozens of media outlets and arrested journalists on accusation of speech the hatred (Mendel et al., 2018). Tunisia, which led the process of democratic transition after it was the cradle of the Arab Spring, was the adoption of legislative and regulatory texts to consecrate freedom of the media, despite that there were fears of hate speech. The head of the Union of Tunisian Journalists, Neji Bghouri, said: Tunisians believe that the media have become tools for settling accounts, defamation, transmitting false information and spreading violence and hate speech CHAPTER TWO 109 A survey of 19 newspapers and digital media in 2016 showed that many Tunisian newspapers contributed to the spread of hatred and violence (Mendel et al., 2018). The report found that regulation in the southern Mediterranean countries is weak, despite the presence of positive trends in legislation in Tunisia and Morocco, while the code of conduct is absent from these countries, with the exception of Palestine. One of the reasons that led to confusion in understanding a number of concepts, including the comparison between hate speech and incitement, is the absence of clear definitions of exceptions to freedom of expression, and this was reflected in human rights attitudes towards speeches that result in violations of other rights and freedoms, as well as restrictions on freedom of expression (Mazoz, 2016). Political differences may lead to impartial media coverage, as happened in the Gulf political crisis between the Arab Gulf states and Qatar, where the qatari news coverage of the Saudi decision to allow women to drive between 2017-2018 was subjective, despite the lack of objectivity in most of the reports that dealt with this decision; it was free from hate speech and stereotypes about Saudi women (Salameh, 2020). Again in Lebanon, most of the reports focus on freedom of expression and violations against activists and ordinary citizens for simply criticizing a cleric or politics and the intertwined racism and hate speech (Touma & Zaghbour, 2020). The report considered that freedom of expression declined in Lebanon during 2019 after journalists, activists and citizens were interrogated and arrested because of their opinions. The report explain that with the decline in freedom of expression in Arab countries after the Arab Spring, arrests and interrogations increased in Lebanon after 2017, and complaints were submitted by political and religious figures, which reflects that the authority does not want criticism, and work is being done to put obstacles in the way of implementing laws related to freedom of opinion and expression. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 110 The report questions the work of the office of "Information Crimes and Intellectual Property", which was established in 2006 because it is allowed to penetrate digital spaces and violate freedom of expression, and the office uses coercive measures during detention operations, including the person signing a pledge not to write on a specific topic or about a specific person. The matter does not stop there, but some political and religious figures exert great pressures that reach to control the judiciary and influence its decisions, and the response of some judges to these demands also threatens the independence of the judiciary (Touma & Zaghbour, 2020). As for hate speech on social media in Lebanon, this speech has been defined as a form of extremist, biased and punishable expression that targets a person or a group of society because of their beliefs, gender, race or religion (Mikhael, 2018). This discourse leads to an escalation of violence, fueling conflict, and creates an environment conducive to discrimination and racism (Mikhael, 2018). According to the report hate speech on social networking sites in Lebanon is mostly issued by personal accounts, followed by journalists and then politicians, and distributed between Facebook and Twitter, the incitement to violence topped the most types of hate speech that was published in the wake of events that occurred during 2018 in Lebanon (Mikhael, 2018). In addition, insults were directed at specific people or groups. In this speech, images, scenes and phrases were used that symbolize sectarian violence, the Lebanese civil war, and massacres that occurred for sectarian and religious reasons, they also used modified pictures that include offensive descriptions of people or groups that strip them of their human characteristics. Among the videos that were monitored is a video of the Progressive Socialist Party filled with expressions of incitement, violence and incitement to violence (Mikhael, 2018). A 2015 study conducted by Maharat Foundation on the Lebanese media and the practice of religious incitement, found that religious discourse is strongly present and hate speech increases when conflicts escalate (Sadaka et al., 2015). The study that was conducted after the CHAPTER TWO 111 signing of the media honor code in 2013 and analyzed 10 newspapers, 7 television stations, 8 radio stations, and 5 electronic news websites, and found that the media has a discourse of incitement and mobilization against the opponent’s media tools, meaning that the media fights with the media. The study did not record any direct religious incitement, but rather accusatory speeches with political and sectarian dimensions appeared (Sadaka et al., 2015). It is noted that the Arab political and media discourse frequently uses adjectives whose roots are taken from animals and the earth or wind and rain, and they reflect a defect in the animal or a problem or a moral or sexual characteristic, and the formula "enemy" in the Arab context is used between political parties and used as divisions that instill a culture of hostility and hatred in Arab societies (Mena media monitoring, 2020). With the expansion of the culture of death and "takfir"15 through the emergence of a large part of the Islamists in the eighties of the last century calling for Jihad against the ignorance of the Islamic community, this increased the spread of the language of hatred, Atonement "takfir" and apostasy, and the media became promoting these cultures in a show manner that is not different from the promotion of sports and cultural products (Mena media monitoring, 2020). The journalists justify their resort to using the dictionary of hate in their writings by saying that they are against the symbols and leaders of Islamic or obscurantist and fascist currents, which can be considered as confronting fascism with fascist methods and tools (Mena media monitoring, 2020). Hate media is characterized by propaganda, misinformation, racism, extremism, spreading lies, fabricating and exaggerating differences. It is also noted that the Arab media contribute to awakening and producing feelings of racism, tribalism, regionalism and religious and political extremism among large groups of the public (Mena media monitoring, 2020). 15 Takfir is a theological declaration that a Muslim has become an apostate or a person is an infidel or an act or idea constitutes disbelief in Islam (Hassan, 2017) Mushira N. S. Alzyod 118 News values research ignored the analysis of all digital native news websites, which are news outlets that originated online and did not originate from the legacy of offline media (Canter, 2018). These researches focused on old media and a range of media platforms, including online platforms (Canter, 2018). Canter (2018) considered that the vacuum of empirical data in this field indicates an elitist attitude towards authentic digital news organizations, which means that their content does not deserve academic investigation because it does not produce real news Cunningham and Craig (2016) pointed out that we are witnessing the rise of emerging media that represents the ownership of nontraditional media and the creation of content that challenges the concept of media globalization. The field of digital media has also increased over the past two decades, thanks to the development of devices and their often cheap prices, the improvement of communications, and the presence of a wide range of products and services (López-García et al. 2019). Digital-native news sites in Latin America are changing the region industry, and digital news organizations are growing in importance in terms of their scope, these sites have challenged the local news industry by addressing topics marginalized by the mainstream media, these emerging forms of news media created their own audience base inside and outside their country (Joyce & Harlow, 2020). The author indicates that new technologies have contributed to creating these news organizations in an unconstrained environment. Also, the presence of the common Spanish language among Latin American countries and the public contributed to its spread in Latin America (Joyce & Harlow, 2020). The researcher focused in his 2006 study on websites and social media in Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Peru. These sites receive funding and grants from international institutions and avoid government advertising. CHAPTER TWO 119 Respondents to a questionnaire distributed in 19 Latin countries indicated that the Digital-native media dealt in depth with topics that the mainstream media did not care about Joyce and Harlow, (2020). The respondents also highlighted the belief in the professionalism, objectivity and credibility of the original digital sites, in addition to the use of advanced and innovative technologies that are not available in traditional media Joyce and Harlow, (2020). One of the most distinctive features of Digital-native media is the participatory nature of media (García-Orosa et al., 2020). These sites connect with their audience by launching initiatives such as celebrating a thematic Sunday, meeting with partners, or adopting live web-discussions from a newsroom such as Media part (García-Orosa et al., 2020). These sites have also given users the ability to contribute to research and press production by giving evidence, sending leaks, or suggesting corrections through mail, e-mail, or web communication (García-Orosa et al., 2020). These details create a social space with the most loyal audience, journalists and other entities, in addition to creating multimedia and mixing text with audio and video, (García-Orosa et al., 2020). GarcíaOrosa et al., (2020) found that digital local media appear in response to the needs of the market, in society, and in journalism models, as these sites were established by journalists with experience in the journalism profession. Also the results of the Harlow and Salaverría's study (2016), showed that the most influential authentic sites on the Internet are trying to renew the old traditional patterns of journalism and aim to change society, and act as alternatives to the mainstream media even if these sites do not specify that they are alternatives. Most media outlets share common features such as the use of digital technologies or new business models and the renewal of classic forms of journalism, and they are distinguished by their different degrees of political activity (Harlow & Salaverría, 2016). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 120 But author highlight that in Latin America, the birth of online-native news sites does not mean that it will provide an alternative to traditional journalistic practices and the goals of mainstream media because this birth is accompanied by barriers such as access to the population, where 49% of the population has access to the Internet (Harlow & Salaverría, 2016). To understand authentic digital-native media in Latin America, Harlow (2021) stated that alternative media is defined as "noncommercial, unprofessional, and underfunded outlets, that provide counter-hegemonic options to the mainstream commercial media". Although the original sites on the Internet are proud of their distinction from the mainstream press, and they refuse to consider themselves "alternative", because they came from an alternative press that played a historical and military role, and was the voice of dissidents, fighters and opponents of the right-wing domination of much of Latin America in the eighties . (Harlow, 2021) explained that rapid technological changes and the resulting economic crises increase the complexity of the news media landscape, which opens the stage for digital-native media to redefine the alternative and dominant journalism in Latin America. Readers also see that independent digital-native media differ from mainstream media because they use more innovative technology (Harlow, (2021). Readers also appreciate media outlets that take a stand on injustice and corruption and participate in community activism and protests and these sites also facilitate exchange with others and make them feel part of society (Harlow, 2021). Nieman Lab at Harvard University published in 2010, predictions about journalism and digital media experts for the year 2011, and these predictions, according to Ruotsalainen, (2018), were varied and rich in qualitative terms but lacked structure and focus. Nieman Lab experts believe that forms of media will vary, as will the expected developments in podcasts and videos, and the dismantling of traditional articles to be adapted to mobile devices. The forms and style of journalism will differ, which means that the skills of CHAPTER TWO 121 journalists will be diversified as well. In addition to this, the media environment diversified into smaller and more closed mass platforms, the researchers expect, according to the article, to increase the content of specialized press and increase the spread of media materials produced by medium and small media organizations (Ruotsalainen, 2018). Predictions expect an increase in the possibility of subscriptions and paid memberships to obtain media content, which is accompanied by an increase in revenue. Media institutions have reaped revenues from subscriptions that are higher than advertisements, and revenues are expected to increase through audio stories, serious journalism, exclusive reports, innovative mobile phone advertisements, and others (Ruotsalainen, 2018). Media institutions will seek to establish more active and innovative relationships with other multiple platforms to publish on them, and all these developments and strive to win over the public will be directed at enhancing focus on quality, moving away from filling, focus, specialization, and verifying the validity of information further (Ruotsalainen, 2018). It is also expected to increase the use of artificial intelligence in journalism, specifically in checking content, machine vision, hearing, processing wrong information, natural language, and verifying facts, and this means that the journalist must know what artificial intelligence is, what it is capable of, and how to develop websites and platforms, especially with expectations that one machine will create a story and send it to a second machine to customize the story and publish it (Ruotsalainen, 2018). It is necessary to acknowledge, as Mensing, (2017) says, that the entire local and global media system is moving into the digital world, from mass media to networked media systems, and from strong advertising support to financial instability, between free and restricted in laws, policies and ethical standards. These sweeping changes have significant and widespread impacts on companies, non-profits, and the public media (Mensing, 2017). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 122 Reuters Foundation digital news report in 2018, was based on a survey that included more than 74,000 people in 37 markets covers 25 European countries, 6 in Asia and 4 in Latin America, the United States of America, and Canada (Newman et al., 2018). The report expects podcasts to become more popular in the world (Newman et al., 2018). In addition to noting the decrease in Facebook consumption compared to the increase in the use of alternative platforms such as WhatsApp, Instagram, and Snapchat (Newman et al., 2018). As the vast majority of respondents, 65% prefer to access the news through a side door instead of going to the site or a news application, 53% prefer to access news through search engines, social media, or news aggregators (Newman et al., 2018). In 2019, the Reuters Foundation based in its digital news report, on a survey of more than 75,000 people in 38 markets, covering 24 European countries, 7 in Asia, and 4 in Latin America, the United States of America, and Canada, the report included South Africa For the first time (Newman et al., 2019). Newman et al. (2019) found that despite the efforts being made in the news industry, paid subscriptions are witnessing a slight increase, whether through subscription, membership, or donation. Where the majority in some countries prefer to spend their limited budgets on entertainment such as Netflix and Spotify instead of news because in the eyes of many people it is a routine work (Newman et al., 2019). With the influx of media users on websites and digital platforms and interact with the press via the Internet, we are still far from finding sustainable digital media models. In the Arab world, Maharat Foundation made a study about the reality of digital media startups in 2019 in three countries (Lebanon, Jordan, and Morocco). It found that the emerging media companies, in the three countries share the same difficulties, which are continuity, financing, and creating content that may face many obstacles due to media laws, governments, the taboos of society, and the lack of expert people. CHAPTER TWO 123 Lebanon, is one of the capitals of thriving digital innovation in the Middle East, as it hosts 13% of the total investors in the Middle East and North Africa (Maharat Foundation, 2019). However, the Lebanese media suffers unstoppable crises, that are not new and the reform attempts in the seventies and eighties were unsuccessful (Maharat Foundation, 2019). With the digital revolution and the financial crisis many media institutions closed (Maharat Foundation, 2019). In return, new models and media institutions have been established via the Internet and have reached a wide audience base, but they are still below expectations and sometimes go through disappointments, and they also face challenges, most notably the lack of technical talent, the political environment and the lack of access to customers in the local, regional and global markets (Maharat Foundation, 2019). The number of media sites in Lebanon registered with the National Media Council is 372 (Maharat Foundation, 2019). Some of them are closed and others operate with rudimentary technologies and with the same traditional economic, administrative and editorial model of media institutions (Maharat Foundation, 2019). Also, media companies emerging in Lebanon are not many, as they face great difficulties and challenges, according to Maharat Foundation (2019), the most prominent of which is the lack of a material return, and the type of content that affects readership and innovation. According the informe these challenges are the same that face startups in general: the instability of material income, long working hours and great responsibility, the presence of local, Arab and international competitors, political instability, lack of experience in the labor market. Morocco has witnessed a qualitative leap in the use of the Internet, and the latest statistics came in January 2019 to show that 22 million Moroccans use the Internet, 86% of who are active on web pages daily. With this turnout, the media market also witnessed an increase in Moroccan media projects, as 892 media projects were registered, according to a statement by the Ministry of Communications in April 2019. These new projects correspond to traditional projects Mushira N. S. Alzyod 124 monopolized by the state or the royal family (Maharat Foundation, 2019). These emerging enterprises face multiple economic, technological, and legal challenges, and the same problem in Lebanon is that these projects face a problem in content, as 80% of the institutions use the Arabic language and 20% use the French language, in addition to a tendency to use the vernacular local dialect according to the same report. In Jordan also, number of media websites licensed with the Media Commission until 2019 reached 137 sites, 36 satellite stations, and 39 radio stations (Maharat Foundation, 2019). Most of these institutions did not go outside the framework of traditional media in terms of form and content. Emerging media facing the funding challenge and the challenge of finding people with skill and innovation in producing content also the difficulty of obtaining information, these media projects have been affected by international conditions, economic, social, and political changes in Jordan, regional turmoil, and conflicts (Maharat Foundation, 2019). In the Arab world, it can be admitted that the new media contributed to the production of what might be called the new Arab media (ZRAN, 2017). This is evident on several levels: institutional, sociological and technological, whereby many Arab countries no longer adhere to ministries of information, but have been replaced by higher bodies for communication and information (ZRAN, 2017). ZRAN (2017) considered that the relationship between the new media and the Arab media has resulted in a number of transformations. The new media has the victory of the sociological reference over the technical background, also the new media opens the intellectual space for the formation of a new Arab media characterized by the presence of the individual and the weakness of the institution, and it produces new citizenship and new interaction with issues of public affairs (ZRAN, 2017). CHAPTER TWO 125 2.2.1. Digital native media The thesis deals with its analysis of the digital native media in Europe and the Arab world. Although the naming of digital native media does not exist in the Arab media as a name, it does exist in the practical media field as online news websites as the Arabic scholars study. Ismail (2020) pointed out that the Arab media has witnessed in the past two decades great transformations in the field of communication that have produced new media patterns, most notably the so-called "electronic journalism" or "online journalism." The definitions of electronic journalism included "Websites that do not have a printed paper version" (Ismail, 2020). And mentioned by (Al-Faisal, 2021; AlFatlawi, 2016; Kchour & Bachir, 2014; Al-Nasser & Kamel, 2020). Also, Husni and Al-Timimi (2018) used the terms new media, digital media, and digital newspapers via the web and pointed out that Arab research and studies on digital or new media are few in libraries and periodicals. Alshehri and Gunter (2002) used terms Arab electronic newspapers, Arab online newspapers. Studies, scientific articles, and researchers have defined the digital native media as the media that originated in the digital age, but began to grow since the nineties (Thomas & Cushion, 2019). It's a media company that grew up entirely on the Internet (Wu, 2016), and are based on a digital presence and has no association with an old news organization (Buschow, 2020). They are classified as start-ups or pure players and have evolved over recent decades into a variety of organizations (Thomas & Cushion, 2019). Whereas directors of local native online news companies in Colombia define their entrepreneurial organizations as creative laboratories that use digital technology to defend journalistic principles and produce editorial innovations to ensure a better future for journalism (García-Perdomo & Magaña, 2020). The expansion of social media platforms in western countries has led to the growth of the audience for digital authentic media rapidly, which reflects a greater impact than it was in the 1990s (Thomas & Cushion, 2019). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 126 In recent years, scholars and practitioners of journalism have begun to distinguish between older, branded digital publications and newer online publications (Salaverría, 2020). These new news sites came after many traditional news organizations were affected by the economic recession and struggled to survive in light of the decline in revenues and the downsizing of newsrooms and the number of journalists (Wu, 2016). It also came as a result of the profound transformations brought about by the communication ecosystem in the journalistic work and the media, which emerged as digital media that do not follow the logic of traditional media (Rodríguez-Hidalgo et al. 2020). García-Orosa et al. (2020) see that the emergence of digital native media has come as a response to the needs of different types in market, community, and journalism models. In Spain, for example, news organizations have grown since the mid-nineties, and their biggest expansion was during the recession (2008-2014), when the traditional media faced the consequences of this economic crisis (Negredo et al., 2020). These local online media are created by experienced journalists and those who have had a career in traditional media, which differ from traditional in terms of the value they provide to society as a more audience-focused approach to journalism is introduced (García-Orosa et al., 2020). Wu (2016) has considered that with the passage of time, the public has increasingly learned to consume news online, especially from social networking sites "Facebook and Twitter." These companies that have been grown and emerged completely online differ from traditional companies in many ways, the most important of which is the expansion of growth and profits (Wu, 2016). Also, the social and economic reality in recent years has led to a series of changes in the media and has developed into new organizational, production and distribution models (Rey & García, 2017). Bruno & Nielsen (2012) in Oxford’s Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism report, focused on journalistic online start-ups which are doing something recognizable as professional journalism by creating continuous content focused on timely and accessible information done CHAPTER TWO 127 by people full-time and not funded by outside groups. The report adds that a generation of start-ups found the opportunity to challenge incumbents in the industry and establish their presence in the media markets with the economic troubles of the newspaper industry, which led to the layoffs of many experienced journalists (Bruno & Nielsen, 2012). Rey and García (2017) considered that these media outlets were born because they seek greater diversity and freedom of information, whether in terms of geographical area, editorial models, specialization or language. In addition, these online news sites operate in a more competitive environment than traditional newspapers (Burggraaff & Trilling, 2020). Also digital native media has the ability to develop an alternative agenda to the old media (Thomas & Cushion, 2019). 2.3. Covid-19 and media coverage The beginning was in the Chinese city of Wuhan, when the National Notifiable Disease Reporting System (NNDRS) reported cases of COVID-19 in December 2019 (World Health Organization, 2021). Then, on January 30, 2020, the World Health Organization declared that the outbreak of COVID-19 had become a public health emergency of concern. On March 4, 2020, 77 countries recorded cases of COVID-19 (WHO, 2020). On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared that the COVID-19 virus transformed into a pandemic (Villena-Alarcón & Caballero-Galeote, 2020). The COVID-19 outbreak has caused widespread disruptions to personal, social, and economic life Ziems et al., (2020). Also, the spread of the virus has also sparked feelings of racism, hatred and xenophobia on social media, targeting Chinese and Asian communities (Ziems et al., (2020); Fan et al.,, (2020). Four months after the outbreak of the Corona epidemic in the world, Basch et al. (2020) analyzed news clips dealing with COVID-19 on the Internet and analyzed 401 videos published in January and Mushira N. S. Alzyod 134 Entman (2007) explained that to make people think in a certain way requires choosing what to tell them and directing them to the harmony between these elements, and through framing, doer's form texts that affect the agenda and considerations that people think. Entman (2007) showed that framing, agenda, and priming fit together as a tool in exercising political power. In the research on news framing, Entman et al. (2009) emphasized that the repetition of frames over time in multiple texts gives people the opportunity to observe, understand, store and recall mental associations in the future, as the frames enhance the interpretation of a situation or support (implicit or explicit) for the desired response. This is consistent with the study on the agenda setting and international news (Wanta & Golan, 2004), where it was found that there is a relationship between media coverage of countries and how individuals view them, and the more negative stories readers receive, the more negatively they are presented. This means that the news media has the ability to show the public how important countries are to the United States and how they should be perceived (Wanta & Golan, 2004). In an analysis of websites of prestige media outlets from (the United States, Britain, Egypt, and Qatar) during the war on Iraq to examine the media frameworks used to cover the war, Dimitrova & ConnollyAhern (2007) found that the war story is composed differently by different media. The media frame used on American, British, and Arab websites are compatible with the national political environment, which means that media frames for issues such as war are not only affected by the political environment and cultural history but are also affected by journalistic values and routines (Dimitrova & ConnollyAhern, 2007). The use of different frames by the Arab and international media in covering the war led to the construction of two different wars in order to attract local audiences, the framing also contributed to widening the division in public opinion between the public in Britain, the United States and the Arab countries Dimitrova & Connolly-Ahern, 2007). CHAPTER TWO 135 1The Framing theory The researchers were interested in the role of the media in bringing about a change or modification in the recipients’ attitudes towards facts, events, images and symbols, by reorganizing the media messages and texts related to these facts and events and placing them in media contexts or frameworks that confirm or deny a specific meaning (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). Media framing, as Goffman defines it, is the construction of a number of expectations that are used to make people more aware of social situations at a given time (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The idea of media frames finds its origins in psychology, which sees that modifications that enter into the definitions of judgments lead to a change in them, and hence the main idea of forming a framework as an organization of events and linking it to certain contexts lemons to the text or content a certain meaning (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). Goffman (1979), saw that the use of advertisements for women linked presenting the image of women in the framework that he sees or prefers for men to see in them, and believes that this may lead to new learning or confirmation of learning the values, ideas and beliefs associated with the image of women more than promoting the advertised goods or product (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The general idea of framing is centered as a purposeful process carried out by the media and communicators, in which they reorganize the news content and place it within a framework of the recipients' interests and perceptions (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). Framing arises from communication texts from professional networking involved in the framing process, which is defined as selecting certain aspects of reality and constructing messages that highlight links between them to reinforce a particular interpretation (Entman et al., 2009). Where the frame summons repeatedly the same things and names and uses identical or synonymous words and Mushira N. S. Alzyod 136 symbols that are concentrated at an appropriate time (Entman et al., 2009). Framing, a concept used in the behavioral and communication social sciences, goes back to both the sociological and psychological literature (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). Evrej Goffman's work is essential, because he considers frames to be useful tools for humans to understand the world in all everyday situations, and is culturally relevant and serves to reduce the complexity of our world today (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). Kaveman and Tversco's 1984 work is also a starting point, when they develop probability theory, which suggests that new information is perfectly evaluated based on whether a profit or loss frame is applied to it (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). In the field of political communication, the idea of framing was chosen by Entiman 1993, who transferred the frame to the study of mass media and news in particular (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). Entiman stresses that the effect of framing is not achieved only by highlighting some aspects of events or facts through delete or omission of other aspects (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). These frames used to conceal the meaning are divided into two types, according to Sh.lyanger and A.simon, which are the specific frames that intersects between the event and concrete perceptions and put them in a specific frames whose dimensions can be discussed and its problems and solutions can be touched (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). As for the second part, it is the general or abstract frame (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The news frame can influence the individual by emphasizing certain aspects of reality and pushing others into the background for a selective function (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). Entiman, one of the most productive researchers in framing theory, warned in 1993 of the absence of a unified theory of framing capable of explaining how frames are built, how texts are manifested and how they affect the minds of the public, and considered that this absence complicates the strong and unified progress of the system (ArdèvolAbreu, 2015). CHAPTER TWO 137 The foundations that enabled the birth of framing theory come in interpretive sociology, which considers that people's interpretation of reality and daily life depends mainly on interaction and the definition of situations (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). The development of the theoretical body of framing began in the seventies at the beginning of cognitive psychology, and the concept and theories of framing were restored in the field of sociology and the original meaning of the frame expanded from the individual to the collective and from the psychological field to the social field (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). This expansion benefited the study of press messages, where it was considered that the media has a great ability to generate and modify social frame of interpretation by interfering in the creation of a common social discourse (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). The second stage in the nineties corresponds to the definition of the frames as a discipline of media studies with an application in the analysis of media discourses with a dispersed and uncensored methodology (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). At the beginning of the twentyfirst century, the stage of reorganization and experimental development began and continues today (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). At this stage, there is an attempt to achieve a conceptual and methodological unification that allows for a more solid and rapid development through research synergies (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). Makkawi and Al-Sayed (1998) considered that the framing theory analysis is one of the modern tributaries in communications studies, and it allows the researcher to measure the implicit content of media messages that are reflected in the media. The theory assumes that events in themselves have a certain meaning and gain their meaning by placing them in a frame that limits them, organizes them and gives them a degree of consistency by focusing on the aspects of the subject and ignoring others (Makkawi & Al-Sayed, 1998), (Al-Bishr, 2014). Mushira N. S. Alzyod 138 And the media frame according to Makkawi and Al-Sayed (1998), for an issue means deliberate selection of some aspects of the event or issue and making it more prominent in the media text, and the use of a specific method in describing the problem, identifying its causes, evaluating its dimensions and proposing proposed solutions regarding it. Several previous studies indicate that the public's elicitation of the reasons for an issue or problem and ways to treat it is largely related to the type of media frame used by the communicator to explain the dimensions of that issue (Makkawi & Al-Sayed, 1998). According to Wolfsfeld, the determination of the media frame, , is governed by the extent of the political independence of the media, the type of news sources, the patterns of media practice, the nature of the events themselves, as well as the ideologies of those in charge of communication (Makkawi & Al-Sayed, 1998). Researchers have used framing theory to understand how print information and other media are presented, and thus, over the past four decades, prominent media scholars have applied the concept of framing to explain how the media structure their delivery of news, and to reinforce certain interpretations of events through the selection of certain facts (Linström & Marais, 2012). Research that attempts to explore news frames in texts, such as political news, adopts an inductive approach and refrains from analyzing news stories with predetermined frames in mind and frames appear during analysis (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). The main question for framing the research is the place of the frame in the text, and what are the textual components that carry the frame (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). News frames affect citizens' ability to think about a variety of political issues, and some studies have shown that news frames affect information processing, i.e. how citizens incorporate framed information into their mental repertoire and how they understand a political issue (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). However, the influence of news frames does not have the same power over all individuals at all CHAPTER TWO 139 times with respect to all issues (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). As for the duration of the effect of news frames, some studies have found that it may last for several weeks, while others have found that it dissipates very quickly (Vreese & Lecheler, 2016). Framing theory also draws attention to some aspects of reality at the expense of the other situation, so in order to determine it, we must take into account what is described and what is neglected ArdèvolAbreu, (2015). Therefore, framing is present in the mind of the journalist who writes the news report as well as in the news report that he builds Ardèvol-Abreu, (2015). When journalists want to tell a comprehensible and engaging story, they are influenced by making routine news and space and time constraints framing reality by deciding what will become news and what will not become news, and the framing process continues when some aspects of a news event are selected and distinguished from others Ardèvol-Abreu, (2015). There is a dominant school of thought among communication researchers, who consider both theories (framing and agenda setting) to be complementary to each other. The central issue in agenda theory is not the manner in which a particular event is reported but the amount of attention that media outlets give to the event or its features and the time in which the event is presented (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). While in framing the main aspect is the way the news topic or event is described and the interpretive scheme that is activated to address it (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). Thus, the framing does not focus on accessibility, but rather a machine on applicability, and despite this theoretical distinction between the two theories, applicability and accessibility are linked and cannot be separated (Ardèvol-Abreu, 2015). As for how to choose the frame, when journalists issue news and construct a description of an aspect of reality with words and pictures, they choose a frame, and they can choose another frame by choosing Mushira N. S. Alzyod 140 another aspect that differs from the subject being reported using other sources, grammatical structures, vocabulary and images, and it is impossible to deal with a subject from all points of view (ArdèvolAbreu, 2015). 2Agenda setting Agenda setting for media is based on many decisions that are affected by public policy, editorial policy, technical and production systems, and others (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The agenda is the sum of many options for expressing the media's interest in materials and messages, and arranging them in an order that reflects the levels and degrees of this interest (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The researchers raised a number of questions about this agenda, and the importance of arranging news materials and issues (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). These assumptions are close to the concepts that prevailed in the fifties, such as the view of K Lang and G Lange that the media show its power in drawing attention to certain issues, as it builds a general picture of politics and provides suggested topics for what should be thought in which people are (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The basic assumption in this theory is the agreement between arranging the media agenda and the public's agenda, with media issues and topics. One of the pioneering studies that tested this hypothesis, is the study of M.E Mcombs and D.L. Show in 1973, in the Chapel Hill's study which was conducted in the 1968 elections (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The study found a significant relationship between the agenda of the media and the agenda of the public (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). Many contemporary writings have also found that there is an impact of the media agenda not only at the individual level, but also at the collective level , and in order for the media agenda to have an impact on the public’s agenda, it needs a period of time estimated by studies CHAPTER TWO 141 between 4 or 6 months, and other studies have found that they need between 4 to 6 weeks (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). Building the agenda takes place in stages, as arranged by K Lang and G Lange, starting with the press highlighting the events and increasing coverage to arouse interest, then placing these issues in a frame that adds meaning to them using language that affects the republicans, linking the facts and events with secondary symbols, in order to finally build the agenda (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). As for those who set the agenda for the media, many researchers have referred to the concept of gatekeeper, the frame of policies and social and psychological pressures, in addition to the facts and events in themselves that impose themselves on the media (Abdel-Hamid, 2004). The theory assumes that the media cannot present all the topics and issues that occur in society, but rather those in charge of these media choose some topics that are highly focused that they control their nature and content. It also considers that the media can change trends according to the unified model of excitement in early media studies (Al-Bishr, 2014). Dhalaien et al. (2016) and Al-Bishr (2014) believes that this theory focuses on a particular person or topic and gives him a large space, alerting the public that this topic or person is of great importance, which makes him present constantly or abundantly in the media and that other topics have no presence or importance. The process of selecting issues that are presented in the media does not start from a vacuum, but rather has references and political and cultural determinants that are used to choose topics and issues to deliver a message or vision that affects the public or its attitudes and trends (AlBishr, 2014). This amplification of issues or people by the media is not only at the expense of more important issues, but also has far-reaching effects on public awareness of the nation’s issues because the public consumes issues presented by the media, which leads to being affected by this Mushira N. S. Alzyod 142 arrangement and this is one of the aspects of the cumulative effect of the media (Dhalaien et al., 2016). Abdullah (2006) considered that the public does not learn from the media and communication about important issues, but it also learns how important these issues are, according to the emphasis it receives from the media. This means that the media and communication play an important role in shaping the recipients' social life when it plays its role in selecting and presenting news to them, arranging priorities in it and identifying important issues for the public (Abdullah, 2006). CHAPTER THREE Methodology This chapter addresses the methods used to achieve the objectives of this research. It includes the following sections: Research Objectives, Research Questions and hypotheses, the sources (sample, sampling, the selected data, procedures), and the research methods used literature review, content analysis, interviews. 3.1. Research Objectives and Hypotheses Several studies have indicated in the theoretical framework that media coverage has been affected by political events, wars, and terrorist events around the world, such as the September 2001 attacks. In the past few years, media, communications, and social networks have become a part of changing the world, the evolution of media as well as relations between nations. Social networking sites and the transition of media to the digital world constituted a great step forward and contributed to bringing people closer to each other, conveying views faster than in previous years when the media was represented in three main forms (newspapers, radio stations, and television). And at the same time, they can also contribute to the spread of fake news, hate speech, and stereotypes. The media, when covering news about the other (Arabs or the West), was affected by major events around the world, whether they were political, economic, military or security. This research aims to monitor the news coverage provided by the Arab and European digital native media about the Arab world and Europe during the year 2020 and Mushira N. S. Alzyod Figure (38) Elaph stories words, sentences by weeks. Source: own elaboration by ATLAS.ti9 246 CHAPTER FOUR 247 Figure (39) Elaph stories words, sentences by weeks . Source: own elaboration by ATLAS.ti9 Observador The neutral "positive" news on the Observador was 24 stories with 75%, and the non-neutral "negative" news was one story with 3%, and the somewhat neutral news that contained statements or descriptions that could be considered "negative" was 7 stories with 22%. Mushira N. S. Alzyod The second news of the first week in the Observador Vdealt with the Portuguese military force in Iraq, and the use of the name ISIS in Arabic "daesh" with an explanation of the name as an abbreviation of the extremist Islamic State organization. In the first news of the second week, the Syrian army was referred to as an "occupation" inside Syria itself. In the second news of the same week, the report of the French news agency described Hezbollah as "Shiite", which is a sectarian religious description. The non-neutral news was published in the third week about a document of the terrorist organization ISIS. The website considered according to an expert opinion that the organization published “myths since the time of the Prophet.” This bears the fallacy of the fact that the "hadiths" attributed to the Prophet Muhammad are not related to the organization but are related to the Islamic religion, and are treated as religious teachings for the Muslims. The news also described the organization's members as "theologians" without explanations or seeking the opinion of another expert to explain the viewpoint related to the prophetic "hadiths" about personal hygiene. With the website’s commitment to official statements, these statements may carry stereotypes and hate speech, as, in the fifth news of the seventh week, The Portuguese right’s statements rejecting the granting of citizenship came with a kind of hate speech, given that granting citizenship to immigrants “underestimates the value of Portuguese citizenship” and considering that Portuguese legislation is "Generous" towards others. 248 Media Week/ News Main words/ sentences Notes Observador First week/ first news - Islamic State terrorist group - fight "Daesh" (the Arabic acronym for the extremist group Islamic State) Observador Second week/ first news - Syrian regime forces - forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad - The Syrian army - conquered the strategic town of Maarat al Numan - Syrian government forces - the 'jihadist' group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham - 'jihadist' groups Observaor Second week/ second news - Shiite Hezbollah Religious description Observador Seventh week/ fifth news - the country already has some of the "most generous legislation in Europe and with recent changes" - the changes "devalue Portuguese nationality" and the criterion of "blood connection to Portugal" The right parties PSD and CDS statement Observador Seventh week/ sixth news/ opinion article - the re-establishment of a Universal Caliphate - international jihadist organizations - Daesh (5 times) - the core of the Caliphate - local Islamic militant groups CHAPTER FOUR 249 -the terrorist organization - Daesh, as an insurgent organization - the Islamic State Central Africa - jihadist cells - made up of young Muslims - with a strong Islamic tradition - seductive Jihadist rhetoric - 16 deaths among jihadists and government forces - the jihadists seems to be the establishment of an Islamic State - partnership between Jihadist terrorism and organised crime - the increasing violence on the part of the armed cells - one-off defeats on the jihadists - jihadists have been carrying out a variety of actions - the terrorists have intensified their attacks - "integrate an international force against terrorist attacks" - the eradication of the jihadists Observador Eighth week/ first news - Islamic State group - more than 10,000 fighters remain active in Iraq and Syria strongholds in Syria and Iraq - the core of the jihadist group in Afghanistan - the group wants to attract fighters - The main threat facing Europe today is from local terrorists radicalised over the internet - reporting a growing problem with far-right violence Mushira N. S. Alzyod 250 Observador Twelfth week/ first news - Islamic State (5 times) - The jihadist group Islamic State - The terrorist group - the jihadist group - attacks by terrorists Observador Twelfth week/ fourth news - terrorist group Boko Haram - 'jihadists' also ransacked a hospital - the 'jihadist' group Boko Haram - Terrorists killed 11 people - The Boko Haram 'jihadists' - The 'jihadists' also attacked another Christian community - the Islamic State in West Africa - Nigerian President: to fight Boko Haram insurgents and other forms of criminality As the Table (53) above showed the stories we found it carrying words, sentences and descriptions with stereotype and as the table showed all the news about terrorism and jihad. Source: own elaboration CHAPTER FOUR 251 The opinion article in the seventh week about the Jihadists in Mozambique after their failure in Iraq and Syria returned to linking Jihadists to Islam and thus terrorism, considering that the description of Jihadists is linked to terrorists. Without adopting a unified designation, are they Jihadists or terrorists? In the first news of the eighth week, the UN official linked Jihad to terrorism, while describing the actions of the extreme right as violence, and the Arab countries are presented as the source of this type of terrorism and extremism. This was repeated in the first news of the twelfth week about Syria, where the designation of Jihadist groups is used, not terrorist groups, and in the fourth news of the same week about Boko Haram in Nigeria, It is noticeable that no single label was adopted for these groups, their activities, and their members. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 252 CHAPTER FOUR 253 Figure (40) Observador stories words, sentences by weeks. Source: own elaboration by ATLAS.ti9 Mediapart The neutral "positive" news on Mediapart was 6 stories with 86%, and the non-neutral "negative" news was one story with 14%. The Mediapart archive does not provide much news about the Arab world, but in general, news and reports are few. Among the 7 reports was collected, a special report by the site's correspondent in the Mushira N. S. Alzyod Middle East came as an opinion article, but it carries hate speech and stereotypes towards Saudi Arabia because of the Dakar Rally. The article linked the rally in Saudi Arabia and the coverage of the assassination of Saudi writer Jamal Khashoggi, as Saudi Arabia "purchased the media hype" and "hiding the country's face from the world." He also criticized the political reforms in Saudi Arabia as a cover-up for tyranny. 254 As the Table (54) above showed the stories we found it carrying words, sentences and descriptions with stereotype and hate speech about Saudi Arabia. Source: own elaboration Media Week/ News Main words/ sentences Notes Mediapart First week/ first news/ opinion article for their reporter in middle east - lost in the sands of Saudi propaganda - the event is nothing more than a PR exercise by the Saudi regime - to persuade people to forget its despotic, fundamentalist and brutal nature, as well as the scale of its crimes - They are bit players in an enormous political public relations exercise - the true violent and hypocritical nature of the Saudi regime - By buying, at huge cost, the massive global media hype - seeking to hide the true face of his country - changes to Saudi despotism - The Wahhabi kingdom - remains an heredity monarchy with medieval traditions - governed by Sharia law - It is a place where the promotion of democracy is a crime punishable by the death penalty - is a land where death sentences - a land where there is a genuine sexual apartheid - land of the “deep and mysterious deserts” - Saudi Arabia is home to one of the most backward, intolerant and fundamental versions of Islam - a predatory authoritarian government - massive oil reserves - The Saudi regime, of course, has no shortage of money - the Wahhabi kingdom - trying to conceal its terrible human rights record - the Saudis made an offer they could not refuse - Saudi's whitewashing attempts - Macron has the habit of sparing tyrants and dictators when they are good customers of our arms industry CHAPTER FOUR 255 news region - the kingdom led the 1973 oil embargo - the Mosques in East Jerusalem, Palestinian territory occupied by Israel since 1967 Eldiario Tenth week/ eleventh news - Jihadism strikes again in Mali - Jihadist attacks - a group of suspected jihadists - attacked by jihadists - the terrorists - the terrorist groups' - the jihadists - the Al Qaeda jihadists - the two jihadist groups - the same jihadist ideology Eldiario Tenth week/ thirteen news - 55 migrants, all of them Maghrebis - 45 people of Maghrebi origin - with 73 immigrants of sub-Saharan origin - with 16 Maghrebi men - 14 people also of Maghrebi origin - with 25 Maghrebi migrants Repeatedly mentioning the nationality if immigrants Eldiario Eleventh week/first news - Moroccan terrorist - the terrorist - this terrorist attempt Using "terrorism" not jihad Eldiario Eleventh week/ fourteenth news - the massive arrival of immigrants that affects all the islands - PP sources consider that this "overflow" that the island is suffering is due to the "irresponsible" policy Mushira N. S. Alzyod 262 -a small island like El Hierro because "they are also overwhelmed" by this influx of immigrants Eldiario Eleventh week/ sixteenth news - the islands are still overwhelmed - exhausted the patience of the authorities - the great majority of those who have reached the coasts of the archipelago in the last weeks are Moroccans - What is happening in the Canary Islands is a humanitarian drama Eldiario Eleventh week/eighteenth news - the island is overwhelmed by the arrival of people - the massive arrival of irregular immigrants - PP sources consider that this "overflow" that the island is suffering is due to the "irresponsible" policy - El Hierro because "they are also overwhelmed" by this influx of immigrants - the island that is suffering the most migratory pressure - more than 1,500 people are still overcrowded in the Arguineguín dock Eldiario Eleventh week/ twentieth news - after a group of Maghrebis were left on the street for hours - the policemen who work at the Arguineguín dock are physically exhausted by "marathon days" Eldiario Eleventh week/ twenty three news - the Canary Islands deputy has insisted on the need not to deteriorate the image of the Canary Islands - the migratory crisis is already opening the news in the United Kingdom or Germany, the main countries of origin of tourists to the islands CHAPTER FOUR 263 As the Table (55) above showed the stories we found it carrying words, sentences and descriptions with stereotype and hate speech. Source: own elaboration Eldiario Eleventh week/ twenty four news -what the Canary Islands are going through is "a drama" - the arrival of immigrants is "a human drama" - their personal dramas that must be solved - the Canary businessmen tell him that they are "very worried and very angry" Eldiario Eleventh week/ twenty five news - start making decisions to tackle the "migratory drama" - The deputy has insisted that the Canary Islands "does not have the capacity" to integrate these people - this situation is deteriorating the image of the archipelago - has consequences for the already battered tourism sector Eldiario Eleventh week/ twenty seven news - The chaos experienced in Gran Canaria - exploded the time bomb that has become the migratory management in the Canary Islands - the time bomb that has become this port in the south of the island - The people of Maghrebi origin arrived in the Archipelago - the migrants, mostly Moroccan Eldiario Twelfth week/ fourth news - Otherwise, not making these means available to them means condemning a large number of young people to exclusion, with the social and humanitarian cost that this entails. Mushira N. S. Alzyod 264 CHAPTER FOUR In the second week of the fourth news, while the website adhering to the official statements, described al-Bashir as a “dictator,” a “terrorist” and a “butcher,” and combined him with figures such as bin Laden. However, in the ninth news of the same week, the report described alBashir as “the former president,” which reflects the instability in the use of nomenclature and terminology. In a report on UNRWA for the relief of Palestinian refugees published in the third week, the report bore historical inaccuracies about the Nakba and the 1967 war, considering that UNRWA was established when the state of Israel was established and not when Palestine was occupied, and considering what happened a land dispute and not the expulsion of the people from their homes and lands by force. This was repeated in the third news of the fifth week, with a focus on the Palestinian refugee issue, that they have no state and they are a hostage to international contradictions it was also repeated in the second news of the tenth week. The fifteenth news of the eighth week also provided false information about Al-Aqsa and the Dome of the Rock as the third holiest place for Muslims and the first for Jews, but it is the second "Qiblah" for Muslims. Eldiario focused on the Lebanese-Israeli negotiations over the demarcation of the border by publishing several reports, while continuing to use the "Jewish state" and referring to Hezbollah as "Shiite" in the sixth news of the tenth week. In the seventh news of the same week, reference was made to Saudi Arabia's geopolitical weight and the 1977 oil incident, as well as the occupied Palestinian territories in 1967, which contradicts other news about the occupation. In the eighth news of the ninth week, the terms used by the Iranian side about the normalization of relations between the Emirates and Israel carried a kind of hate speech, such as "betraying the Arab world", "a disgrace" and "the greatest abomination." In the eleventh 265 Mushira N. S. Alzyod news of the same week, Hamas was referred to as the "Islamic movement", and the vengeful tone of the Israeli army. Jihadists, Terrorism, and Terrorists were repeated in a number of news stories, including the first news in the fourth week about Jihadists in the Philippines and their affiliation with ISIS, referring to them as “terrorist Jihadists” and “Islamic fighters.” In the fourth news item of the fifth week, “Jihadist terrorism” and the Islamic State were referred to once as “Islamist” and once as a terrorist.” And in the third news item of the eighth week, it referred to a Jihadist organization and local extremist terrorists, while reference was made to “extreme right-wing violence.” In the eleventh news of the tenth week, the news agency renewed its lack of distinction between Jihadists and terrorists and mixed the terms together “Jihadist attacks, Jihadists, the two terrorist groups, alQaeda Jihadists.” Also, in the first news of the same week, the origins of an attacker in France were referred to as “an Algerian Jihadist who lived In Sweden". And in the sixteenth news in the ninth week, former US President Trump used descriptions of protesters carrying hate speech, such as "extremists, terrorists, idiots, looters, evil people, and rioters." The migrant crisis in the Canary Islands received more coverage than other issues. In the seventh week, the website indicated in the fourteenth news that the migrants exceeded the restrictions imposed on them in one of the accommodation camps, followed by in the sixteenth news another report on this move and referred to “the return of migrants.” And the “illegal camp,” but the coverage was from the official side more than communicating with the migrants themselves. In the nineteenth news of the same week, the website presented a special report that explained the problems facing migrants, as migrants worked on the front lines during the Corona epidemic to ensure agricultural care and production, and demanded migrants to improve their conditions and stop referring to them as “the Middle East and North Africa.” 266 CHAPTER FOUR 267 In the ninth week, Eldiario reported the twentieth incitement campaign against immigrants using fabricated images. The report mentions that some of the comments on the images carried hate speech. The report contributes to clarifying the truth and mitigating the attacks on immigrants. In the thirteenth news in the tenth week, the website indicated that the immigrants’ nationality is Moroccan, which was repeated in other news during the eleventh week, and this focus on nationalities may provoke hate speech and racism against specific groups. In the seventh news of the eleventh week, the site mentions the living conditions of migrants in the Canary Islands and the violations against them, and the use of the word "shame" in a number of aspects related to migrants, such as "the camp of shame", "the port of shame" and "the ship of shame". In the fourteenth and eighteenth news of the same week, the website quoted the statements of a Spanish party leader that carried a kind of hate speech, such as describing the islands as "sink", the "surplus" that the island suffers from, and the existence of a deal with the mafia. The sixteenth article focused on the fact that the island was "inundated" with immigrants, with reference to their Moroccan nationality. An opinion article defending the immigrants indicated that 85% of the immigrants are Moroccans and are exploited by the mafia, as well as some residents. The twentieth story referred to the conditions of immigrants again and the political storm as a result, with reference to the Moroccan immigrants and the "terrible conditions" they face in exchange for the "psychologically exhausting" police situation. In the 23rd, 24th, 25th, 27th, and 29th news, the focus was on migrants, with statements of officials bearing hate speech, such as the statements of a Spanish parliament member she considered the migrants “disfigured” the islands and asked if the tourists would choose the island as a tourist destination for them. As news described the migrant crisis with “drama” and that the Canary Islands do not deserve the situation in which they are living; the businessmen in the islands are “angry, worried and helpless.” In another piece of news, reference was made to “the deterioration of the archipelago’s image,” “the consequences Mushira N. S. Alzyod of the exhausted tourism sector,” and “immigrants cannot be integrated into society” and considered the migrant crisis a "time bomb" and that it was greater than the Kaiko crisis that occurred in 2006. While the twelfth week, in the fourth news, considered that failure to integrate young immigrants into society may lead to exclusion, which would entail social and human costs. Figure (42) Eldiario stories words, sentences by weeks. Source: own elaboration by ATLAS.ti9 268 CHAPTER FOUR 269 4.3. Digital native media multimedia Technically, in recent years, digital media have diversified to reach the audience faster and larger and expand their mass base globally. The six Arab and European digital native media broadcast their media content through multiple media, as follows: Baghdadtoday The media offers multimedia innovation and, to a lesser extent, some cross-media and transmedia proposals. At the same time, as will be seen in the following lines, engagement with audiences is sought through social networks. The site allows browsing on various devices. Through the computer, the main page of Baghdad Today is divided into a number of sections that the reader can browse successively. Baghdadtoday offers its readers 13 different tab to view all the news and videos that are published. These sections come in the first part of the web page which contains the website’s logo, social media links, smart device applications, a Definition of the site, and contact the editorial team. The 13 tabs provided by the site are: all news, Covid19 news, politics, security, localities, special permission, special files, economy, Arab and international, science and technology, sports and video. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Image (1) Baghdadtoday main page Source: the website page The second part of the web page Includes the main five news display in moving way, adjacent to it are four other main news that is fixed. Between the second and third sections, the site displays the latest statistics of the Covid-19 epidemic with the latest news. In the follwing sections, site showes the latest news is published political news, security news and the Arab and international news with a larger area. The videos produced by the site presents in differnet section showed one main video and three sub-videos. Then section to sitespecific announcements, sports news, local news, and special files. The final section includes the website's applications on smart devices and a tape that re-views all the website's sections and social media accounts. Baghdadtoday differs from the other five websites by giving space for security news, and this comes due to the influence of the political and security environment in Iraq, and it is the only website among the five websites that is present on the Viber application and the Al-Rafidain Encyclopedia. Video technology is also used by the site by publishing videos that reach the editorial team or videos that are published on social networking sites, the first video was published on the site on 270 CHAPTER FOUR 271 01/10/2019 and the number of videos on the site is 168 videos, 7 of which have been deleted until the date of the search on the site on 24 /12/2021. Image (2) Baghdadtoday videos Source: the website page In the Covid-19 news section, the site started publishing news in this section on 3/15/2020, with 592 pages until the date of the search in the site’s archive, each page containing 12 news, The site also publishes an info graphic of Covid-19 statistics around the world, including injured, recovered, and deaths, in addition to the latest news about the epidemic. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Image (9) Elnashra Youtube channel Source: official youtube channel The site is also available through the Apple and Android mobile app stores. Through the Nabd application, 387 thousand and 27 subscribers to the news service follow the newsletter, and on Twitter 74 thousand and 941 followers, Facebook 526 thousand and 759 followers, and the site publishes daily news stories that are published for only 24 hours. 278 CHAPTER FOUR 279 Image (10) Elnashra Nabd application account Source: official nabd account Mushira N. S. Alzyod Figure (44) Elnashra followers in social media Source: own elaboration Elaph The main page of Elaph is divided into a number of sections that the reader can browse successively. Elaph offers its readers 11 different tab to view all the news and videos that are published. The website's showed with the logo the phrase that it is the first electronic website issued from London May 21, 2001, with a bar containing today’s date, issue number, and Elaph’s Moroccan version with Elaph blogs and social media accounts. The main news portals on the site are: home, news, economy, cultures, entertainment, lifestyle, sports, tastes, health and science, opinion space, newspapers and videos. The site devotes a special section to news from the United States of America and a special section for women, entitled "Women of Elaph." The site also presents to its audience a referendum on issues around the world. 526759 480898 0 75900 0 0 0 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 facebook twitter instgram youtube telegram viber tiktok Elnashra 280 CHAPTER FOUR 281 The site offers three main news stories that take the most space when browsing, and on the side of that, a corner that includes five different news stories in the economy, sports and politics. Elaph gives its readers the opportunity to search feature within the site and the ability to save articles. And a hashtag for the most prominent news by clicking on it, the reader will move to all the news that falls under the hashtag. Image (11) Elaph main page Source: the website page The following sections include news related to a prominent issue, statistics, news of the Covid-19 epidemic, health news, economy, sports, entertainment, women, culture, lifestyle, opinion articles, a referendum, and the most read news. The site also displays a special area for the Covid-19 pandemic, providing the latest statistics by continents and by countries and it is updated every half hour, in addition to publishing the latest news related to the epidemic. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Elaph differs from the other two Arab websites in the expansion of the areas in which it provides news, and its coverage is more comprehensive, as it focuses on a variety of aspects related to politics, women, nutrition, lifestyle and others, in addition to providing another Arabic version "Maghreb" as well as blogging services. Image (12) Elaph statistics about covid-19 pandemic Source: the website page Through social networking sites, Elaph is present on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube and Telegram. The application of the site can also be downloaded through the Apple and Android mobile phone stores. The number of followers of the site on various social media is approximately one million followers; they are roughly distributed between Facebook and Twitter Elaph is a YouTube channel with 77 thousand and 700 subscribers. The site presents videos under a number of titles, topped by interviews with 507 videos, video spaces with 362 videos, and reports with 275 videos. On the channel, there are videos that the site publishes in the "Video" corner, which has three headings: Entertainment, Lifestyle and New Media. 282 CHAPTER FOUR 283 Image (13) Elaph YouTube channel Source: official youtube channel Elaph follows on Twitter 314 thousand and 426 followers, Facebook 293 thousand and 351 followers, Instagram 5 thousand and 285 followers, and via Telegram, the site established its channel in 2019 and it is followed by two thousand and 541 subscribers. Elaph also presents its first electronic media extension entitled Elaph Morocco, which was launched in 2016 from London. The site also offers the service of creating blogs for all age groups and in various fields, provided that the conditions and laws presented by the site are adhered to. Calculating the number of pages is 259 pages, and each page displays 8 blogs. We find that the total number of blogs reaches approximately two thousand and 71 blogs. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Image (14) Elaph blogs Source: the website page 284 CHAPTER FOUR 285 Figure (45) Elaph followers in social media Source: own elaboration Mediapart Mediapart, the English version differs in its form from the French version, as the home page of the site is divided into a number of sections that the reader can browse successively. Mediapart offers its readers 3 different tab with menu to all website sections. The website's showed the today's date and the time of the edition with buttons to browse the other Spanish and French versions, as well as the possibility of contact with the site's team and the site's login account for subscribers. And to obtain news services, a subscription is required. 293007 314426 5285 77700 2541 0 0 0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 facebook twitter instgram youtube telegram viber tiktok Elaph Mushira N. S. Alzyod Image (15) Mediapart main page Source: the website page The main news tabs on the site are not many. They are: the newspaper's front page, videos, files and investigations, in addition to a side menu that enables a broader browsing of the site. Mediapart display the main story and a column to the right of it displays stories and videos of bloggers who subscribe to the blogging service on the site "Mediapart Club". The site presents sections that the reader browses down to a main story and subsidiary news, and presents news and stories published by other media outlets. The site offers a space for readers entitled "Mediapart Club", a blogging platform and social network where each subscriber can edit and publish texts, links, photographs, videos and recordings. According to the site, the club is a space for pluralistic expression, exchange of views, and discussion of articles published by the site. There is also a charter for participation, which is a text that collects rules of good behavior so that participation takes place in a "joyful" atmosphere. The site operates as a media network, as it broadcasts a video as a daily program from Monday to Thursday at seven in the evening, entitled “Outdoors.” It is available for free on the site, but it is in 286 CHAPTER FOUR 287 French only, and the number of episodes of the program reached, according to the site, 306 videos until the date of data collection on 11/24/2021. Image (16) Mediapart daily program Source: the website page It also presents a podcast on various topics such as cinema, literature, exhibitions and podcasts on specific days and times, in addition to reports on news photos, and episodes about the 2022 elections in France, in addition to documentaries about France and the world in cooperation with a video platform and an association. The number of videos, according to the figures published on the site, is 292 documentaries. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Figure (47) Observador followers in social media Source: own elaboration Eldiario: Eldiario, the home page of the site is divided into a number of sections that the reader can browse successively. Eldiario offers its readers 11 different main tabs, with the possibility of subscribing and accessing their accounts if they are already a subscriber. The site also allows the readers from Spain to choose the region they wants to see its news and will move to another page containing the news of the region they chose, in addition to the Argentine version of the site. Also, the statistics of Covid-19 epidemic injuries in Spain in general, as well as the statistics of vaccinations The main news portals in Eldiario are: Politics, Economy, Health, Education, Equality, Weather, International, Culture and Opinion. Eldiraio also provides section for opinions and blogs with an expanded section entitled “We Will Sail Together” includes 10 partnerships between the website and other parties. 933207 214256 231000 147000 0 0 490 0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 facebook twitter instgram youtube telegram viber tiktok Observador 294 CHAPTER FOUR 295 Image (23) Eldiario statistics about covid-19 pandemic Source: the website page The following sections includes main story and subsidiary news, and present political and economic news, articles, various and local news, international and cultural news, a caricature section, and a section highlighting the cooperation that the site holds with other parties. Image (24) Eldiario main page Source: the website page The site also highlights the news related to other sections prominently as if it were the main news, where the least number of news is shown and the images are given the largest space. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Eldiario shares with other European digital native media the subscription feature to receive exclusive and private reports, as well as live broadcasts via YouTube and Facebook. Through social networking sites, Eldiario is present on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube and Telegram. The application of the site can also be downloaded through the Apple and Android mobile phone stores. The number of followers of the site on various social media is approximately two million followers, around million and a half of them on twitter. Eldiario channel on YouTube is followed by 158 thousand subscribers, and the site activates the feature of live broadcasting through the channel, in addition to publishing videos, podcasts, coverage, and special reports. Image (25) Eldiario YouTube channel Source: the official youtube channel Eldiario has more than one million and 306 thousand followers on Twitter, Facebook 644 thousand and 528 followers, Instagram 187 thousand followers, and Telegram channel 45 thousand and 848 subscribers. The site uses the services offered by these platforms, such as live broadcasting via Facebook and a podcast entitled "Today's 296 CHAPTER FOUR 297 Topic", the number of which has reached 27 episodes, in addition to presenting daily stories and saving some news stories in highlights. Image (26) Eldiario lives stream on facebook Source: the official facebook accout Mushira N. S. Alzyod Figure (48) Eldiario followers in social media Source: own elaboration The six digital native media The six analyzed media, mainly European, present innovations in news presentation and the use of new technologies in media such as podcasts, live broadcasts, videos and radio. And there are no substantial differences between the three European media, as they share the feature of paid subscription to get news In return for free -no paid subscriptionaccess to news in the three Arab sites. In addition, the three European media provide more in-depth content than the Arab media, which focuses on daily media coverage and keeping pace with events, while the six media share their presence on social media and have special applications for smart devices. The data in this section was collected in date 01/03/2022 through the Ukrainian crisis in Europe. 644528 1306161 187000 198000 45848 0 0 0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000 1400000 facebook twitter instgram youtube telegram viber tiktok Eldiario 298 CHAPTER FOUR 299 In the six sites, interactive and informational services that are offered to readers differ. As we mentioned in the previous part, the six sites included a number of sections in which the news was presented successively while browsing Baghdadtoday 7 sections, Elnashra 5 sections, Elaph 23 sections, Observador more than 23 sections, Mediapart 18 sections, and Eldiario 22 sections. Table (56) Sections in the main page Digital native media Sections numbers Baghdadtoday 7 Elnashra 5 Elaph 23 Observador more than 23 Mediapart 18 Eldiario 22 Source: own elaboration The number of photos posted on the home page while browsing, Baghdad Today is 51 photos, Elnashra 28 photos, Elaph 86 photos, Observador 68 photos, Mediapart 15 photos, and Eldiario 79 photos. Mushira N. S. Alzyod Table (57) Homepage image usage rate Digital native media Image usage Baghdadtoday 51 Elnashra 28 Elaph 86 Observador 68 Mediapart 15 Eldiario 79 Source: own elaboration And in Employing videos, podcasts, caricatures, and other languages, the table showed that all six sites provide videos, and only the European media provides podcasts, caricatures on one site Eldiario, and the edition in another language two sites Eldiario and Mediapart, Elaph have edition in the Arabic language. Table (58) Employing videos, podcasts, caricatures and other languages Digital native media videos podcasts caricatures another languages other edition Baghdadtoday √ × × × × Elnashra √× × × × Elaph √× × × √ Observador √ √× × × Mediapart √ √×√ √ Eldiario √ √ √ √ √ Source: own elaboration 300 CHAPTER FOUR 301 Also, the Interactive services provided to the readers by the six media websites are: all sites allow the readers to write comments in the news except Elnashra, four sites make live streaming except Elnashra and Elaph, three sites give the readers blogging service Elaph, Mediapart, and Eldiario, one site publish weather forecast, one make polls, no site publish stock markets, and four sites publish statics about COVID-19 Eldiario, Elaph, Observador and Baghdad Today. Table (59) The Interactive services provided by media Digital native media Comments Live stream Blogs Newsletter Stock markets Weather Polls Web app Statistics Baghdadtoday √ √ × × × × × √ √ Elnashra × × × √× √ × √× Elaph √ × √ √ × × √ √ √ Observador √ √×√× × × √ √ Mediapart √ √ √ √ × × × √ × Eldiario √ √ √ √× × × √ √ Source: own elaboration Mushira N. S. Alzyod 302 4.4. The interviews The six digital native media were contacted via e-mail, to conduct interviews with editorial directors, news editors, and technical department officials. In the beginning, Elaph and Mediapart responded to the e-mail, but the questions were not answered, Mediapart responded that the journalists are busy, and the questions will be passed to them but we did not get any answers after that. E-mails were also sent to the editors and administrators of other sites without a response. Also, during the research stay for the researcher in Portugal, we tried to make an interview with editors in Observador at the headquarters of the site in Lisbon on the 27 of April, but they asked us to send the questions again through email because there is no possibility to make it face to face, and after re-sending the email we didn't get any answer. After that, we tried to conduct interviews with news agencies that the three European digital native media relied on (EFE, LUSA, and AFP) we contact EFE and AFP through their websites and LUSA through email and we don't get an answer from them too. The three Arabic digital native media responded to our interviews through WhatsApp and Facebook messenger, Baghdad Today, the general supervisor, and website manager Saif Al Hashemi were contacted via WhatsApp, the interview was coordinated via the Zoom application on February 3, 2022, and Al Hashemi conducted it from his home in Baghdad because the power supply was unable to return to the site’s headquarters. In the Lebanese website Elnashra, we contacted the editor-in-chief of the website Joseph Semaan via the WhatsApp application on March 7, 2022, and in Elaph, we contact via Facebook Messenger on March 13, 2022, Nasr Al-Majali, who is living in London where the site's headquarters, he is one of the website's founders and the editor of political affairs, and we audio-recorded the three interviews. 303 Mushira N. S. Alzyod fighting it intellectually and spreading correct ideas about Islam and Muslims who see ISIS as a distorted idea of the truth of Islam. Adds: "This is what we worked against to redirect the compass because when spreading hate speech is not all the audience carries culture, and the majority of the audience may be affected in some place by these discourses and may turn to embody them and go to implement them" Al-Majali (Elaph) agrees with both points of view, that when the media publishes statements that carry hate speech, it is for the sake of the news only and not for the sake of generalizing what was said. However, some media may become addicted to publishing statements supporting hatred, which is not only present in the Arab world, but rather there is hatred among "the extreme right-wing currents in Spain, France, and Britain, but the national media do not allow it to expand, while in our Arab world hate speech exists because we are afraid of the power of the clergy Or the tribes, the intelligence services or the leader". As for the news coverage about Europe in the Arab media, and the Arabs in the European media, Al-Hashimi (Baghdadtoday) believes that the Arab media transmits all that is good about Europe and the West, unlike the European media, which transmits everything that offends the Arabs and they interfere in a large part of the conflict in the Arab world. Also the European media - agencies and media institutions -are linked to military and political parties that convey negative and bad images to their people about the Arab countries, because they: "Are looking for justification for these military interventions in those countries in front of their societies, especially since European societies are alive and looking for love and peace on the contrary from governments looking for influence and Most media organizations 310 CHAPTER FOUR 311 transmit hate speech and bad images that, without their intervention, you would not find in our countries" Samaan (Elnashra) agrees with the fact that the Western media presents news about the Arab world in a stereotyped manner and believes that this is because each group has a different culture and civilization, but Europe and the West, in general, look to Arabs inferiorly and this was reinforced with September attack and the war in Syria and “the invention of ISIS, which is a Western invention because the concepts of killing and destruction in this way reinforce hate speech towards the Arab world or towards the Arabic-speaking people". Also, the Arab media sometimes provides coverage about the Western world and Europe that carries a discourse of hate speech, because the media in the West does not have the details that exist in our world, such as sectarianism, like covering the appointment of Rashida Dati in the French government years ago, and focusing on her being Christian, While Europeans have no problem with this. "There are many stories that promote hatred, for example, cohabitation in the West exists and in the Arab world as well, but we insult the West. We see the flaws of others without looking at our own" Al-Majali (Elaph) did not explicitly indicate that the Arab media presents the West in a stereotyped manner, but he ask the Arab media not to exaggerate and verify the news, given that the Arab media transmits rumors and tapes without verification. While he agreed that the Western media sometimes presented the Arabs in a stereotyped manner, and considered that this matter falls on the shoulders of the two parties: " the media itself, because it does not go to these countries to put the information in the right way, and the Arabs themselves were not able to express themselves, for example, Israel in the West is a country It is able and can present itself in a way of pressuring the news, while Saudi Arabia, despite having billions, was unable to break the stereotype against it" Mushira N. S. Alzyod Add: "Unfortunately, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the Arabs, in general, were not able to present their issues well. The Palestinian issue is a historical humanitarian issue, but the Arabs, despite the ongoing conflict; we're unable to present their issues well" Covid-19 pandemic influence The year 2020, whose data we analyzed, witnessed the COVID-19 epidemic, which stopped life for a long time, and the media was affected by this stop, like other sectors. Al-Hashimi (Baghdadtoday) confirmed that the media was affected at the beginning of the pandemic and were only present in social media because life almost stopped. And some coverage's conveyed stereotypes, hatred, and negative images, even about "the epidemic itself and I can say that there have been deaths due to fear of the epidemic and not because of the virus itself". Samaan (Elnashra) agreed that the pandemic greatly affected and created a state of panic and greatly reduced news coverage, not only locally but globally. also, Press coverage about the other carried hate speech, this: “Hate speech appeared when countries announced that they wanted to give the vaccine first to their people, then it would be exported to third world countries, and this is dangerous as if you were walking in a minefield and when making a report on what the Americans or the manufacturers say, the news may carry a somewhat hate speech". Samaan asked who would decide that this is hate speech and put forward a number of examples about that: "If we say that the Palestinian should return to his country, is this hate speech? Or is it salvation from a demographic problem that is a burden on Lebanon? The Palestinian may consider it hate speech, but the Lebanese do not, and this applies to the Syrian displacement and the presence of about 2 million Syrians in Lebanon, if we talk about 312 CHAPTER FOUR 313 this issue and its impact on electric energy and infrastructure, Is this considered hate speech? And if it is said that they distribute the Syrian exodus to all the Arab countries, and Lebanon is not the only one who bears the burden, is this discourse of hate or is it a discourse based on citizenship? Therefore, the basic meaning and principle of hate speech must be determined so as not to convey a wrong image to the other" Al-Majali (Elaph) also agrees that the pandemic has affected economically and professionally, in exchange for shortcomings in press coverage, as the coverage was in its entirety about the epidemic. And there was no hate speech in this coverage's about the origin of the virus, but rather the news was dealt with as issued by the World Health Organization and scientists. "As for the existence of hate speech in the Western and even Arab media towards China, for example, because of Corona, this did not exist. But the conspiracy theory greatly influenced people’s opinions about the epidemic in social media, to the point of questioning the epidemic until he got the infection or lost one of his family members to turn into saying that the epidemic was created in the West". Agendas and their impact In the theoretical framework, three theories in communication sciences have been illuminated, Framing theory, agenda-setting. With the existence of a school of thought among researchers of communication sciences, which considers that the theory of media frameworks and the arrangement of agendas complement each other, the three experts were asked about the agendas, who sets them, and their impact on their journalistic work? Al-Majali (Elaph) considered that there are no agendas that govern journalistic work, and any journalistic work that is governed by agendas is a failure because journalism expresses “freedom, responsibility, commitment, public opinion and the leadership of public opinion. Therefore, we must be honest, impartial, and clear, and provide information as much as possible that is honest to the reader with whom we build trust". Mushira N. S. Alzyod But this point of view differs from Semaan and Al-Hashemi, and they judge the existence of agendas through the journalistic environment in which they work in Lebanon and Iraq. Al-Hashimi (Baghdadtoday) considered that the media is the product of political agendas, and Iraq is not isolated from that, as most of the journalistic work is governed by agendas, political money, and military and political conflicts. Journalistic work that is not governed by agendas destroys the idea of not touching many issues, which exposes it to legal and military accountability. As for who set these agendas, there are two parties according to AlHashimi: "the political parties, and their affiliated institutions, and there are media institutions affiliated with the parties and this is known to the public, as well as the political money that affects the journalistic work in Iraq, where there is a very large political money". Adds: "Today, even the tribal sheik harasses the media if the media work affects his vision, which may be incorrect, and the parties as well, and everyone who has influence cannot be touched without harassment". Samaan (Elnashra) agrees with this view that journalistic work is governed by press, political, economic, and social agendas. And from his experience in the Lebanese media, there is not a single journalist who owns a media institution, but who owns these institutions are businessmen. Also, if a "political party wants to market its view through a media institution, and does not wait for ideas to be published, but rather establishes a media institution, and this includes newspapers, television, radio stations, and websites and they are very well known and influence the broad lines". An example of this is the promotion of corrupt personalities or who have agendas just because they paid a price to beautify their image, 314 CHAPTER FOUR 315 and this matter “happens hugely In the media, whether Arab or Western, and this is common to all media, and we see it more in electronic media because it has a greater impact on the public and reaches the audience everywhere and over 24 hours". As for the person responsible for setting these agendas, according to (Samaan) "is the owner of the institution, if he has a party affiliation, has a tendency to political work, or has an economic institution that funds the media website." In addition, "Media organizations are also sometimes subject to the mood of the head of the administration and their commercial, political, economic, and even social reconciliation because many of them may take advantage of positions to market incorrect and out of the ordinary ideas". Journalism work in Arab countries and Europe As the experts indicated that there are clear agendas that govern Arab journalistic work, they were asked if there are differences between journalistic work in Arab countries and European countries. Al-Hashimi (Baghdadtoday) stressed that there are big differences; European journalistic work is highly professional, while in the Arab world it is considered a very dangerous job, as the journalist is subjected to harassment and legal accountability if he writes news about a minister or party. The second difference is the press environment: "The Arab press environment is full of conflicts, unlike the journalistic environment in Europe, which is politically stable, and terrorism and political disputes negatively affect journalistic work". Samaan (Elnashra) also agrees that the differences are great and gives an example of the difference between press coverage: "When the attack happened on a theater in France years ago, the nearest media institution was a thousand meters away from the site, and devices were used to bring the image closer to the scene of the accident, but Mushira N. S. Alzyod we did not see a single drop of blood or pictures of the victims of the accident out of respect for them. While in the Arab media, we have gone beyond that, when an accident occurs, the media runs to show blood on the walls and the body parts of the victims, and this goes beyond professional ethics". In addition, journalists' rights are violated financially and professionally, they are subjected to harassment and prosecution, and there are immunities for some groups such as clerics, politicians, lawyers, and even doctors, while this is not found in the European media. Samaan adds that the Western media focuses its attention in a different place, while the Arab media is a substitute for political action and is not inclined to public affairs. Even military and war events are followed by the Western media from a deep strategic angle, while the Arab media follows them from a narrow political perspective. Al-Majali (Elaph), in turn, stressed the existence of these differences, "The Arab journalist is subject to agendas, and is at risk of regimes and economic, social, sectarian, tribal, political, family and religious reality" While the journalist in Europe enjoys freedom and is not subjected to pressure. Even following up the news stories, a European journalist can access its sources and be given the opportunity to follow them, while the Arab journalist encounters multiple stages to reach the official whose answer is that the information is incorrect. Technical work and social media Technically and with the development witnessed by the media and communication technologies during the past twenty years, we asked the three experts about the impact of new technologies in the media and communication on their work. Al-Hashemi (Baghdad Today) stressed that new technologies greatly affected their journalistic work, especially during the COVID-19 epidemic, as the pandemic forced many to use technologies, as it constituted a service for the media of 316 CHAPTER FOUR 317 ease, overcoming difficulties and saving expenses. Baghdad Today team is working today to develop digital content, train editors, and use experts to reach a larger segment of the audience, who is more present on Facebook than other social media accounts. Samaan (Elnashra) In turn, agreed that the new technologies provided a great benefit and the development of journalistic work from fax and telephone saving the time and cost, also today the new technologies that enabled ordinary people to do live broadcasts through Facebook pages and see current events in Ukraine, for example. The live broadcast, in general, contributed to the progress of news coverage, and despite the occurrence of errors, the events reached the audience faster. Samaan considered that "Social media are not electronic news media, but rather they are an aid and marketer of media production, whether written, audio, or visual news, to deliver news to the other person and to cause a specific cultural breach or breach at the level of national belonging and citizenship." In addition, the news today is abbreviated with the hashtag “tag” which saves time when searching for a specific topic, and this did not exist five years ago, "In the future, we are going to the "Ulgram" press, which is the press of hearing and watching the news by simply requesting the news orally, and this is something that is being worked on internationally, and we may reach it in a not too long time". On a different level, Al-Majali (Elaph) put forward a theory of his own in this aspect, which is that "the development of communications, technologies and new technologies should stop for the next twenty years to take a breath and re-evaluate the upcoming media experience". Add: "We want solid technology that serves everyone, such as the German Heidelberg machine that has served 400 years in printing". Mushira N. S. Alzyod In the three digital native media, the audience of Baghdadtoday and Elaph is concerned with political and social issues, and in Elnashra they are interested in economic and financial news. 318 CHAPTER FIVE Discussion and Conclusion In the next section, a discussion of the results that answer the main and subsidiary questions and the hypotheses associated with the results of the research. 5.1. Discussion First of all, the thesis discussed how the Arab and European media convey news about the Arab world and Europe, twenty years after the events of September 11, and the world after witnessed many events in various political, economic, social, and even technological that witnessed great leaps, especially with the emergence of social networking sites, which caused a qualitative leap in terms of media coverage, freedom of opinion and expression, and was the one cause of the Arab Spring revolutions that began in Tunisia in 2011. The main question posed by the thesis is: how the Arab digital native media and the European digital native media cover the events about each other? In the Arab media, the results were similar to studies Dajani and Donohue (1973), El Sarayrah (1986), Falah et al. (2006), where the Arab media generally focus more on political news and local affairs than European or international affairs, also the news related to Europe in Arabic media relevant to Arab issues. News in Arabic digital native media, as the results of the analysis, showed, in which political news dominated others by 65% of all news Mushira N. S. Alzyod the European media. Where as Joseph Semaan (Elnashra) considered that the Arab media presents the West in a stereotypical picture and sometimes hate speech, where the focus is on aspects that the West does not care about or does not focus on, such as religious differences or sects. He also considered that the Arab media focuses on aspects in the West as defects but they exist in the Arab world and it is not touched upon. Nasr Al-Majali (Elaph) did not answer this question directly, if the Arab media presents the West and Europe in stereotypes or hate speech, rather, he called on the Arab media to verify the news and avoid spreading rumors. 3. Is the media coverage in digital native media fair, professional, and neutral? Is the image of Europeans and Arabs negative or positive in both digital native media? The press coverage in the six digital native media was fair, professional, and neutral "positive", as the percentage of neutral news in Arab digital native media was 83% and non-neutral news 1%, and in European digital native media it was neutral news 80% and nonneutral news 1%. In the total of the six digital native media the trend of the stories was neutral 346 stories with 83% of total published stories, 67 stories were somewhat neutral with 16% of the stories, and 4 stories was not neutral 1% of stories. The results showed that the six digital native media did not present stereotypes about the other or hate speech in a clear and direct way. Rather, these stereotypes were expressed through statements by officials and politicians, as well as expressions that might carry hateful meanings. We have referred to the news that carried this, whether it was related to Jihad or terrorism, as well as news about immigrants, refugees, and minorities. 326 CHAPTER FIVE 327 The PalestinianIsraeli issue, for example, we referred to the changes in press coverage, which mentioned in earlier studies, (Noakes & Wilkins 2002; Obermann & Dijkink 2008; Morsy 1986), that this coverage is affected by the policies of the United States and the agreements concluded with Israel, and descriptions were used in the coverage such as "The Jewish state", which considered racially oriented. 4. What is the most focused news in digital native media? In six digital native media political news as we analyzed in Arab and European digital native media topped the list during 2020 with 310 news with 74% of total stories, followed by health news with 51 news with 12%, economic news with 25 news with 6%, and miscellaneous news with 14 news with 4%, and sports news 17 news with 4% of total stories. The three Arab experts justified this focus on the political aspect globally because the political decision “hijacks” the world. As for the Arab region, the Middle East is a political hotspot, and the political aspect constitutes an obsession for the Arab citizen, as the political decision affects the details of his life, and when countries are more stable, the social aspect becomes more important from the political side. 5. Are the news and reports in both digital native media exclusive from there reporters, or from news agencies or social media? As the results showed, 51 stories with 25% of total published stories in the Arabic native digital media without clear sources, they didn’t explain in the stories if they made follow up day by day. and the second main source was press releases with 41 stories with 20% of the stories, 40 stories were from news agencies with 19%, while the media's own work from reporters was 26 stories with 13% of all stories. and in European digital native media they relied heavily on news agencies with 148 stories with 70% of total published stories, The second main source was reporter's work with 23 stories with 11% Mushira N. S. Alzyod of the stories, 19 stories were from other media with 9%, 9 stories from press releases with 4% of all stories. Reliance on news agencies in the six digital native media was clear even in Arab news that did not refer to the source of the news. This dependence was justified by the three experts that there is no website or media institution capable of appointing correspondents for it all over the world, the cost is high if the site focuses its work on the local side more than the international news. One of the experts considered that the international news agencies constitute protection for the press establishment and the journalist from any consequences leading to legal prosecutions, in addition to the antiquity of the agencies and proliferation and easy access to news everywhere. 6. Does the COVID-19 pandemic influence the media converge in both digital native media? This question was answered by the three experts, while health news in the six digital native media was the second category after political news with 51 stories with 12% of total stories which was 310 stories. The three experts confirmed that the media, like other sectors, were affected by the epidemic, and take advantage of technical developments that enabled them to be present through social media. The epidemic stopped life and press coverage, in addition to the professional and economic impact of journalistic work, and field press coverage stopped due to fear of an unknown enemy. Hypotheses H1Digital native media could not bypass stereotypes about Arabs and Europeans when reporting the news. H2Digital native media is influenced by political events and international interest when reporting news on both sides. 328 CHAPTER FIVE 329 H3Digital native media focuses on negative events in the Arab world and Europe H4Digital native media relies on social media and international sources like news agencies H5The covid-19 pandemic in 2020 grabbed the digital native media attention more than other news The study proved the wrong of the first hypothesis H1, that digital native media do not transcend stereotypes about Arabs and Europeans when reporting the news. The study proved the validity of the second hypothesis H2 that press coverage is affected by political events and international attention, while the third hypothesis H3 was partially confirmed in terms of European media focus specifically on the Middle East and areas of conflict, disputes, terrorism, and terrorist -Jihadist organizations as the European media calls it - which reinforces the negative stereotype about Arabs and their association with terrorism. The study proved the validity of the fourth hypothesis H4 in terms of the reliance of these sites on international news agencies and social media, specifically with the interruption of life due to the COVID-19 epidemic and the suspension of field coverage. The study proved that the fifith hypothesis H5 is partially correct, as news about the epidemic ranked second after political news, which some of them dealt with the epidemic, in addition to economic news that talked about the epidemic's economic impact and the financial support to the affected countries and communities. In light of the two theories, “Agenda setting and The Framing theory” with a tendency towards the theory of agenda setting, as the Arab interviewee expressed it clearly and directly, we found that the Arab media, in particular, is governed by multiple agendas, as indicated by the interviewees, where different forms of agendas dominate the work of the Arab media, and behind these agendas are many businessmen, Mushira N. S. Alzyod clerics, politicians, and even military bodies. Entman, (2007) Entman et al., (2009) Ardèvol-Abreu, (2015) considered that the two theories are convergent, as specific elements are selected and shed light on them to form public opinions. The two theories are also appropriate as tools in the exercise of political power Entman, (2007). This is consistent with what was concluded Wanta and Golan, (2004) that the media have the ability to show the importance of some countries and how they should be viewed, and also agree with Dimitrova and Connolly-Ahern, (2007) that prestigious media outlets their media coverage frames affected by multiple factors, including politics Economy and History. These different frames offer different directions to attract the audience. Also, when the journalist describes an aspect of reality in words and pictures, this means that he chose a framework for the topic Ardèvol-Abreu, (2015). And agenda setting means focusing on a topic or person and giving it a large space to alert the public to it Al-Bishr, (2014) Dhalaien et al., (2016). The process of selecting topics in the media does not come from a vacuum, but rather has references and political and cultural determinants Al-Bishr, (2014). This is consistent with the findings of Ortega-Pérez, (2019) in her thesis, which found that Arab countries abandoned control of the media in exchange for the emergence of emperors - linked to the ruling and rich families, leaders, and clerics - not linked to communications and establishing media institutions that disseminate information according to their needs, in addition, that It is difficult for an Arab journalist to carry out his work without interference from the authorities that control media work. 5.2. Conclusion First of all, the study, within the limits of the researcher’s knowledge, was one of the few and maybe rare studies that examined the image of Europeans in the Arab media, as well as dealing with hate speech and stereotyped image towards them in Arab media. The researcher did 330 CHAPTER FIVE 331 not find many Arab sources dealing with the image of Europeans in the Arab media; rather, most studies dealt with local and Arab issues in general and did not make comparisons between Arab and European media. Western studies, on the other hand, focused intensely on the image of Muslims, Islam, and Arabs in general in the western and American media, and this may be related to the impact of US foreign policy in the Arab countries. Also, the studies did not examine the image of Europeans in the Arab media. The study, after analyzing 417 news stories 310 of them are political news from the six digital native media during 2020, found that the Arab and European digital media did not provide news coverage about the other in a stereotypical or hate speech, and reliance on news agencies as a source of news and adherence to the official form of news may be a reason for that because there are controls and standards in reporting news. The spread of the COVID-19 epidemic during 2020 may have an indirect effect on the language of these coverage's, as the six digital native media were content with transmitting official news, especially with life somewhat interrupted, also global political activity was not with the same strength compared to the years preceding the epidemic because all countries focused in 2020 in local and health issues in the first place, in addition to that the activity of terrorism groups and wars around the world stopped during the epidemic, which means that coverage that might provoke hate speech or stereotypes has stopped. In the Arab media, the stereotypical image was not towards Europeans, but rather about the Arabs themselves and focused on the Middle East and the conflicts in it. Opposite to the European media which focused on the Middle East, terrorist organizations, and statements by European officials about peace processes and finding solutions to the conflict in these regions. Also, from the interviews of Arab experts, we found that political, economic, and sometimes military agendas control journalistic work, Mushira N. S. Alzyod which means that these agendas exist in other Arab countries and control the work of Arab media in general, and it cannot be bypassed by the media institutions and their employees, or they will be subject to legal prosecution. The experts also mention the differences between Arab and European media, the journalistic work in Europe is highly professional, while in the Arab world it is considered a very dangerous job and the Arab press environment is full of conflicts, unlike the journalistic environment in Europe, which is politically stable, the Arab media is a substitute for political action and is not inclined to public affairs and while the journalist in Europe enjoys the freedom the Arab journalist is subject to agendas, in addition, the differences in work ethics. This is consistent with Chomsky's opinion (2002), about the difference between free American media from the media in the Middle East because it is difficult to compare media controlled by institutions (industrial, commercial, political) and media controlled by governments. 5.3. Limitations and Future research 332 The findings of this study have to be seen in light of some limitations. The first is the lack of Arab studies that deal with the image of Europeans in the Arab media in general, and hate speech and stereotypes towards the west or the other in the Arab media. Studies focused on the analysis of the American media specifically, more than the European media, and this may be linked to the great political role played by the United States of America in the Arab world. The second limitation concerns the lack of Arab studies that make comparisons between the Arab and western media and analyze their news coverage, in addition to the lack of Arab studies on hate speech and stereotypes toward the other (the west in general). The third limitation relates to the lack of European studies that study the Arab media, stereotypes, and hate speech in it. The fourth limitation relates to interviews, despite the numerous attempts to communicate with the editors and journalists of the three European digital native media and to send CHAPTER FIVE 333 many e-mails, in addition to visiting the headquarters of one of the websites, it was not possible to hold interviews, whether by e-mail or face to face. Also, we tried to expand the interviews with the news agencies but we faced the same results no reply to our emails or questions. As for Arab sites, the restrictions were related to the mechanisms of holding interviews, such as the Iraqi site, so the interview was postponed more than once due to the lack of electricity at the headquarters the main. The fifth and last limitation relates to the archive of the Mediapart, which did not make available all the news that was published throughout 2020, despite the paid subscription to the site's services. Future studies may consider expanding research on the digital native media in both worlds (Arab and Europe), especially with the development in communication and media technology. And expand the subjects to examine the live podcasting, videos, images, and character. 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Saif Al Hashemi - General Supervisor and Director of Baghdad Today News Agency - Expert and analyst in domestic and international political affairs - Human rights activist Elnashra Joseph Semaan - Journalist for 32 years - Editor-in-chief of the Lebanese Elnashra website since 2007 until now - Lecturer at the Faculty of Mass Communication at the Lebanese University in electronic media until today - He worked in several radio stations: the official Lebanese radio station, the National News Agency, the director of Umm Al Quwain FM radio programs in the United Arab Emirates and others. - Writer at Dar Al-Sayyad, Lebanon - Editor-in-chief of Al Kass TV news in Qatar - A trainer for electronic media and how to use multimedia in written news or television news and how to produce it Elaph Nasr Al-Majali - political editor at Elaph and co-founder of Elaph newspaper 21 years ago Mushira N. S. Alzyod - Began his journalistic work as the youngest Jordanian journalist in 1971 (JORDAN) - Co-founded the Jordanian Al-Rai newspaper (JORDAN) - Journalist at Jordan News Agency for one year (JORDAN) - Political Correspondent at the Jordanian Royal Court for ten years (JORDAN) - Political correspondent in the Jordanian Parliament, the Prime Ministry, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (JORDAN) - Accompanied King Hussein bin Talal on 40 foreign visits (JORDAN) - Journalist and editor-in-chief at Al-Sharq Al-Awsat newspaper in 1984 (UNITED KINGDOM) - In 1995 founded the BBC magazine, The Witness "AlShahed" (UNITED KINGDOM) - Journalist at Elaph online newspaper since 2001 (UNITED KINGDOM) Saif Al Hashemi Identification: Baghdad Today the idea of its presence was born in conveying the real news to the recipient, and the motive for the idea is, to tell the truth, and deliver the truth wherever it is and however it is. The site started five years ago, and a year and a half ago, I start the editorial management of the site, which is a news agency with many formations. The editorial department consists of 15 journalists and correspondents in all the governorates of Iraq, and Baghdad alone has 5 correspondents, and there is another invisible side where the agency communicates with Political analysts to clarify ideas and analyze the political scene. 376 APPENDIX 377 Question one: Why is there much reliance on news agencies instead of journalistic own work? Is this related to cost or ease of access to information and news sources? The agency itself, when it is documented and registered, is a wellknown address for the legal and moral direction, as well as satellite channels, rely on agencies, first because they do not have correspondents or photographers everywhere, and because the news is easily transmitted from the agency to the media, and reliance on news agencies in the Arab world and Iraq specifically because it is the main source For the real news that avoids the media institution legal accountability. The financial aspect is also very important, especially since a reporter or photographer in a province or city costs between two thousand and 2500 dollars, and this is what the site avoids when relying on news agencies. Question two: Relying on agencies and social media, has the journalist's role in news coverage changed? Yes, it has changed a lot. Modern technologies have given the ease to journalistic work, and mobile phones today have given the ease to filming, transmitting news, and even editing. Question three: Did the website editor's team edit the news from news agencies or build on them and follow up? Any news from international agencies is edited in the manner adopted by the agency or at least highlights the part that concerns the country. Question four: With the live follow-up to the events from TV channels and the live on platforms, has the news turned into short stories for ease of publication and access to readers? We as a news agency have the main goal, which is to convey the truth and make society aware of what we see and what society does not see, The interview: Mushira N. S. Alzyod and the Iraqi public started looking for the short story or the short news and moved away from the long reports and news that take it far. Question five: Are there press, political, economic, and social agendas that govern journalistic work today more than in the past? Certainly, since the beginning of the media, political agendas have begun, and Iraq is not isolated from the world and Iraq is a key in the issue. Most of the journalistic work is governed by agendas and political money, and the military and political conflicts in the region control most of the journalistic work. And if it does not control the journalistic work, the journalistic work undermines the idea of not touching issues that may expose him to legal, military, and other issues. Question Six: On your website, is there a political agenda that governs the publication of news? In the news related to Europe, there is no agenda that controls the type of issues that are published, only when news that talks about Arab countries are published, we try to make it clear that what is happening in our country is an outsider to our country and that the people are victims and not part of terrorism, and this is the only agenda we use. Question seven: Who decides to set these agendas? And what is its effect? It is established by two parties, the political parties, and their affiliated institutions, and there are media institutions affiliated with the parties and this is known to the public, as well as the political money that affects the journalistic work in Iraq, where there is a very large political money, today any neutral institution published certain news if this news affects the institution or party that Representing him will be attacked the institution that published the news in the media, economics, and so on. 378 APPENDIX 379 Iraq lived 35 years under the late Saddam Hussein regime, and it was a life of conflicts with neighboring countries and the militarization of civil society. Today, after America brought democracy, as it claims, the problems persisted. On the contrary, the conflicts that were with neighboring countries turned into conflicts within the same city, and this left a very big impression. The Iraqi society must deal with its fear and harassment. Today, even the tribal sheik harass the media if the media work affects his vision, which may be incorrect, and the parties as well, and everyone who has influence cannot be touched without harassment. Question eight: Do you consider that there are differences between journalistic work in the Arab world and the Western world, Europe, and what are these differences in your opinion? Yes, there are very big differences. The journalistic work in Europe is a professional work par excellence, while the journalistic work in the Arab countries is very dangerous. If the news story is related to a minister, party, or institution, it exposes the journalist or the person responsible for the journalistic work to questioning and harassment, in addition to the contradictions in the journalistic environment the Arab press environment is full of conflicts, unlike the journalistic environment in Europe, which is politically stable, and terrorism and political disputes negatively affect journalistic work. Question nine: What is the role of censorship, "gatekeepers"? Have readers become the gatekeepers on the news after publishing? Yes, readers have become part of the gatekeepers. In social media, when news circulates on official websites, it is either supported or attacked; the group of readers represents the people and the majority opinion. Question ten: Why does political news constitute the largest aspect of press coverage, more than others? Mushira N. S. Alzyod Because the political aspect is the most important for the Arab community, this aspect determines who will take over the government, determines the parties that have influence, and determines which countries it will wrestle with. The confused political situation in the Arab countries overlaps with all the requirements of society, the political crisis affects families and secures their lives and sustenance. Therefore, the Arab person depends on the political side to secure his life in the simplest aspects. In addition, the international orientation in politics is the most important. Question eleven: Does the website depend on a journalist's code of honour that governs the ethics of journalistic work on the site and determines the work of journalists on it? Journalistic work is governed primarily by the conscience of the journalist; there is no journalistic code of honor in the whole world, not only in Iraq. There is no specific charter, but the living conscience of any journalist who controls his work or the publication of news. In Baghdad Today, any news or journalistic work that misleads public opinion, or at least the vision is incorrect, the work is modified to the required vision. Question twelve: Do you think that the media, by publishing statements that carry hate speech or stereotyped towards others, contribute to spreading this discourse instead of fighting it? As a director of an institution and this is my own vision, when an official releases hateful headlines, the institution should deal with the news as it is because it exists and because the media institution must be present in all joints. Also, publishing the statements may be a criticism of the official who issued statements that carry hatred, and the Iraqi society today is well aware and has paid a heavy price with the sectarian what the occupation brought. The Iraqi and Arab people, in general, reject this discourse. Question thirteen: Do you think that the Arabic media presents news about Europe in a stereotyped way? 380 APPENDIX 381 The Arab media conveys all that is good about Europe, in contrast to the Western media (Europe or foreign), which transmits all that is bad about the Arab citizen and what is happening in the Arab countries. They also interfere in part of the decision, and in a large part of the ongoing conflict. Question fourteen: Do you think that media coverage about Arab countries in the European media bears stereotypes and hate speech about Arabs? To be fair, most European media agencies or media institutions associated with military and political parties in their countries convey to the peoples of these countries a negative and bad image of the Arab countries, because they are looking for justification for these military interventions in those countries in front of their societies, especially since European societies are alive and looking for love and peace on the contrary from governments looking for influence. Most media organizations transmit hate speech and bad images that, without their intervention, you would not find in our countries. Question fifteen: What is the impact of the Corona pandemic on your journalistic work? Has the pandemic affected press coverage of world issues? Yes, the media was greatly affected at the beginning of the pandemic, especially with the isolation of the world, and journalistic work, like other sectors. This work did not exist except through social media or the media, because life almost stopped. Question sixteen: Were press coverage's affected by the epidemic by publishing hateful news and stereotyped images about the other? There are politicized media repeating what the bad guys say or political agendas, and US President Trump has invested this in the conflict with China. And yes, the discourses contain stereotypes and hate and convey negative images even about the epidemic itself and I Mushira N. S. Alzyod can say that there have been deaths due to fear of the epidemic and not because of the virus itself. Question seventeen: What is the impact of new technologies in the world of media and communication on media work and news coverage about the other (Europe and the Western world) from your point of view? Yes, the pandemic affected a lot and had a tangible impact. The pandemic forced many to use technologies, and it was a qualitative leap that served the media from ease, overcoming difficulties, and saving expenses. Question eighteen: What is the most social media that the audience interacts with? Every window has its own style for users; we cannot compare the Facebook audience to the TikTok audience. We rely on the site that belongs to the elite, and secondly, Facebook because there is a larger age group and the presence of Iraqis on Facebook is greater. Question nineteen: What are the issues of interest to the social media audience? Political and social issues Question twenty: What is the size of your digital production compared to what is published on social media and republished? Yes, we have correspondents in all the governorates of Iraq, even Kurdistan, and some Arab countries. The correspondents work on digital content and videos, and we have developed the technical side to creating social programs that simulate society and break the site's approach, which is basically political. And because the intellectual protection is little - and it may be non-existent - when we publish a video quickly without the agency’s logo within the speed race in spreading the news, within seconds it is transmitted by other media and we cannot determine who takes the news, but it is available to everyone, and therefore the speed of publication affects the 382 APPENDIX 383 intellectual property rights of the videos Sometimes the reader may see that we are not the first to publish the video. Question twenty one: Are you developing your digital content and how? We have created a whole team of photographers, producers, Monterrey, presenters, experts, and thinkers in the media field to lay the foundation stone for addressing the community in any social idea that might convey to them a kind of societal culture in the form of transferring information to the other, not the development of digital work, but rather the transmission of a message. Question Twenty two: Did the community's interaction change the orientation of the site? Society did not affect the orientation of the site, but the site is political par excellence, and any media institution has its strength from its impact on the public, and there are several forms of this influence, and the turnout for reading cultural news is limited compared to the news that is characterized by ambiguity, and any trend we must be part of, but not any trend because we want to reach the new generation to convey the cultural image and influence it with what we see as correct. Question twenty three: Are you working on developing your team of editors, whether in news editing or the digital content industry? We are always looking for the development of the journalistic staff and there are annual courses for the editorial team. Joseph Semaan The interview: The first question: Why is there much reliance on news agencies instead of journalistic own work? Is this related to cost or ease of access to information and news sources? Mushira N. S. Alzyod and is objective when dealing with issues such as a conflict between parties because biased coverage in this aspect means that the journalist works as an instigator, and this is not required. People are the ones who judge the work of the media. The ninth question: Why does political news constitute the largest aspect of press coverage, more than others? This is according to the regions in the world because the geographical location affects the news coverage. Lebanon from the moment of its existence until today is in a state of hostility with Israel. It is obvious that the political and security news has the largest aspect because this constitutes a concern about the Lebanese. Will Israel launch bombings? Will Lebanon be pressured by the United Nations and Israel's friends in Europe and the West? While the political side does not constitute an obsession to the Canadians or the political side takes the largest part in the press coverage there. But Lebanon is in a hot zone that has been moving for more than 80 years to this day. Iraq, for example, did not have problems in the past, but after the occupation of Kuwait, the political side became the largest part of the Iraqi media, and after that, Syria, Egypt, the coup and the revolution, and because Egypt today is calmer, we find Social issues are the most dominant in the news and press coverage. The tenth question: Does the website depend on a journalist's code of honour that governs the ethics of journalistic work on the site and determines the work of journalists on it? Certainly there is a journalist’s code of honor, and we have worked on that in Lebanon for a long time, but mistakes always happen because electronic media work depends on speed, and even with the development of technologies, mistakes happen even if less than before, but the political mentality still rules in some places. The eleventh question: Do you think that the media, by publishing statements that carry hate speech or stereotyped towards others, contribute to spreading this discourse instead of fighting it? 390 [Document text truncated for crawler view.]