The Determination of Nationality in Selected European Countries up to 1938

The De e mina ion o Na ionali y in Selec ed Eu opean Coun ies up o 1938 dan Gaw ecki KEY WORDS: Eu opean His o y — Na ionalism — Cislei hania — E hnici y The opic o his s udy1 was chosen in he knowledge ha he assessmen and e alu- a ion o census p ac ices in Cislei hania and in pos -1918 Czechoslo akia2 necessa - ily equi es compa ison a leas wi h p ac ices in neighbou ing coun ies. The de e - mina ion o esponden s’ na ionali y was always associa ed wi h a ious polemics which became pa o he poli ical s uggle, and he census da a was equen ly called in o doub . He e I a emp o summa ize a ious opinions on he ele ance and c ed- ibili y o census p ac ices — opinions exp essed by jou nalis s and his o iog aphe s, bo h a he ime o he censuses and also a a la e da e. A en ion will p ima ily be o- cused on Ge many and Poland — i s ly due o he sizeable Ge man and Polish mino - i ies in he Czechoslo ak Republic, and secondly because he main c i e ion o na- ionali y in hese wo coun ies was language; na ionali y was gene ally no equa ed wi h ci izenship o a s a e. The indings p esen ed he e a e based on s a is ical da a, suppo ed by o he sou ces and nume ous schola ly s udies o he subjec . I ace how he concep o na ionali y g adually shi ed unde speci ic his o ical condi ions, and I obse e he changing c i e ia ha we e used as a basis o he de e mina ion o na ionali y om he ime o he i s censuses o con empo a y app oaches and e alua ions. Only ma ginal a en ion is paid o he e alua ion o Czechoslo ak cen- sus p ac ices in o eign li e a u e; his is deal wi h only in cases when i o ms pa o he wide gene al o compa a i e con ex . This s udy d aws o a la ge ex en on exis ing schola ly li e a u e explo ing he subjec . In ecen decades, esea ch on he issue has achie ed some no ewo - hy esul s, especially in he Uni ed S a es;3 he s eng hs o his esea ch include i s geog aphical dis ance om he e en s and he conside able leng h o ime ha has elapsed since hei occu ence; his enables a de ached app aisal o p e ious e- sea ch. The main s eng hs o he wo k o Cen al Eu opean au ho s — bo h mo e and less ecen — lie i s ly in hei abili y o desc ibe gene al endencies in app oaches 1 This s udy was p oduced as pa o he Czech Science Founda ion (GAČR) g an no.13–00790S Ná odnos e sčí áních lidu českých zemích 1880–1930 (spo y, polemiky, kon lik y) [Na ionali y in Censuses in he Czech Lands 1880–1930 (Dispu es, Polemics, Con lic s)]. 2 Pa el Kladiwa, E nická klasi ikace a ins i ucionální zako ení ná odnos i českých zemích 1880–1914, Mode ní dějiny 22, 2014, no. 1, pp. 7–33. 3 This a icle d aws on exce p ions conduc ed by Pa el Kladiwa. OPEN ACCESS 28 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS o he issue, and secondly in hese au ho s’ g ea e deg ee o pe sonal engagemen ; hough his engagemen may be p oblema ic, associa ed wi h emo ional o one-sided iews, i ne e heless o e s a aluable sou ce o ma e ial o compa ison. Censuses, unlike sociological su eys, a emp o co e an en i e popula ion, and hey a e conduc ed by s a e ins i u ions. They ha e exis ed since ancien imes, se - ing a ious pu poses including axa ion and mili a y use. A mo e mode n de elop- men , wi h a much sho e his o y, is he a emp o egis e esponden s’ cul u al iden i ies — including he de e mina ion o hei language based on hei own dec- la a ions; his is o a conside able deg ee connec ed wi h esponden s’ na ionali y. The de e mina ion o esponden s’ iden i ies has his o ically been associa ed wi h a numbe o p oblems. Census o ganize s c ea ed pa icula ca ego ies, and espon- den s had o i in o one o ano he o hese ca ego ies. Such c ea ion o ca ego ies was based on ideas o how a pa icula phenomenon was s uc u ed, and i was also in lu- enced by he in e es s and needs o he s a e au ho i ies. The use o such ca ego ies on he one hand made o clea e esul s, bu on he o he hand i o ced he esponden s o choose one o he op ions on o e . This helped o de ine — and some imes in ac o shape — hei g oup cul u al iden i ies, dis inguishing hem om o he g oups. E o s o achie e “objec i e measu emen s o subjec i e iden i ies” on he one hand helped o p omo e “s a e dominance”, ye on he o he hand hey also helped o s eng hen he ideological and poli ical mo emen s opposing such dominance.4 Opinions ha e been exp essed ha a census is no genuinely a “scien i ic en e - p ise”, bu mo e o a “poli ical ba leg ound”;5 ha he de ini ion o e hnici y in cen- suses e eals mo e abou he cons uc ion o e hnic ca ego ies as pa o poli ical ideologies han abou he eali ies o e hnic s uc u es6; ha a census is essen ially a poli ical ins umen because he choice o ca ego ies is he esul o a poli ical choice7; and e en ha in some cases censuses may in ac c ea e na ions.8 The i s census o languages was held in Belgium in 1846 (indi iduals we e asked abou hei language o daily use, a p ac ice ha was la e ecommended by he 1853 In e na ional S a is ical Cong ess in B ussels, which also p oposed ules o he uni- ica ion o census p ac ices). La e censuses o a simila ype ook place in Aus ia 1848 (language — da a was gi en no by indi idual esponden s bu by adminis a i e 4 Da id I. Ke ze — Dominique A el, Censuses, iden i y o ma ion and he s uggle o po- li ical powe . In: Da id I. Ke ze — Dominique A el, (eds.): Census and Iden i y. The Poli- ics o Race, E hnici y, and Language in Na ional Censuses, Camb idge Uni e si y P ess 2002, pp. 1–42, he e pp. 5–6, 20. 5 Jacqueline U la, Cul u al Poli ics in an Age o S a is ics: Numbe s, Na ions, and he Mak- ing o Basque Iden i y, Ame ican E hnologis 20, 1993, pp. 818–843, he e p. 837. 6 Cal in Goldscheide , E hnic ca ego iza ions in censuses: compa a i e obse a ions om Is ael, Canada, and he Uni ed S a es. In: Da id I. Ke ze — Dominique A el (eds.), Cen- sus and Iden i y …, pp. 71–91, he e p. 72. 7 Dominique A el, Language ca ego ies in censuses: backwa d — o o wa d-looking?, In: Da id I. Ke ze –A el, Dominique (eds.), Census and Iden i y …, pp. 92–120, he e p. 115. 8 Tomasz Kamusella, The Poli ics o Language and Na ionalism in Mode n Cen al Eu ope, New Yo k 2009, p. 49. dan GaW EcKI 29 OPEN ACCESS ins i u ions), Hunga y 1850 (na ionali y), England 1851, he Kingdom o Sa dinia 1857 (mos equen ly used language), Hunga y 1869 (mo he ongue), Aus ia and Finland 1880 (language o daily use).9 Da a on na ionali y o language can be ound in na ionwide censuses as ea ly as he i s hal o he 19 h cen u y. The s a is ical cong ess held in S Pe e sbu g in 1872 was in ended o p o ide an impulse o he s anda diza ion o p ac ices in a ious coun- ies. The cong ess ecommended ha censuses should no de e mine na ionali y, as i was an o e ly subjec i e ca ego y which would no enable in e na ional compa isons o be made; i was a gued ha in si ua ions whe e he e was a low le el o a comple e ab- sence o na ional awa eness, esponden s could be subjec ed o a ious p essu es — by he au ho i ies o o he agen s. The cong ess ecommended ha censuses should de e - mine language, speci ically spoken language (langue pa lée), bu his did no s anda d- ize he app oach o language. In Cislei hania he o iginal plan was o collec da a on he language used wi hin he amily (Familiensp ache), bu o icially all censuses om 1880 onwa ds ins ead ocused on he language o daily use (Umgangssp ache, jȩzyk po oczny o jȩzyk owa zyski). In Ge many censuses usually ocused on mo he ongue (o ongues), de ined in a ious ways, while Swi ze land also ocused on mo he ongue. The p ac- ice was di e en in Wes e n Eu opean coun ies, whe e na ionali y was equa ed wi h s a e ci izenship; esponden s in Belgium, Sco land and I eland could gi e mo e han one spoken language; F ench censuses did no include da a on e hnici y, language o eligion on he g ounds ha his would cons i u e illegal disc imina ion and a b each o human eedoms.10 Fu he changes occu ed a e he Fi s Wo ld Wa . Up o he ou b eak o he wa , na ionali y as such was no o icially de e mined in any coun y; ins ead, censuses ocused on esponden s’ language o languages, in a ious o ms. Howe e , he language da a was equen ly used as a basis o poli i- cal adminis a ion and also in he na ionali y- ela ed policies implemen ed by ul- ing (and o he ) na ions as a c i e ion indica ing ci izens’ na ionali y. A e he Fi s Wo ld Wa se e al coun ies p oclaimed ha hey wan ed o de e mine esponden s’ na ionali y, bu in eali y he decla a ion o na ionali y was a om ee, as i was subjec o a ious condi ions. A ypical p ac ice was he use, “in he in e es s o he s a e”, o da a collec ion me hods which would ensu e he bes possible esul s o he dominan language — knowledge o which was usually necessa y o indi iduals o achie e social ad ancemen .11 9 Heinz Kloss, Sp ache, Na ionali ä , Volk und ande e e hnos a is ische Beg i e im Lich e de Kon ak linguis ik. In: Pe S u e U eland (ed.), En s ehung on Sp achen und Völke n, Tübingen 1985, pp. 209–218, he e p. 212. 10 Ul ike on Hi schhausen, People ha Coun . The Impe ial Census in Nine een h and Ea ly Twen ie h-Cen u y Eu ope and India. In: Jö n Leonha d — Ul ike on Hi schhau- sen (eds.), Compa ing Empi es. Encoun e s and T ans e s in he Long Nine een h Cen- u y, Gö ingen 2011, pp. 145–170, he e pp. 148, 152, 154–156; Da id I. Ke ze — Domi- nique A el: Censuses, iden i y …, pp. 9, 24–25; Cy il Ho áček, Ná odnos ní s a is ika. In: Českoslo enský s a is ický ěs ník, I, 1920, pp. 184–193, he e pp. 184–188; S a is ische Mona sch i 17, 1891, pp. 657, 660–661 e c. 11 Dominique A el, Language ca ego ies …, p. 100. 30 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS The concep s o language and na ionali y (membe ship o a na ion) we e unde - s ood in a ious ways. In he case o objec i e de ini ions o na ionali y, he decisi e c i e ion was he de e mina ion o an indi idual’s mo he ongue — a phenomenon which was conside ed o be s a ic and unchanging. This was essen ial a p imo dialis- ic app oach, which adjudged any changes in na ionali y o be a he e y leas a o m o une hical beha iou . Howe e , in some coun ies whe e mo he ongue da a was collec ed (e.g. in P ussia), he au ho i ies ook in o accoun he possibili y ha an in- di idual’s mo he ongue could change, o ha an indi idual may ha e wo mo he ongues. O he s emphasized he c i e ion o spoken language o daily use — i.e. he language which he esponden spoke in public; on he basis o his decla a ion, e- sponden s we e assigned o ca ego ies which we e no o icially desc ibed as na ional- i y, bu we e de ac o pe cei ed as such. Responden s could — and, acco ding o some de ini ions o census c i e ia, should — conside hemsel es membe s o a di e en na ion han ha o hei language o daily use. Ne e heless, esponden s’ language o daily use gene ally became hei language o hough (Denksp ache), and hus hei mo he ongue. Some g oups conside ed hemsel es o be membe s o a na ion whose language hey did no speak, o spoke only inadequa ely, and hey did no align hem- sel es wi h he language (o dialec ) ha was hei ac ual mo he ongue; ins ead hey decla ed ha hey belonged cul u ally o a mo e educa ed o mo e ci ilized na ion. Membe s o such a “mo e ci ilized” na ion equen ly ejec ed hese “new a i als”; o he imes hey o e ed hem he oppo uni y o comple e assimila ion in he u u e ( hough no all g oups we e ea ed equally, and hei membe s usually had o mee ce ain condi ions o be conside ed ully assimila ed), o hey used special e ms o ca ego ize hem, e.g. “eigensp achige Kul u deu sche” (cul u ally Ge mans, hough speake s o hei own language, i.e. a language o he han Ge man). Those who we e conside ed an in e media e class (Zwischenschich ) o a mixed na ion (Misch olk) gen- e ally did no ejec he possibili y o u u e assimila ion. Howe e , he e we e also g oups wi h di e en e hnic iden i ies, o en associa ed wi h he egion in which hey li ed (imagined non-communi ies), which did no “ i ” in o p ede e mined s a is ical ca ego ies. Re e ing o such cases, some au ho s w i e o “neu al iden i ies”, while o he s conside such a designa ion o be inadequa e, as hese g oups oo had hei own iden i ies, albei di e en om hose iden i ies ha we e se ou in he s a is ical ca e- go ies. I census o ganize s conside ed i bene icial, hey would c ea e new ca ego ies, bu gene ally esponden s we e pe suaded ha hey should choose one o he exis ing ca ego ies.12 In gene al e ms ( hough he si ua ion was highly complex, as his a icle 12 The li e a u e on his issue is ex ensi e; he ollowing lis is a selec ion o wo ks (in ad- di ion o hose al eady ci ed): Ta a Zah a, Imagined Noncommuni ies: Na ional Indi e - ence as a Ca ego y o Analysis, Sla ic Re iew 69, 2010, no. 1, pp. 93–119; Ladisla Pallas, Ja- zyko á o ázka a podmínky y áření ná odního ědomí e Slezsku, Os a a 1970; Ladisla Pallas, Úloha jazyka při zniku a ý oji eo ií a hnu í z . wasse polác í, šlonzác í a mo a ec í, Slezský sbo ník 63, 1965, pp. 471–479; K ys yna M. Wiśniewska, Kon ow- e sje do yczące p oblemu ok eślenia s uk u y na odowościowej Gó nego Śląska w ok e- sie międzywojennym, In: Śląskie S udia His o yczne, 3, Ka owice 1977, pp. 113–150; To- masz Kamusella, Schlonzsko, Ho ní Slezsko. Obe schlesien. Gó ny Śląsk. Esej o egionie dan GaW EcKI 31 OPEN ACCESS will show) we can obse e a shi om he “objec i e” de e mina ion o na ionali y o a mo e “subjec i e” de e mina ion, i.e. one based on he esponden ’s ee decla a ion, wi hou e alua ing (o , in mos cases, ejec ing) he mo i es o ha decla a ion.13 In he mos ecen Czech censuses i has been possible o make no choice o na ionali y a all; his concep o na ion comes close o Renan’s amous dic um ha a na ion is a daily plebisci e (un plébisci e de ous les jou s).14 Ini ially, censuses in Ge many we e conduc ed in di e en s a es using di e en me hods. F om 1834 o 1867 he collec ion o s a is ical da a was o ganized by he Ge man Cus oms Associa ion. Censuses we e conduc ed e e y h ee yea s by com- ple ing census o ms o all inhabi an s p esen , household by household. The i s all-Ge man census was held in 1871, he second in 1875, and subsequen ly once e e y i e yea s. Census me hods we e uni ied, bu indi idual s a es we e ee o add ce - ain ca ego ies, including da a on esponden s’ mo he ongue, hei abili y o ead and w i e, e c. In 1900 mo he ongue was an obliga o y c i e ion, and again in 1910; om 1933 he censuses de e mined esponden s’ na ionali y (Volkszugehö igkei ) and ace. F om 1925, censuses collec ed da a no only on esponden s who we e physi- cally p esen , bu also on hose egis e ed as esiden a a pa icula add ess.15 The P ussian censuses began o moni o he e hnic composi ion o he Uppe Sile- sian popula ion mo e sys ema ically in 1828. The P ussian da a om 1861, and he s a is ics o he No h Ge man Con ede a ion (1867), de e mined esponden s’ am- ily language (Familiensp ache o Haussp ache).16 Mo he ongue was de e mined by la e censuses conduc ed on an all-Ge man basis. All o hese censuses show a p e- dominance o Polish in Uppe Silesia — hough his dominance was g adually weak- ening. Fo example, in 1867 a o al o 59.2% o he popula ion we e Polish-speake s, while by 1910 his igu e had allen o 53.0%, plus 4.0% bilingual inhabi an s — essen- ially Poles who had lea ned o speak Ge man. The mos ecen Polish s udies o he issue acknowledge ha he da a in ac pe ained o esponden s’ language, which — in he case o Uppe Silesia — was no he same as hei na ional sel -iden i ica ion.17 i mieszkańcach. Schlonzsko — Uppe Silesia. Ho ní Slezsko. Obe schlesien. Gó ny Śląsk. An Essay on he Region and I s Inhabi ans, Wydanie II pop awione 2006–2013 (Wydanie d ugi oz i zôznaczōne do po zōdku.) Na odowa O icyna Śląska (Ślōnsko Nacyjowo Ô icy- no) 2006–2013. Made in Silesia (Zônaczōno na Ślōnsku) and many o he publica ions by his p oponen o a dis inc i e Silesian na ional iden i y. 13 Józe Chlebowczyk, On Small and Young Na ions in Eu ope: Na ion- o ming P ocesses in E hnic Bo de lands in Eas -Cen al Eu ope, W oclaw 1980; Józe Chlebowczyk, P ocesy na odo wó cze we wschodniej Eu opie Ś odkowej w dobie kapi alizmu (od schylku XVIII do począ ku XX wieku), Wa szawa-K aków 1975, pp. 182–194. 14 E nes Renan, Qu›es -ce qu›une na ion? Con e énce ai e en So bonne le 11 ma s 1882, Pa- is 1882, p. 27. 15 Fo mo e de ails seeHa ald Michel, Volkszählungen in Deu schland. Die E assung des Be- ölke ungss andes on 1816 bis 1933, Jah buch ü Wi scha sgeschich e 26, 1985, no. 2, pp. 72–92. 16 Paul Webe , Die Polen in Obe schlesien. Eine s a is ische Un e suchung, Be lin 1914, p. 70. 17 A pionee ing wo k on his issue is: Józe Chlebowczyk, P ocesy na odo wó cze we ws- chodniej Eu opie Ś odkowej w dobie kapi alizmu (od schylku XVIII do począ ku XX wie- 32 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS The mos ecen Ge man li e a u e s a es ha Polish s udies ha e iewed he de- cline in he p o ince’s Polish popula ion as a esul o s a is ical manipula ion; hey acknowledge ha he in oduc ion o he “bilingual” ca ego y helped o boos he numbe s o Ge man-speake s, bu hey also in e p e he da a as e idence o he sp ead o he Ge man language. These s udies poin ou ha he success ul sp ead o Ge man — associa ed wi h he p ocess o Ge maniza ion — was also no ed by Polish obse e s a he ime. Language became a poli ical issue; Ge mans cas doub upon he ex en o which Polish-speake s el hemsel es o be membe s o he Polish na- ion, while Poles a emp ed o use language as a basis o a gumen s as pa o hei na ional s uggle.18 Philipp The , oday a P o esso a he Uni e si y o Vienna, iews he shi s in na ionali y as a consequence o social in e ac ion in speci ic his o ical condi ions, accele a ed by he a ac i eness o he a ailable iden i ica ion. In his opinion, he decisi e ac o o Uppe Silesians, in iew o hei long- e m “p agma ic assimila- ion”, was he p ospec o he upwa d social mobili y ha was condi ional upon hei accep ance o Ge man language and cul u e.19 Now le us u n o he main aim o his s udy and examine how he P ussian censuses we e c i ically e alua ed a he ime when hey we e conduc ed. Unde - s andably, he s onges objec ions we e aised by Polish jou nalis s, hough he i s comp ehensi e c i ical analysis was p oduced by Ge man au ho s — p ima ily Lud- wig Be nha d, a P o esso a Be lin Uni e si y, in his p e ace o Paul Webe ’s 1914 publica ion on he s a is ical su ey o Poles in Uppe Silesia.20 Be nha d ocused explici ly on he p oblema ic aspec s o he census. He acknowledged ha he Ge - man public, and many depu ies in he Reichs ag, expec ed he non-Ge man na ion- ali ies o sh ink in numbe s due o he in e es s o he s a e, bu ha he s a is ics a e in ac a om con incing in his ega d (p. III).On he one hand Be nha d dis- ag eed wi h he claims o he Polish p ess ha he s a is ics au ho i y was guided ku), Wa szawa-K aków 1975, especially pp. 182–194; Pio G eine — Rysza d Kaczma ek, Niemcy na Gó nym Śląsku w XIX i XX wieku. In: M. Szczepański (ed.), Gó ny Śląsk na moście Eu opy, Ka owice 1994, pp. 45–66; Rysza d Kaczma ek, Ludzie — s osunki demo- g a iczne, s uk u a społeczna, podziały wyznaniowe, e niczne i na odowościowe. In: Joa- chim Bahlcke — Dan Gaw ecki — Rysza d Kaczma ek (eds.), His o ia Gó nego Śląska. Po- li yka, gospoda ka i kul u a eu opejskiego egionu, Gliwice 2011, pp. 39–56, he e pp. 52–53 (Re e ing o Je zy Pabisz, Wyniki wybo ów do pa alamen u Związku Północnonie- mieckiego i pa lamen u Rzeszy niemieckiej na e enie Śląska w la ach1867–1918. In: Adam Galos, Kazimie z Popiołek (eds.), S udia i Ma e iały z dziejów Śląska, 7, W ocław-Wa sza- wa-K aków 1966, pp. 274–302. 18 Roland Geh ke, Od Wiosny Ludów do I wojny świa owej (1848–1918), In: His o ia Gó nego Śląska …, pp. 193–218, he e pp. 202–205. 19 Philipp The , Die G enzen des Na ionalismus. De Wandel on Iden i ä en in Obe schle- sien in de Mi e des 19. Jah hunde s bis 1939. In: U. on Hi schhausen. — J. Leon- ha d (eds.), Na ionalismen in Eu opa: Wes - und Os eu opa im Ve gleich., Gö ingen 2001, pp. 322–346, pp. 344, 337. 20 Ludwig Be nha d, Die Fehle quellen in de S a is ik de Na ionali ä en. In: Paul Webe , Die Polen in Obe schlesien. Eine s a is ische Un e suchung, Be lin 1914, pp. III–XXI. dan GaW EcKI 33 OPEN ACCESS by poli ical conside a ions, bu on he o he hand he no ed ha such conside a ion we e ne e heless e lec ed in he s a is ics. He iden i ied inconsis ency in he “bi- lingualism” ca ego y; in 1905 esponden s we e ins uc ed o gi e Ge man as hei language i hey spoke i “pe ec ly” (“ ollkommen”),21 whe eas in 1910 he wo d “ ollkommen” was no longe p esen ; Be nha d a ibu ed his change o poli ical mo i a ions (pp.IV-V). He s a ed ha he poli ical signi icance o he census was augmen ed when legisla ion was being implemen ed, and ha many Poles did no s a e Ge man as hei second language, a guing ha hey did no speak i pe ec ly (p. VI). Fu he mo e, Be nha d esponded o he polemic conce ning he ca ego ies o he Kashubian and Masu ian languages; “Polish leade s” objec ed o hese ca - ego ies, a guing ha Ba a ians, o example, we e no coun ed in his way, and hey called upon Masu ians and Kashubians o s a e hei language as Polish (p. VII). In 1900 no such dispu es exis ed; he Masu ians and Kashubians decla ed hemsel es as Poles. Howe e , in 1905 he au ho i ies appa en ly pe suaded he Kashubians and Masu ians ha hey we e no in ac Poles, and he numbe o Poles in he s a is- ics ell. In 1910, hanks o success ul Polish agi a ion in he ma e , he numbe o Kashubians and Masu ians ell, and he au ho i ies launched a enewed campaign o pe suasion ahead o he nex census.22 Acco ding o he p inciples used in p e-wa Ge man censuses, i was possible o a esponden ’s “mo he ongue” o di e om hei “na i e language”.23 In his s a is ical su ey, Webe c i icized he “bilingual” ca ego y, a guing ha he igno an u al masses comple ed hei census o ms wi h he help o genda mes, and ha he p essu e exe ed on hem by he au ho i ies cas doub upon he published esul s.24 One o he easons why I ha e gi en a de ailed cha ac e iza ion o Be n- ha d’s s udy is ha he a gumen s p esen ed in i we e epea ed in la e li e a u e — 21 In addi ion o Ge man, esponden s could op o Du ch, F isian, Danish, Walloon, Polish, Masu ian, Kashubian, Lusa ian Se bian (Wendish), Mo a ian, Czech and Li huanian. Fo mo e on bilingualism: Ka l Kelle , Die emdsp achige Be ölke ung im F eis aa e P eu- ßen. In: Zei sch i des P eußischen S a is ischen Landesam es 65, 1926, 1. und 2. Ab ., Tab. 2, 4, 6.). 22 He e Be nha d e e s o Waldema Mi sche lich, Die Ausb ei ung de Polen in P eussen, Leipzig 1913. I should be men ioned ha he Polish au ho i ies con inued o ecognize Kashubian as one o he Sla ic languages a e 1990. Wi h ega d o Masu ians: emig an s om Wa mia o he Rhineland o en p o es ed ha hey we e iewed as Poles; hey em- phasized ha hey we e in ac Masu ians, and ha he e o e — unlike Poles — hey we e loyal o he s a e. The Masu ian popula ion o he Rhineland was a ound 150 000 — ou o mo e han hal a million immig an s om he eas e n egions o Ge many. They we e quicke o in eg a e han he Poles and displayed g ea e mobili y. Fo mo e on his see e.g.: Klaus J. Bade, E opa pohybu. E opské mig ace d ou s ole í, P aha 2004, pp. 75–76, 194; Jochen Ol me , Mig a ion im 19. und 20. Jah hunde (Enzyklopädie deu sche Ge- schich e, Band 68.), München, Oldenbou g 2010, 2. Au l. 2013, pp. 33–34. 23 See e.g. he al eady-ci ed wo k by K. Wiśniewska, pp. 134–135. 24 See Ma ek S anisław Ko owicz, Gó nośląska och ona mniejszości na le s osunków na odowościowych, Ka owice 1938, pp. 16–17; on p. 15 Ko owicz w i es ha many did no unde s and he Ge man o ms. 34 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS mainly om Poland — hough some imes wi h a somewha di e en in e p e a ion. Despi e mino objec ions, Polish his o iog aphe s conside he Ge man census o 1910 (unlike he censuses conduc ed be ween he wo ld wa s) o ha e been ela i ely objec i e.25 E en be o e Be nha d’s c i icisms, he change in he concep o mo he ongue in he census — and he accusa ion ha his change was due o Polish agi a ion — was c i icized by he enowned s a is ician Richa d Böckh (1824–1907).26 Böckh published a book on Ge mans li ing in o he Eu opean coun ies, in which he emphasized he p ima ily Polish cha ac e o Uppe Silesia.27 The ac ha Poles we e unde ep e- sen ed in he census esul s was also poin ed ou by a membe o he P ussian S a is- ical Commission in his p e ace o a s a is ical su ey o p ima y schools in P ussia; he su ey e ealed ha he numbe o child en a ending schools using Polish as he medium o ins uc ion was highe han he numbe o Polish-speaking child en gi en in he 1910 census.28 The claims made by Be nha d and Webe we e ehemen ly ejec ed by Wilhelm Volz, he Di ec o o he Geog aphical Ins i u e in B eslau (W ocław). Volz s a ed ha language in Uppe Silesia was no hing o do wi h na ionali y, and ha many people we e “Deu schpolen” — o me ly Poles, now me ely “Zwischen olk de Obe schlesie ”.29 An e en mo e ehemen esponse came om he geog aphe Wal- e Geisle , who a acked Jakob Spe ’s map o na ionali ies in he eas e n p o inces o he Ge man Reich, based on da a om he 1910 census.30 Geisle c i icized he con la ion o language and na ionali y, s a ing ha he only wo na ionali ies in Up- pe Silesia we e Ge mans and Uppe Silesians. Simila a gumen s we e made when c i icizing Paul Langhans’s na ionali y map o Silesia, published in 1906.31Howe e , hese objec ions o p e-wa maps we e no published un il a e he Fi s Wo ld Wa ; in 1938 Geisle and his colleagues published an A las o Uppe Silesia which was in acco dance wi h Nazi ideology.32 25 The mos ex ensi e Polish ea men o his is he al eady-ci ed 1938 publica ion by Ko o- wicz, as well as K. Wiśniwska’s s udy, which ocuses mainly on an analysis o con o e - sies du ing he in e -wa pe iod. 26 Richa d Böckh, Die Ve schiebung de Sp ach e häl nisse in Posen und Wes p eussen, P eussische Jah büche 77, 1891, p. 125 e c. 27 Richa d Böckh, De Deu schen Volkszahl und Sp achgebie in den eu opäischen S aa en. Eine s a is ische Un e suchung, Be lin 1869; p. 16. 28 Alwin Pe e silie, Das niede e Schulwesen in P eussen, Be lin 1911, Pa I; a compa i- son o bo h se s o s a is ics was also ca ied ou by M. S. Ko owicz, Gó nośląska och o- na…, pp. 18–21. 29 Wilhelm Volz, Obe schlesien und obe schlesische F age, B eslau 1922, p. 48 e c. 30 Jakob Spe , Na ionali ä enka e de ös lichen P o inzen des Deu schen Reichs nach E gebnissen de am lichen Volkszählung om Jah e 1910. 31 Paul Langhans, Na ionali ä enka e de P o inz Schlesien au G und am liche Angaben, Go ha 1906. 32 Wal e Geisle , Obe schlesien-A las. Un e Mi a bei zahl eiche Fachgenossen, Volk und Reich Ve lag, Be lin 1938. dan GaW EcKI 35 OPEN ACCESS Be o e he Fi s Wo ld Wa , he esul s o censuses ga e ise o ea s o possible Polish expansion in Silesia — e.g. in wo ks by wo B eslau-based p o esso s o his- o y (Man ed Laube ) and geog aphy (Joseph Pa sch).33 The enowned Polish geog aphe Eugeniusz Rome , a pa icipan a he Pa is Peace Con e ence, w o e a book abou he Poles in Pome ania and Masu ia34 in which he ag eed wi h Be nha d’s and Webe ’s c i icism o he “bilingual” ca ego y; he concu ed ha only Poles we e bilingual, poin ing ou ha when he ca ego y was in oduced i was only in ended o apply o in an s and mu e membe s o mixed amilies, hough la e he e we e egions in which up o 50% o he inhabi an s we e ca ego ized as bilingual. Rome dispu ed he s a us o Masu ian and Kashubian as sepa a e languages. He de o ed a special analysis o Kashubian, demons a ing ha i was a dialec o Polish — an opinion ha had al eady been oiced by he Ge man ca og aphe Hein ich Be ghaus (+1884). He conside ed he in oduc ion o hese wo ca ego ies o be an example o he alsi ica ion o s a is ical da a; in his iew, he only way o ec i y his was o inco po a e he Kashubian and Masu ian espon- den s in o he ca ego y o Poles. He compiled his own s a is ics o Pome ania and Wa mia, in which he numbe o Poles was oughly en pe cen highe han in he o icial s a is ics.35 A he end o he 19 h cen u y, Kashubian was conside ed by many schola s o Sla ic languages (some o hem Poles) o be a sepa a e language. I was o cou se close o Polish han o Ge man, bu he P ussian au ho i ies — a guing ha Kashu- bian was no a Polish dialec — began o eplace Polish-language eaching wi h Ge - man-language eaching in he egion whe e he Kashubians li ed; Polish emained solely as he language o eligious ins uc ion.36 In 1915, wo king in Vienna, Eugeniusz Rome comple ed his Geog aphical-S a is i- cal A las o Poland (Geog a iczno-s a ys yczny A las Polski), which was used by he Pol- ish delega ion a he Peace Con e ence o suppo hei a gumen s. His adjus men s o he census s a is ics — which o med he basis o he a las — we e published in a p opaganda b ochu e en i led “Ilu nas jes ?” (“How many o us a e he e?”), pub- lished in K akow in 1917. The adjus men s o he da a o he eas e n Polish e i o- ies we e based on he eligious composi ion o he popula ion; Rome conside ed he censuses conduc ed in Aus ian Silesia o ha e been alsi ica ions because hey showed he Polish popula ion sh inking be ween 1900 and 1910, despi e la ge-scale immig a ion and a ise in na ional sen imen . One in e es ing inding conce ned he language s a ed by Jewish esponden s in a ious egions whe e he e was a majo - i y Polish popula ion (in 1910 a o al o 92.5% Jews in Galicia s a ed Polish as hei 33 E.g. Joseph Pa sch, Schlesien. Eine Landeskunde ü das deu sche Volk au wissen- scha liche G undlage, B eslau 1896. Fo mo e de ails see: M. S. Ko owicz, Gó nośląska och ona…, pp. 25–26. 34 Eugeniusz Rome , Polacy na k esach Pomo skich i Pojezie nych, Lwów 1919 (especial- ly pp. 6–20, 126). 35 See also Wacław Łypacewicz, Liczba Niemców Polsce i Polaków w Niemczech, Wa sza- wa 1927, p. 4. 36 Ladisla Pallas, Jazyko á o ázka, pp. 27–28, analysis o li e a u e on p. 112, oo no es 80–86. 42 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS The 1933 census no longe asked whe he esponden s unde s ood Ge man. The e was only one language- ela ed sec ion, and i asked abou esponden s’ mo he ongue; he explana o y no es s a ed ha esponden s had o gi e he mo he ongue o all amily membe s who we e p esen a he ime o he census, and mo he ongue was de ined in he same was as be o e, including he no es on dialec s and Masu ian. The e was some deba e on whe he o include Wasse polnisch ( he Uppe Silesian dialec ) among he languages in he o m, bu e en ually his op ion was ejec ed due o opposi ion om he Związek Polaków w Niemczech (As- socia ion o Poles in Ge many), whose exis ence was gua an eed by he pos -wa Uppe Silesian Con en ion e en a e Hi le came o powe . The explana o y no es in he 1930s censuses s ongly ecommended ha esponden s should s a e wo mo he ongues and con i m hei knowledge o Ge man, which was conside ed highly ad isable.59 A e he Uppe Silesian Con en ion became de unc in 1937, i was w i en abou he nex planned census ha he language o he Polish Uppe Silesians no only di e ed signi ican ly om s anda d Polish in dialec e ms, bu ha he Polish Uppe Silesians we e mo eo e unde he cul u al in luence o Ge - many, as hey had con i med in he 1921 plebisci e.60 In 1939 he census ca ego ies we e en i ely di e en . One sec ion conce ned s a e ci izenship, ano he na ional- i y (Volkszugehö igkei ). The explana o y no es on na ionali y s a ed ha espon- den s should s a e he na ion wi h which hey el connec ed, and o which hey el hemsel es o be membe s. The no es s a ed ha esponden s we e ee o s a e hei ci izenship as hey wished (e en i hey we e no in ac legally ci izens o he gi en s a e), and ha esponden s’ na ionali y may di e om hei mo he ongue.61 The census o 19 May 1939 collec ed da a on he Jewish popula ion acco d- ing o he acial laws o he Thi d Reich, di iding hem in o ull Jews and a ious g oups o mixed Jewish ace.62 Ge man jou nalis s di e ed in hei opinions o he esul s o he census, hough a la ge majo i y accep ed he da a. Among he au ho s men ioned abo e, Nicolai de- cla ed himsel pleased ha he e was no longe any h ea om he Poles, and ha in 59 Fo mo e de ails see K. M. Wiśniewska, Kon owe sje do yczące, pp. 135–136 (including e e ences o o he li e a u e). 60 „Sie sp echen nich nu einen on Hochpolnischen e heblich abweichendes Dialek , des sogen. „Wasse polnisch“, sonde n s ehen auch olls ändig un e deu schem Kul u ein- luss und sind in de übe wiegenden Meh hei , wie die Abs immung im Jah e 1921 und die poli ischen Wahlen hin eichend gezeig haben, mi dem deu schen Volk es e bunden.“ S a is ik des Deu schen Reiches, Vol. 451 (1937), Pa 4, p. 44. (See he polemic in Sp awy na odowościowe 1937, n . 1–2, pp. 133–140). M. S. Ko owicz, Gó nośląska och ona…, p. 88 es ima ed he ac ual numbe o Poles in Ge man Uppe Silesia a a ound 700 000. 61 K. M. Wiśniewska, Kon owe sje do yczące, pp. 135–136. 62 Ju a Wie og, Volkszählungen un e dem Na ionalsozialismus. Eine Dokumen a ion zu Be ölke ungss a is ik im D i en Reich, Be lin 2001; Die Juden und jüdischen Mischlinge im Deu schen Reich, In: Volkszählung. Die Be ölke ung des Deu schen Reiches nach den E gebnissen de Volkszählung 1939. S a is ik des Deu schen Reiches, Vol. 552, Pa 4, Be - lin 1944, pp. 40, 246. dan GaW EcKI 43 OPEN ACCESS i y yea s he e would be no mo e Wasse polnisch. Howe e , o he s poin ed ou ha plen y o child en s ill a ended Polish-language schools; one excep ional opinion was ha bilinguals should eally conside hemsel es o be Poles.63 Polish jou nalis s ook a c i ical iew o he census esul s in P o inz Obe schlesien, and hei calcula ions ga e di e en esul s han he o icial Ge man s a is ics. One o hei a gumen s es ed on he (al eady discussed) esul s o he 1919 local elec ions, while o he s ci ed a endance igu es a Polish-language p ima y schools ( he e was only one Polish-language seconda y school in Ge many — a Beu hen [By om], which was ac i e om 1932 o 1939) as well as da a on he language used in Ca holic wo ship. Elec ion esul s we e no (by con as o he p e-wa pe iod) conside ed a alid basis o es ima ing he nume ical s eng h o na ionali ies. Today, Polish accoun s o he issue gene ally s a e ha nei he Ge mans no Poles paid much a en ion o he census da a when de e mining na ionali ies in he egion; hey es ima e ha a ound 600 000 people o Polish o igin li ed in he p o ince — his would ha e ep esen ed a majo i y o o e 60%, including hose who lacked a s ong na ional awa eness and decla ed hemsel es as Silesians (“Schlonsaken”).64 The Polish li e a u e da ing om immedia ely a e he Second Wo ld Wa gi es a highe igu es (up o 800 000). The mos impo an sou ce o in o ma ion on which such igu es we e based we e Chu ch documen s on he language used in wo - ship, a ch is enings, weddings and so on. Documen s o his ype om he pe iod 1925–1938 su i ed in he con iden ial a chi es o he Nazi o ganiza ion he Bund Deu sche Os en, and hey we e made public a e he Second Wo ld Wa by P o es- so S e an Golachowski om Poznań Uni e si y, who s a ed ha he Ge man cen- suses om he in e -wa pe iod we e lacking in schola ly alue.65 Howe e , he da a on pa icipa ion in wo ship and o he Chu ch- ela ed e en s had al eady been used du ing he in e -wa pe iod by Heinz Rogmann,66 who concluded ha he numbe o pa icipan s a Polish Chu ch se ices co esponded wi h he numbe o Poles as de e mined in he censuses; he es ima ed he numbe a 550 000. When Polish his o iog aphe s began o wo k wi h he bene i o hindsigh , ex- plo ing he di e ences be ween e hnic o igin, language and na ional sen imen , hey ook a mo e cau ious app oach o he Chu ch s a is ics, acknowledging ha hese igu es did no e eal how many people ac ually conside ed hemsel es o be Poles because pa icipa ion in Polish-language wo ship did no necessa ily indica e na- ionali y, bu also e lec ed adi ion, e hnic conside a ions, and so on. The Chu ch did ha e an e ec on he p ese a ion o Polish e hnici y and (especially) he Polish language — and i was essen ially he only majo ins i u ion which espec ed hem — 63 M. S. Ko owicz, Gó nośląska och ona, pp. 83–91 e c. 64 Ma ek Masnyk, P owincja gó nośląska (1919–1922), In: His o ia Gó nego Śląska, pp. 219–237. 65 S e an Golachowski, Ma e iały do s a ys yki na odowościowej Śląska opolskiego z la 1910–1938, Poznań-W ocław 1950 ( his au ho p e iously published a no e on me hod- ology: Od s a ys yki do p oblema yki na odowościowej Śląska, In: Za anie Śląskie 19, 1946, pp. 27–29); Aloizy Ta g, Liczba Niemców na Śląsku do 1930 oku, Biulle yn ŚIN Ka- owice, n . 30, 1961. 66 De Sp achengeb auch bei dem Go esdiens in Obe schlesien, B eslau 1935, 1937. 44 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS bu a c i ical app oach should be aken o he s a is ics, using a ange o o he ma e i- als and applying he me hods o app op ia e disciplines.67 This s andpoin — exp essed in a s udy by K ys yna Wiśniewska — was de el- oped in g ea e de ail by he Opole his o ian Wiesław Lesiuk, who compa ed he da a on he numbe s o Uppe Silesian Poles de e mined using s a is ical-his o ical me hods wi h he da a de e mined using socio-his o ical me hods; Lesiuk ad oca ed a comp ehensi e in e disciplina y analysis and made a numbe o p oposals which, hough highly inspi a ional, would be e y di icul o implemen in p ac ice. Ne e - heless, hey a e e y aluable ideas, and hey should ce ainly be aken in o accoun in u u e esea ch on ela ed opics.68 Acco ding o he Ge man census o 1925, he e was a apid all in he numbe s o Poles in o he pa s o he Weima Republic. In eigh dis ic s o Masu ia — in he sou he n pa o Eas P ussia — he pe cen age o Ge mans ose om 52% o 82.9%.69 The numbe o Poles in he Ruh basin ell o almos a six h o i s o me le el.70 The i s census in pos -wa Poland was conduc ed on 30 Sep embe 1921. I was o ganized on he basis o a decision by he Council o Minis e s on 9 June 1921, and i included bo h hose people who we e p esen du ing he nigh o 30 Sep embe and hose who we e empo a ily absen om hei homes.71 The census was accompa- nied by a wide- anging in o ma ion campaign including b ochu es, newspape a - icles, and p ess con e ences held o p omo e he census. The da a collec ion in ol ed a ound 70 000 census o icials (15% o hem women), a la ge numbe o s a e o icials and local mili a y ga isons. The p elimina y esul s we e published du ing he i s hal o he 1920s, and he de ini i e esul s o he en i e s a e and he indi idual oi odeships we e issued be ween 1926 and 1932.72 The 1921 census did no ake place in he Silesian Voi odeship o in he e i o y known as Cen al Li huania (Li wa Ś odkowa), which we e no ye o icially pa s o Poland. In he case o Cen al Li huania, he go e nmen used (e.g. when decid- ing on he es ablishmen o mino i y schools) da a on na ionali y ha had been col- lec ed in Decembe 1919 by he Polish ci ilian au ho i ies in hose pa s o he o me G and Duchy o Li huania ha had been occupied by Polish o ces in 1919–1920.73 The 67 K. M. Wiśniewska, Kon owe sje do yczące, pp. 145–148 e c. 68 Wiesław Lesiuk, Układ sił na odowościowych na Gó nym Śląsku do 1945 ., In: Ma e iały i S udia Opolskie, XXVI, Vol. 54, Opole 1984, pp. 11–39. 69 Leo Wi schell, Das E gebnis de Sp achenzählung on 1925 im südlichen Os p eußen, Hambu g 1926. 70 The numbe o Poles in Wes phalia was epo ed as ha ing d opped om 297008 o 53145. Wacław Łypacewicz, Liczba Niemców Polsce i Polaków w Niemczech, Wa szawa 1927. 71 Dziennik Us aw Rzeczypospoli ej Polskiej 1921 N 58, n. 368, pp. 983–989. 72 Rocznik S a ys yki Rzeczypospoli ej Polskiej 1924, Wa szawa 1925, p. 12 e c.; Pie wszy Powszechny Spis Rzeczypospoli ej Polskiej z dnia 30 w ześnia 1921 . S a ys yka Polski, Vol. XI—XXXVI, Główny U ząd S a ys yczny, 1926–1928, 1930–1932. 73 The occupied e i o y was di ided in o h ee dis ic s: Wilno (Vilnius), B ześć Li ewski (B es Li o ski) and Minsk. Fo mo e de ails see Eugeniusz Rome , Spis ludności na e en- ach adminis owanych p zez Za ząd Cywilny Ziem Wschodnich (g udzień 1919), Lwów— dan GaW EcKI 45 OPEN ACCESS Decembe 1919 census was conduc ed by Polish pa amili a y o ganiza ions (Polska O ganizacja Wojskowa, Towa zys wo S aży K esowej), whose membe s made up he majo i y o he census o icials. The aim o he census was clea ly a icula ed by Józe Piłsudski — o achie e he highes possible numbe s o people decla ing hemsel es o be Poles. The Gene al Commissa o he Eas e n P o inces, Je zy Osmołowski, con- i med his objec i e in his memoi s. The ask o demons a ing he Polish cha ac e o he e i o y was acili a ed by he ac ha a la ge numbe o i s inhabi an s had no clea sense o na ionali y; e en he Polish socialis s s i ing o na ional igh s appa en ly said abou hese people (known as Poleszucy o Poliszczucy — hey la e e- e ed o hemsel es as u ejsi, meaning essen ially “locals”), li ing in emo e ma sh- land a eas, “exis ed on he same low le el as black o Aus alian ibes”.74 The me hod o da a collec ion was c i icized, bu a compa ison o he esul s om 1919 and 1921 does no e eal signi ican di e ences wi h ega d o esponden s’ decla a ions o na ionali y o eligion; in some a eas he numbe o Bela usians was ac ually highe in 1919 han in 1921. The 1921 census o m con ained wo ques ions on na ionali y. The i s was o mu- la ed in he same way as in 1919: “To which na ionali y does he esponden belong?” The second conce ned esponden s’ mo he ongue. Census o icials we e ins uc ed o eco d na ionali y acco ding o he esponden ’s p e e ence; mo he ongue was conside ed o be he language used by esponden s om hei ea ly you h.75 Howe e , he da a on mo he ongue we e ne e published. The e we e e iden ly dispu es wi hin he Cen al O ice o S a is ics, whose e en ual decision seems o ha e been based on he opinion ha he s a e’s in e es s would be be e se ed by publishing he na ionali y da a ins ead.76 O he li e a u e s a es ha in he 1921 cen- sus he e we e cases in which census o ms we e alsi ied, wi h Polish gi en as he mo he ongue ins ead o Bela usian o Uk ainian, and simila alsi ica ions o na- ionali y. The “decep ions” (“kłams wa”) a e alleged o ha e been e en g ea e in he 1931 census han in 1921.77 Mo e ecen Polish au ho s ake he opinion ha he local people in he eas e n pa s o he coun y did no decla e Bela usian o Uk ainian na ionali y because hey Wa szawa 1920; Joanna Gie owska-Kałłau , Za ząd cywilny ziem wschodnich, Wa sza- wa 2003. 74 Je zy Ma cin Osmołowski, Wspomnienia z la 1914–1921, Vol. III, p. 650 (manusc ip — Biblio eka Na odowa, Wa szawa); Acco ding o: Ma ian Siemakowicz, Spisy ludności a zagadnienie na odowościowe z uwzględnieniem sp aw szkolnic wa dla mniejszości biało uskiej w II Rzeczypospoli ej, In: Biało uskie Zeszy y His o yczne, n . 10. Many da a conce ning Polesie and he eas e n pa s o Poland a e aken om he e. 75 Rajmund Buławski, P ojek d ugiego polskiego spisu powszechnego na le doświadczeń spisu z 1921 ., In: Kwa alnik S a ys yczny 1930, z. 1, p. 60. 76 Rysza d W oczyński, Ma ian Falski i e o my szkolne w Rzeczypospoli ej, Wa szawa 1988, p. 751. 77 Je zy Tomaszewski, Ojczyzna nie ylko Polaków. Mniejszości na odowe w Polsce w la ach 1918–1939, Wa szawa 1985, p. 95; Edwa d Sz u m de Sz em, P awdziwa s a ys yka, In: Kwa alnik His o yczny, 1973, n . 3, p. 644, 666. 46 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS ea ed ep isals om he au ho i ies, and ins ead decla ed ha hei na ionali y was “local” (“ u ejsza” o “miejscowa”). Fo his eason i is pa icula ly di icul o de e - mine he eal si ua ion wi h ega d o na ionali y; he esponden s we e e iden ly awa e o he e hnic o linguis ic di e ences be ween hem and he Poles o Russians, and many equa ed na ionali y wi h ci izenship o a s a e.78 The Polish c i ics o he 1921 census also poin ed ou he signi ican ise in he numbe o Poles decla ing hemsel es as adhe en s o he O hodox eligion, and he nea -disappea ance o Ca holic Bela usians (who had made up a ound 20% o he Bela usian esponden s in 1918).79 The 1921 census da a shows 1.06 million Bela usians li ing in Poland; he li e a u e es ima es hei eal numbe s o be be ween 1.3 and 1.73 million. The census conduc ed on 9 Decembe 1931 p o oked ewe suspicions han he p e- ious one. The si ua ion was mo e s able han in he immedia e a e ma h o he wa , and he p og amme o epa ia ions had also been comple ed. The da a collec ion me hods we e se ou in a uling by he Council o Minis e s da ed 2 Sep embe 1931.80 The de ini i e esul s we e published in he o icial s a is ical bulle in “S a ys yka Polski” be ween 1936 and 1939 in 39 sepa a e pa s; mos o he egis e s could no be published due o he ou b eak o he Second Wo ld Wa . This ime he census o ms did no speci ically de e mine esponden s’ na ionali y, bu only hei mo he ongue. The Commissione -Gene al o he census Rajmund Buławski was con inced ha his would p e en misunde s andings in he case o people wi h a low deg ee o na ional sen imen . Ne e heless, o e 700 000 esponden s om he Polesie Voi odeship de- cla ed ha hei language was “local” (“ u ejsi” o “miejscowy”).81 The census o icials collec ing he da a we e mainly Polish eache s, spa king p o- es s om he Bela usian and Li huanian p ess.82 The e we e also p i a e censuses, conduc ed by Bela usian peasan s’ and wo ke s’ o ganiza ions and he Me opoli an Cu ia in Wilno (Vilnius).83 Acco ding o he o icial census, he numbe o Bela usians was he same as i had been en yea s p e iously (1.06 million), despi e he ac ha a ound 300 000 people had been epa ia ed o Polish e i o y since he 1921 census. The li e a u e es ima es he eal numbe o Bela usians a be ween 1.5 and 2.14 million.84 78 J. Tomaszewski, Ojczyzna, pp. 38–39. 79 Li e a u e is gi en by Siemakowicz in he ci ed s udy. 80 Dziennik U zędowy 1931, n . 80, n.. 629, pp. 1375–1377. 81 Kwes ia na odowościowa w p og amie d ugiego powszechnego spisu ludności Rzec- zypospoli ej Polskiej. Wywiad z Gene alnym Komisa zem spisowym p. D Rajmun- dem Buławskim, Sp awy Na odowościowe 1932, n . 1, pp. 1–2; Józe Za emba, S osunki na odowościowe w wojewódz wie nowog ódzkim z uwzględnieniem ła socjalnego, Wa sza- wa 1939, p. 105; Je zy Tomaszewski, Biało usini obo nicy w la ach 1918–1919 w Polsce, In: Ac a Bal ico-Sla ica 1967, p. 94; O. Kisielewska, Po idnomu k aju, Kołomyja 1935, p. 11. 82 E.g. Po spisie. In: P zegląd Wileński, 1932, n . 1–2. 83 Spis ludności ziem północno-wschodnich według wyznania i na odowości p zep owad- zony p zez Biało uską H omadę p zy pomocy „hu ków” — zes awienie powia ami; Spis ludności p zep owadzony w . 1935 dekana ami według wyznania i na odowości p zez Ku ię Me opoli alną w Wilnie. Ma e ials om bo h p i a e censuses we e used by Józe Za emba, op. ci . 84 M Siemakowicz, Spisy ludności. dan GaW EcKI 47 OPEN ACCESS Al hough he changes in he na ionali y igu es o Poland’s eas e n e i o ies we e signi ican o he poin o s e ching c edibili y o i s limi s, he Eu opean public paid a mo e a en ion o he decline in he numbe o Ge mans in pos -wa Poland and he decline in he Polish popula ion o Ge many. One o he i s au ho s o con- duc a schola ly examina ion o his issue was Wacław Łypacewicz, whose s udy was published in he pe iodical Sp awyna odowościowe and appea ed sepa a ely in 1927.85 Łypacewicz in ended his publica ion o imp o e he le el o mu ual unde s and- ing be ween Ge mans and Poles, which equi ed an accu a e knowledge o he size o mino i y popula ions in bo h s a es. I was his opinion ha bo h sides su e ed om a ema kable deg ee o igno ance conce ning his ma e — e en among he eli e echelons o socie y; he ci ed he example o he Polish sena o E win Hasbach, he leade o he Ge man na ional mo emen wi hin Poland, who claimed ha he coun y’s Ge man popula ion was 1.7 million — o whom 800 000 li ed in he o me P ussian e i o ies, and he emainde in o he oi odeships.86 Łypacewicz also e- jec ed Je zy Ku na owski’s es ima e ha 1398 000 Poles we e li ing in Ge many.87 His own opinion was ha he Polish s a is ics om 1921 we e essen ially accu a e, and ha he main cause o he decline in he numbe o Ge mans was hei emig a ion o Ge many, while he decline in he numbe o Poles in Ge many was due o h ee main ac o s: he ac ha he Ge man s a is ical da a unde es ima ed he eal num- be s, he emig a ion o many Poles om he Ruh o F ance a e he wa ,88 and he ac ha Poles we e quicke o assimila e in Ge many han ice e sa. Łypacewicz es ima ed ha in he mid-1920s he e we e a ound 850000 Ge mans li ing in Poland, and be ween 1 and 1.25 million Poles li ing in Ge many. The es ima es o he num- be o Ge mans we e unable o make use o da a om he Silesian Voi odeship — o me ly pa o P ussian Silesia, which became pa o Poland a e he plebisci e and he hi d Silesian up ising — because he census had no been conduc ed in his e i o y. Łypacewicz es ima ed ha his oi odeship (including he o me ly Czech e i o ies o he Těšín/Cieszyn egion now annexed by Poland) was home o a ound 300 000 Ge mans. A ound he same ime, di e en es ima es o hese numbe s we e published by Zygmun S oliński om he Ins i u e o he Resea ch o Na ionali y Issues (Ins y u Badań Sp aw Na odowościowych).89 S oliński’s es ima e o he numbe o Ge mans in Poland (884 105) is simila o ha gi en by Łypacewicz. Howe e , his app oach 85 Wacław Łypacewicz, Liczba Niemców Polsce i Polaków w Niemczech, Wa szawa 1927. 86 E win Hasbach, in he pe iodical Na ion 1927, Janua y, Feb ua y. 87 Geo ges Ku na owski, Les polonais en Allemagne e les allemands en Pologne, Wa szawa 1927. 88 A e he wa , 100 000 people e u ned o he newly independen Poland, while o he s le o no he n and no h-wes e n F ance. This accele a ed he p ocess o in eg a ion among hose who emained. — J. Ol me , Mig a ion, pp. 27–28, 81–83; K. J. Bade, E opa, pp. 149, 90, 71–73. 89 Zygmun S oliński, Liczba i ozmieszczenie Niemców w Polsce, In: Sp awy na o do woś cio- we 1924, n . 4, pp. 361–380. (The ex was also published sepa a ely.) The s udy also ci es igu es om Ge man au ho s’ es ima es. 48 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS o he da a om indi idual oi odeships is much mo e de ailed; o example, when e i ying he numbe s o Ge mans in he Pome anian and Poznań oi oideships he adjus ed he o icial da a by ac o ing in he da a o eligion and school a endance. In he case o he cen al oi odeships (Wa saw and Łódź), he acknowledged ha many Polonized Ge mans had decla ed hemsel es as Poles, which is a odds wi h he s a is ics o school a endance up o age 13 and he esul s o local elec ions. He es ima ed he numbe o Ge mans in he Silesian Voi odeship (including he pa o he Těšín/Cieszyn egion annexed by Poland) as 257 885. Howe e , he nex census showed ha he 1920s es ima es o he Silesian Voi odeship had been e y wide o he ma k, and his equi ed explana ions. In 1910 he pa o Uppe Silesia which was la e o become he Silesian Voi odeship had 263 950 people speaking Ge man as hei mo he ongue. Łypacewicz and S oliński es ima ed ha he numbe o Ge mans in he en i e oi odeship (including he an- nexed pa o he Těšín/Cieszyn egion) in 1927 was app oxima ely be ween 257 000 and 300 000. Howe e , he da a om 9 Decembe 1931 showed only 68 735 Ge man mo he ongue speake s in he o me P ussian Uppe Silesia, and 91 207 in he en i e oi odeship (including Těšín/Cieszyn). In Ka owice, which in 1910 had a slim Ge man mino i y, he e we e only 13.4% Ge mans in 1931. Ko owicz, an expe on mino i ies in Uppe Silesia, published a s udy in 1938 s a ing his opinion ha his dec ease was due o he ac ha a ound 100 000 Ge mans had emig a ed o Ge many soon a e he wa ; 28 574 people had op ed o Ge many in he plebisci e and we e pe mi ed o emain wi hin Polish e i o y un il he expi y o he Uppe Silesian Con en ion in 1937, bu by 1931 jus 4 000 o hem s ill emained. In addi ion, Ko owicz s a ed ha a u he 50 000 people had le Polish Uppe Silesia o Ge many du ing he same pe iod. He claimed ha e en among hose who ga e Ge man as hei mo he ongue he e we e many Ge mans whose mo he ongue was ac ually Polish (“polnisch sp e- chende Deu sche”), and ha de elopmen s had in ac con i med ha he e i o y was Polish; he es ima ed he numbe o Ge mans in 1938 as less han 63 000. Ko owicz did no conside he elec ion esul s and he igu es on school a endance o be sui - able sou ces o da a o adjus ing he census s a is ics; he also ejec ed he idea o a na ionali y map based on elec ion esul s, which had been p oposed by he leade o he Uppe Silesian Ge mans O o Uli z.90 Ge man li e a u e du ing he in e -wa pe iod claimed ha he numbe o Ge - mans in he Silesian Voi odeship was a highe han he Polish s a is ics sugges ed. The main a gumen s o his claim es ed on he plebisci e91 and elec ion esul s. In 1922, Ge man pa ies ecei ed 103 539 o es in elec ions o he Silesian Assembly; in1930, in he i s o he wo elec ions o he Silesian Assembly held in ha yea (on 11 May), hese pa ies ecei ed as many as 205 795 o es.92 In a 2002 s udy, Philipp The 90 M. S. Ko owicz, Gó nośląska och ona, pp. 85–88. 91 E.g. Richa d B eye , Das Deu sche Reich und Polen 1932–1939. Aussenpoli ik und Volks- g uppen age, Wü zbu g 1955, p. 42. 92 Vik o Kaude (ed.). Die Deu schen in Polnisch-Schlesien. Ein Handbuch übe Land und Leu e, Plauen i. V. 1932 — acco ding o O o Heike, Das Deu sch um in Polen 1918–1939, Bonn 1955, p. 83. dan GaW EcKI 49 OPEN ACCESS s a es ha 42% o o es in he 1926 local elec ions wi hin he Silesian Voi odeship wen o Ge man pa ies.93 Some Polish s udies published soon a e he Second Wo ld Wa cas doub on he esul s o he 1931 census.94 Zygmun Izdebski sugges ed ha he numbe o Ge mans in Uppe Silesia should be inc eased by 30%, and he Opole his o ian And zej B ożek likewise s a ed ha he eal numbe o Ge mans was a highe han ha gi en by he Polish s a is ics. Aloizy Ta g es ima ed he numbe o Ge mans in he Silesian Voi ode- ship a 170 000. Today, Polish schola s’ es ima es ange be ween 130 000 and 230 000.95 O he egions o in e -wa Poland wi h la ge Ge man popula ions we e he Poznań and Pome anian oi odeships. The 1910 census showed ha hese wo oi odeships we e home o 1 100 372 people speaking Ge man as hei mo he ongue. Acco ding o he 1921 census his numbe had allen o 503 617 (Poznań 327 846, Pome ania 175771), and he Ge man p i a e census o 1926 showed 341 505 Ge mans li ing in hese e- gions. In he second Polish na ional census (1931) he e we e 193 044 mo he - ongue Ge man speake s in he Poznań Voi odeship and 104 992 in Pome ania — a o al o 298 036. These changes we e e iden ly no due o he da a collec ion me hods used, bu we e p ima ily a consequence o in e na ional ela ions. A e he end o he Fi s Wo ld Wa , in 1919–1921, a la ge numbe o Ge mans le he Poznań and Pome anian oi odeships on he ecommenda ion o he Ge - man go e nmen . The Ge man go e nmen u ged Ge man eache s, o icials and ailway wo ke s o lea e Polish e i o y, despi e he ac ha he Polish au ho i ies had asked hem o emain as esiden s o a leas ano he i e yea s. On 1 Ap il 1920 he e was a majo exodus when a o al o 200 000 Ge mans om he o me P ussian e i o ies le Poland. The main eason o he emig a ion o Ge mans who had e- cei ed Polish ci izenship was hei unwillingness o se e in he Polish A my, which a he ime was igh ing agains Bolshe ik Russia. On 30 Augus 1925, ollowing a Ge - man complain lodged a he League o Na ions, he Vienna Con en ion s ipula ed a ime able o Ge man emig a ion om Poland. Howe e , by ha ime he Ge man go e nmen had al eady e-e alua ed i s ac ics, deciding ha i would ac ually be in Ge many’s s a egic in e es s o as many Ge mans as possible o emain in he Polish bo de egions. Ne e heless, he Polish au ho i ies insis ed ha he Ge mans mus lea e Poland, and emained unmo ed by he Ge man go e nmen ’s eques s; 93 Philipp The , Schlesisch, deu sch ode polnisch? Iden i ä enwandel in Obe schlesien 1921–1956. In: Kai S uwe — Philipp The (eds.), Die G enzen de Na ionen. Iden i ä en- wandel in Obeschlesien in de Neuzei , Ma bu g 2002, pp. 169–201, he e p. 183. 94 See K. M. Wiśniewska, Kon owe sje do yczące, pp. 119–122; Zygmun Izdebski, Niemiec- ka lis a na odowa na Gó nym Śląsku, Ka owice 1946, p. 25; And zej B ożek, Niemcy na zi- emiach polskich p zed II wojną świa ową. P óba achunku liczbowego, Zeszy y Naukowe WSP. Ekonomia I, Opole 1965; And zej B ożek, Zu S a is ik de deu schen Be ölke ung in Polen sei 1930. In: Jah buch ü die Geschich e de UdSSR und Volksdemok a ischen Lände n Eu opas 7, 1963, pp. 477–480; A. Ta g, Liczba Niemców. 95 Pio G eine — Rysza d Kaczma ek, Leksykon mniejszości niemieckiej w wojewódz- wie śląskim w la ach 1922–1939. Za ys dziejów. O ganizacje. Działacze, Ka owice 2002, pp. 19–20. 50 WISOHIM/ESHP 22 OPEN ACCESS he Poles a gued ha he Vienna Con en ion had been inco po a ed in o Polish law and he e o e i could no be b eached. The e we e no majo dispu es on he ac ual numbe s o Ge mans in he Poznań and Pome anian oi odeships (in con as o he si ua ion in Silesia).96 A ela i ely la ge numbe o Ge mans also li ed in he cen al oi odeships o Wa - saw and Łódź as well as in he Polish pa o Volhynia (Wołyń). Acco ding o a Russian census conduc ed on he o me e i o y o he Kingdom o Poland (wi h he excep ion o small a eas which came unde Li huanian con ol), he e we e 381 400 Ge mans and 385 750 Lu he ans; he as majo i y o he Lu he ans would ha e been Ge mans.97 The Polish census o 1921 pu he numbe o Ge mans in his e i o y a 196 450, while he 1931 census showed 368 000 Ge mans; a Ge man es ima e was 415 000. E en aking in o accoun a ious mo emen s o popula ion in he pos -wa yea s (such as he e u n o Ge man colonis s o Volhynia), he o icial Polish s a is ics seem sca cely c edible. He e I will b ie ly ou line — wi h a conside able deg ee o simpli ica ion — he p oblems ha occu ed in connec ion wi h he census in Eas Galicia; unde he Second Polish Republic, his e i o y, adminis e ed om i s capi al Lwów, became known as “Eas e n Lesse Poland” (Małopolska Wschodnia). My accoun o hese p oblems will use he e m “Uk ainians”, which has p o oked o en s ongly nega- i e eac ions among many Polish au ho s (e.g. Kie ski); some o he Uk ainians con- side ed hemsel es Russians, o he s Uk ainians, and o he s Ru henians, while many did no speci y hei “na ionali y” a all. In 1910, when he e i o y was pa o he Habsbu g Mona chy, he census in Eas Galicia de e mined he popula ion’s language o daily use (Umgangssp ache) as ollows: 3 791 000 Ru henians (71.1%) and 770 000 Poles (14.4%), plus 660 000Jews (12.4%; Jews we e coun ed acco ding o hei eligion, hough hei language o daily use was mos equen ly Polish). Wi h ega d o eligion, 61.7% o he popula ion we e G eek Ca holics, 25.3% Roman Ca holics, and 12.4% Jews. In 1931 a o al o 1860 000 people we e Polish-speake s (39.1%); 2 495 000 we e Uk ainian/Russian-speake s (52.75%); and 337 300 people spoke he “Jewish” language (i.e. Yiddish o Heb ew; 7.13%). Roman Ca holics made up 28.56% o he o al popula- ion, G eek Ca holics 60.21%, and Jews 7.13%. I would be possible o lis o he igu es which p o e (con a y o he claims o he Polish go e nmen ) ha he pe cen age o Polish-speake s is no he same as he pe cen age o Roman Ca holics.98 96 In addi ion o he abo e-ci ed s udies by Łypacewicz and S oliński — Roman Lu man, Emig acja Niemców z Pomo za w ok esie powojennym, In: S an posiadania ziemi na Po- mo zu, To uń 1933; Kazimie z Kie ski, P awa mniejszości niemieckiej w Polsce, Poznań 1923; P zemysław Hause , Mniejszość niemiecka w Wojewódz wie Pomo skim w la ach 1920–1939, W ocław-Wa szawa-K aków-Gdańsk-Lódź 1981. 97 O. Heike, Das Deu sch um, p. 29; Heike also epea ed he da a he collec ed in a la e , ex- panded e sion: Die deu sche Minde hei in Polen bis 1939. Ih Leben und Wi ken — kul- u ell, gesellscha lich, poli isch, Le e kusen 1985; Wal e Kuhn, Zahl und Be ölke ungs- bewegung de Deu schen Kong espolens, In: Deu sche Wi scha liche Zei sch i in Polen 1935, p. 486. 98 The da a we e published by e.g.: Tadeusz Dąbkowski, Uk aiński uch na odowy 1912–1923 w Galicji Wschodniej, Wa szawa 1985; Rysza d To zecki, Kwes ia uk aińska w Polsce wla- dan GaW EcKI 51 OPEN ACCESS An impo an piece in Poland’s mul ina ional mosaic was he Jewish popula ion, who we e o en he dominan mino i y g oup. In 1937 Poland was home o 3.5 mil- lion Jews, ep esen ing 29.8% o all Jews in he wo ld. As a as can be de e mined, he e we e no majo con o e sies ega ding he census in connec ion wi h he Jew- ish popula ion. Howe e , his g oup did display ce ain dis inguishing ea u es. The mos impo an was he Jews’ ela ionship wi h eligion. As Wojciech Jawo ski pu s i : “se e al na ions can hank eligion o hei su i al, bu he Jews we e in ac o med by eligion”. In 1921, when bo h mo he ongue and na ionali y we e de e mined, 73% o Jews decla ed hei mo he ongue o be he “Jewish” language (i.e. Yiddish and He- b ew), 25.5% Polish, and jus 0.4% Ge man. In 1931, 87.7% o Jews decla ed hemsel es o be speake s o he “Jewish” language. Mo e Jews li ing in he Silesian Voi odeship ga e hei mo he ongue as Ge man han in o he pa s o Poland.99 The o e all one o Polish jou nalism when w i ing abou he census (and o he na ionali y- ela ed issues) was undoub edly in luenced by he ise in in e na ional ensions du ing he 1930s. This was e lec ed in he choice o a gumen s and he claims made in polemical a icles. In his wo k on he p o ec ion o mino i ies in Po- land, he leading Polish expe on in e na ional law Kazimie z Kie ski s a ed ha Poland did no wan o emo e Ge mans’ na ionali y, and ha he s a e g an ed hem he same igh s as o he Polish ci izens — bu ha hey we e no en i led o special p i ileges. O he a gumen s included he ollowing: mino i ies canno be allowed o cause he b eakup o s a es o which hey a e ci izens; he in luence o Ge man cul- u e on he Poles has always ended o be nega i e; a e he wa hey ga e us only pa o he e i o y which should be ou s, bu now he Ge mans wan Pome ania and hen hey plan o des oy Poland en i ely; he Poles do no lay claims o o eign e i- o y, and hey comply wi h hei in e na ional obliga ions owa ds mino i ies; wha would he Ge mans say i we demanded he whole o Silesia, Wa mia, o he Duchy o P ussia?; he Ge mans wan a new wa and a e planning u he obbe y.100 Al hough his a icle has ocused p ima ily on he censuses in Ge many and Poland (because hese a e o pa icula ele ance o compa isons wi h he Czech lands), i would be use ul o a leas b ie ly men ion se e al o he coun ies — espe- cially wi h ega d o ce ain speci ic ea u es, hough he gene al p inciples a e e y simila . A e he Fi s Wo ld Wa , censuses in he successo s a es de e mined bo h lan- guage and na ionali y.101 Howe e , de ini ions o na ionali y o his pu pose di e ed; ach 1923–1929, K aków 1989; G zego z H yciuk, P zemiany na odowościowe i lud noś cio- we w Galicji Wschodniej i na Wołyniu w la ach 1931–1948, To uń 2005. 99 Szyja B onsz ejn, Ludność żydowska w Polsce w ok esie międzywojennym. S udium s a- ys yczne, W ocław-Wa szawa-K aków 1963, pp. 20–21, 27; Wojciech Jawo ski, Ludność żydowska w Wojewódz wie śląskim w la ach 1922–1939, Ka owice 1997, pp. 7–8 ( he sou ce o he ci a ion), 166. 100 Kazimie z Kie ski, Och ona p awna mniejszości Polsce, Poznań 1933, pp. 76–87. 101 Heinz Kloss, Sp ache, Na ionali ä , Volk und ande e e hnos a is ische Beg i e im Lich e de Kon ak linguis ik, In: Pe S u e U eland (ed.), En s ehung on Sp achen und Völke n, Tübingen 1985, pp. 209–218, he e pp. 212–213.