The Origins of the Left‑Wing Terrorism in Italy after 1968

The O igins o he Le -Wing Te o ism in I aly a e 19681 Mikuláš Peš a The c isis o he I alian Republic in he 1970s, which p oduced he la ge amoun o bo h le - and igh -wing e o is o ganiza ions, had i s oo s no only in he e en s o he e olu iona y yea o 1968, bu also in he o e all de elopmen o he Republic and socie y a e he Second Wo ld Wa . I aly was go e ned mainly by he wes e n- -o ien ed Ch is ian Democ acy (Democ azia c is iana; DC) and i s leade Alcide De Gaspe i, hus lea ing among he malcon en s no only he de ea ed Fascis s, bu also many o he communis pa isans who wan ed o con inue igh ing and es ablish he socialis egime based on he So ie pa e n. Howe e , he I alian Communis Pa y (Pa i o comunis a i aliano; PCI) unde he leade ship o Palmi o Toglia i espec ed — unlike he G eek communis s — he di ision o he sphe es o in luence, in o de o p e en he ci il wa . The pa isans eluc an ly obeyed, bu many o hem s ill con- side ed he s ance o he PCI eason. Toglia i’s pa y accep ed he s a e and i s ins i- u ions, bu me ely as a me hod o oppose he sys em and i emained loyal o S alin.2 Fo mo e han wen y yea s a e he wa , he coun y had been uled by he DC go e nmen s (ei he solely o in he coali ion), while he PCI had been pu aside in o opposi ion. The pos -wa pe iod is o en e e ed o as an economic mi acle, an e a o sudden and as p ospe i y. The in es men s o he Ma shall Plan and he pa - icipa ion on he Eu opean in eg a ion p ojec b ough a apid g ow h o he I alian indus y and imp o emen o he li ing s anda ds (e.g. he use o ele ision and he lowing wa e had become common in e e y household). While indus y in he big no he n ci ies (Milan, Tu in, and Genoa) de eloped quickly, he o he b anches o he I alian economy, howe e , emained qui e p imi i e. The non -exis ence o he unions in he ac o ies also mean e y ha d wo king condi ions, which consequen ly led o massi e disa ec ion and p o es s.3 1 This s udy has been published wi hin he esea ch p ojec P og am oz oje ědních oblas í na Uni e zi ě Ka lo ě č. 12, „His o ie in e discipliná ní pe spek i ě, podp og am E o- pa a ( e sus) s ě : In e kon inen ální a ni okon inen ální poli ické, ekonomické, sociál- ní, kul u ní a in elek uální ans e y“. 2 JUDT, T., Pos wa . A His o y o Eu ope since 1945, New Yo k 2005, p. 208. 3 GINSBORG, P., A His o y o Con empo a y I aly 1943–1980, London 1990, pp. 213–216. 62 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 1/2014 The pe manen p esence o he DC in he go e nmen and he economic g ow h caused s ong connec ions be ween poli ics and business; he Ch is ian Democ acy became a synonym o he s a e. In he wen y yea s ollowing he Second Wo ld Wa was i s posi ion se iously shaken only once. In 1960, he new go e nmen o Fe nando Tamb oni was o be ounded on he depu ies o neo -Fascis I alian Social Mo emen (Mo imen o sociale i aliano; MSI). The socie y did no accep he neo -Fascis s in powe only i een yea s a e he wa and s a ed long and nume ous demons a ions.4 Se - e al iolen clashes occu ed wi h he police, especially in Genoa and Reggio Emilia. A e h ee mon hs in se ice, Tamb oni was o ced o lea e and his go e nmen e- signed. Only h ee yea s la e , ano he p eceden was b oken. The I alian Socialis Pa y (Pa i o socialis a i aliano; PSI) ended i s alliance wi h he communis s in 1956, a e he So ie occupa ion o Hunga y. In 1963, he DC and i s P ime Minis e Aldo Mo o we e eady o ini ia e an open coope a ion wi h he PSI in he new cen e -le go e n- men p ojec .5 The dea h o Palmi o Toglia i in 1964 led o u he changes in he ideology o he PCI. The pa y abandoned he ex eme le posi ion and he s ong Cold Wa he o ic (which was o be seen clea ly in 1968, when he PCI exp essed disapp o al o he So- ie in asion o Czechoslo akia).6 The PCI accep ed he sys em o he I alian Republic and con ined i sel o igh ing agains he DC go e nmen s in he limi s o pa liamen- a y democ acy. This was, howe e , a g ea disappoin men o he amoun o a ising le mo emen s ha aimed o gain suppo in he planned e olu iona y s uggle. In he 1960s, he si ua ion a he uni e si ies changed u e ly. Wi hin he new gen- e a ion, which was bo n du ing o a e he wa , he demand o educa ion s ongly inc eased. The uni e si ies esponded o hese eques s and he numbe o s uden s mul iplied se e al imes; he capaci ies o he buildings and classes, as well as he numbe o he p o esso s, we e no su icien any mo e.7 This was one o he easons o he s ong ensions a he uni e si ies ha soon led o he adicaliza ion o he s uden s and hei call o change. The young people igh ing o he change we e d i en by se e al di e en easons. Apa om he insu icien wo king condi ions in he ac o ies, complica ed si ua ion a he uni e si ies and poli ical inhe i ance o he Second Wo ld Wa , he e we e also easons o in e na ional o e en uni e sal cha ac e . Many people we e in opposi ion wi h he ideology o he Cold Wa and i s conse- quences. The So ie in asion o Czechoslo akia and he in ol emen o he Uni ed S a es in Vie nam in pa icula we e he main poin s o discussions. The sympa hies o hose so -called New Le mo emen s lay elsewhe e — wi h he Thi d Wo ld lead- 4 WEINBERG, L. — EUBANK, W. L., Neo -Fascis and Fa Le Te o is s in I aly: Some Biog aphi- cal Obse a ions, in: B i ish Jou nal o Poli ical Science, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oc obe 1988), p. 534. 5 GALLI, G., S o ia del socialismo i aliano: da Tu a i al dopo C axi, Milano 2007, p. 247. 6 AGOSTI, A., S o ia del Pa i o Comunis a I aliano: 1922–1991, Roma–Ba i 1999, p. 138. 7 DRAKE, R., I aly in he 1960s: A Legacy o Te o ism and Libe a ion, in: Sou h Cen al Re iew. Re hinking 1968: The Uni ed S a es & Wes e n Eu ope, Vol. 16, No. 4 — Vol. 17, No. 1 (Win- e 1999–Sp ing 2000), p. 70. Mikuláš Peš a 63 e s, Ho Chi Minh, Mao Zedong, Fidel Cas o and many o he s. They emphasized he equali y o all humans and suppo ed he A ican Ame icans o women igh ing o hei igh s. They kep in ouch wi h simila ly hinking g oups om F ance, Fede al Republic o Ge many, bu also om he USA o he coun ies om behind he I on Cu ain.8 Ne e heless, he inspi a ion came also om mo e dange ous places. The La in Ame ican gue illa igh e s became ex emely popula as hey did no hesi a e o op- pose he global impe ialism. E nes o “Che” Gue a a became a legend al eady du ing his li e ime and a ma y a e his execu ion in 1967. The Manual o u ban gue illa, w i en by B azilian e olu iona y Ca los Ma ighella, was published in I alian by Giangiacomo Fel inelli.9 Colombian igh ing p ies Camillo To es became a sym- bol close especially o he I alian s ongly Ca holic milieu. The in e nal ules and he emblem o U uguayan e o is o ganiza ion Tupama os (Mo imien o de Libe acion Nacional — Tupama os) we e di ec ly adop ed by se e al I alian mili an g oups. The e o is p ac ices we e soon anspo ed o I aly, oo. The New Le mo emen s a ed o gain g ound in I aly du ing he 1960s, when he magazines c i icizing he So ie poli ics we e published. Among he i s was he in luen ial jou nal Quade ni ossi (Red pape s), i s published in 1961, o he e ue Classe ope aia (Wo king class), ounded in 1963.10 “He e he au ho s de el- oped new in e p e a ions o classical Socialis heo y and es ablished a basic ame- wo k o hei c i icism o I alian socie y and he Old Le ( he PSI, he PCI, and he unions).”11 As well as in many o he coun ies, he cen e o he p o es s lay a he uni e si- ies. The adi ional s uden o ganiza ion UNURI (Unione nazionale uni e si a ia ap- p esen a i a i aliana) los i s c edibili y as i was unde s ong in luence o he po- li ical pa ies. I was eplaced by an au onomous s uden mo emen which sough o sol e he p oblems h ough gene al discussion in he plenum.12 The newly es ablished s uden o ganiza ions we e also in ol ed in he occupa ion o he uni e si ies which began in Janua y 1966 in T en o. Among he leade s o he mo emen was also Rena o Cu cio, a young Ca holic So- cialis s uden . Along wi h his iend and colleague Mau o Ros agno, he ounded he commune o he ee educa ion, inspi ed by he p inciples o he F ank u School. They w o e he Mani es o a Nega i e Uni e si y (Mani es o pe una uni e si à nega- i a), in which hey p esen ed hei concep o a ee ins i u ion, independen om a s a e and un only by he s uden s hemsel es. Cu cio was engaged in an ex a- -pa liamen a y Communis Pa y o I aly (Pa i o comunis a d’I alia) and a e 1968 he wo ked o Ve onese jou nal La o o poli ico. In 1969, his an i -ins i u ional eelings 8 DELLA PORTA, D., Te o ismi in I alia, Boĺogna 1984, p. 83. 9 GRANDI, A., Giangiacomo Fel inelli. La dinas ia, il i oluziona io, Milano 2000, p. 469. 10 PISANO, V. F., The Dynamics o Sub e sion and Violence in Con empo a y I aly, S an o d 1987, p. 36. 11 KLIMKE, M. — SCHAROTH, J. (eds.), 1968 in Eu ope. His o y o P o es and Ac i ism 1956–1977, New Yo k 2008, p. 86. 12 Ibid., p. 88. 64 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 1/2014 and his will o igh agains he sys em became e en s onge and oge he wi h his wi e Ma ghe i a Cagol and se e al o he colleagues om T en o, he mo ed o Milan o ge in ol ed in he al e na i e, newly c ea ed unions in he ac o ies.13 Fo he pas ew yea s, Cu cio had al eady been in ouch wi h Ra ale De Mo i, he leade o Uni a y Commi ee o he Base (Comi a o uni a io di base; CUB), a new ype o he wo ke s’ union in Pi elli ha was supposed o sp ead he idea o p ole a ian equali y and jus ice. Simila unions we e also cons i u ed in o he majo No h I al- ian en e p ises, like Si -Siemens, Al a Romeo o IBM, whe e hey we e called S udy G oups (G uppi di s udio). Cu cio and his colleagues we e de e mined o use he new unions as basic pla o ms o eaching hei aims. The Red B igades la e admi ed he key ole o he ac o ies’ al e na i e unions in he o ming o he e o is g oups. “The s uden s’ igh s o 1968, conside ed a de ona o by some, a dynamic elemen o he p ocess o o ma ion o he mode n p ole a ia , p oduced as hei p ima y e ec he di usion o he new o ms o igh in o he ac o ies, he iolen and illegal o ms.”14 The changes in he poli ical cou se o he PCI we e mo e obse able a e he ise o En ico Be lingue .15 In 1969, he was elec ed Depu y Na ional Sec e a y o he pa y and h ee yea s la e became he Sec e a y. Be lingue undamen ally changed he app oach o he pa y, abandoned he e olu ion as hei aim and ied o ans o m he PCI in o a mode n le -wing democ a ic pa y. He also p e e ed he peace wi h he DC o con inual animosi y. He p oposed o he poli icians o he Ch is ian De- moc acy he “his o ic comp omise” (comp omesso s o ico), he unp eceden ed plan o coope a ion o wo majo poli ical pa ies in o de o secu e he s abili y o I aly. The poli icians o he DC did no app o e hese p oposals, bu P esiden o he pa y Aldo Mo o suppo ed his idea and i s ealiza ion in he 1970s.16 E en hough he was ela i ely popula as a poli ician, among he g oups o he ex a -pa liamen a y opposi ion En ico Be lingue was conside ed as somebody who be ayed he in e es s o he wo king class.17 T ying o ind a common g ound wi h he DC, whose ep esen a i es had symbolized he ins i u ions o he s a e o mo e han wen y yea s, he Sec e a y o he Communis pa y los his c edibili y and be- came a ’pa o he sys em’. In he ea ly 1970s, he PCI los in luence o e he ex a- -pa liamen a y opposi ion and o a ce ain deg ee also he con ac wi h i . Al hough he g oups o he New Le abandoned he alliance wi h he PCI, hei main enemies we e he manage s o he big ac o ies, he ins i u ions o he s a e 13 CURCIO, R., A iso ape o. In e is a di Ma io Scialoja, Milano 1993, p. 47. 14 Socco so osso, B iga e Rosse. Che cosa hanno a o, che cosa hanno de o, che cosa se ne e de - o, Milano 1976, p. 35. 15 En ico Be lingue was descended om an a is oc a ic amily om Sa dinia and his pe - sonal s yle was ma kedly di e en om ha o his p edecesso s. He abandoned he PCI’s iendly policy owa ds he So ie Union and along wi h he sec e a ies o F ench Communis Pa y (PCF) Geo ges Ma chais and Spanish Communis Pa y (PCE) San- iago Ca illo c ea ed he concep o eu ocommunism in he la e 1970s. GINSBORG, P., op. ci ., p. 374. 16 BARBAGALLO, F., En ico Be lingue , Ca occi 2006, pp. 183 . 17 FRANCESCHINI, A., Ma a, Rena o e io, Milano 1996, p. 79. Mikuláš Peš a 65 and he neo -Fascis g oups.18 In 1969, he numbe o he iolen a acks e ec ua ed by he adical igh mo emen s eached 148, while he e we e only en on he side o he adical le . The le wing a acks had no become mo e nume ous un il 1977.19 The mos b u al a ack o his ime happened on Decembe 12, 1969, a Piazza Fon ana in Milan. The explosions a he Na ional Ag a ian Bank killed se en een people and inju ed eigh y eigh . E en hough he o igins o he massac e lay qui e clea ly on he ex eme igh , he police accused he ana chis s.20 One o hem, he axi d i e Giuseppe Pinelli, was a es ed and h ee days a e he explosions ell om he win- dow a he police s a ion and died. His dea h was claimed o be a suicide bu a signi i- can pa o he socie y did no belie e his explana ion; he massi e demons a ions agains he s a e sys em ollowed, o he go e nmen was linked wi h he ex eme igh -wing e o is s in he eyes o he p o es an s. The decision o he le wing ac i is s o s a o ganizing he e o is ope a ions was no caused by he explosions a he Piazza Fon ana; mos o he g oups we e al eady ounded.21 Ye , he neo -Fascis a acks undoub edly con ibu ed o he es- cala ion o iolence and o he adicaliza ion o he u u e e o is s.22 Acco ding o Ma ica Tolomelli, he e o is ac i i ies in I aly we e no he “exempla y cases, bu a he he s a egies o de e ing iolence as a o m o he ac ion”.23 GIANGIACOMO FELTRINELLI AND THE GAP The edi o Giangiacomo Fel inelli had an essen ial in luence on he beginnings o he Le -wing e o ism in I aly. This weal hy soli a y adical had his con ac s all o e he wo ld — he o en a elled o Cuba and Sou h Ame ica, A ica and also he lands o Eas e n bloc (especially he Ge man Democ a ic Republic, Hunga y and Czecho- slo akia, p obably ha ing his own house in P ague).24 He published in I alian he ex s and speeches o Fidel Cas o o Ho Chi Minh, Mao Zedong’s Li le Red Book, and 18 No only he MSI, bu also ex eme igh mo emen s such as he Na ional Vangua d (A an- gua dia nazionale) o he New O de (O dine nuo o). 19 Wi h 216 le -wing and 168 igh -wing a acks. DELLA PORTA, D. — ROSSI, M., Ci e c ude- li: bilancio dei e o ismi, Bologna 1984, p. 18. 20 BISCIONE, F. M., Una modali à della lo a poli ica in I alia 1969–74, in: GHEZZI, C., (ed.), B escia: Piazza della Loggia, Roma 2012, p. 30. 21 Al hough hei bloodies a acks we e s ill no e ec ua ed. PANVINI, G., O dine ne o, gue - iglia ossa. La iolenza poli ica nell’I alia degli anni Sessan a e Se an a (1966–1975), To ino 2009, p. 97. 22 NOVELLI, D. — TRANFAGLIA, N., Vi e sospese. Le gene azioni del e o ismo, Milano 2007, p. 39. 23 TOLOMELLI, M., Di on e alle BR e alla RAF: Pe cezioni sociali a con on o, in: L’I alia epubbli- cana nella c isi degli anni se an a, ol. III. Pa i i e o ganizzazioni di massa, Roma 2001, p. 426. 24 Fel inelli was a pe sonal iend o he Cuban p esiden Fidel Cas o, on his jou neys he me he leade s o he Thi d wo ld — Kwame Nk umah, Sékou Tou é o Ben Ba ka. In 1967 he was almos a es ed in Boli ia as a So ie agen . FELTRINELLI, C., Senio Se ice, Mila- no 1999, pp. 223–224, 311–314. 66 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 1/2014 Ca los Ma ighella’s Manual o u ban gue illa. Fel inelli d eamed o a uni ed o ce o he communis s o s a he wo ld e olu ion — unlike many o he I alian ex a- -pa liamen a y opposi ions, he did no exclude he So ie Union and he coun ies o Wa saw pac om his plans.25 He suppo ed he s uden s, he wo ke s, and he po- en ial u u e e o is s in many ways. In 1970, Fel inelli ounded he pa amili a y G oups o Pa isan Ac ion (G uppi d’azione pa igiana; GAP)26 and b oadcas ed a adio channel o he same name. Th ough his illegal Radio GAP he in o med he wo ke s abou he da es and places o he demons a ions, abou he s ikes, and he coo dina- ion o he ac ions. He also inancially and non - inancially suppo ed he newly c e- a ed e o is o ac i is g oups, especially he Wo ke s’ Powe (Po e e Ope aio) and he Red B igades. He helped hem by p o iding alse passpo s, smuggling he weap- ons o hem, and by showing hem how o c ea e explosi es. Mo eo e , he published hei mani es os and le hem pa icipa e in he Radio GAP p og ammes. Among o he s, he coope a ed wi h some old S alinis membe s o he PCI like Pie o Secchia and he legenda y pa isans, such as Giamba is a Lazagna.27 His us in he PCI was shaken, howe e , when En ico Be lingue gained powe . Since 1969 onwa ds, he conside ed hem o be a pa o he sys em, which he ough agains . A - e he a acks a Piazza Fon ana, Fel inelli became ex emely pa anoid, suspec ing ei he he neo -Fascis s o he old a is oc acy o p epa e a coup d’é a . He began o ea o his own li e and ceased his public ac ions. On 15 Ma ch 1972, Giangiacomo Fel inelli was ound dead unde he ansmis- sion owe in Seg a o nea Milano. He was ying o place he explosi es on he owe and hus cause he blackou in he pa o Milano whe e he cong ess o he PCI ook place. I was an icipa ed ha En ico Be lingue would become he Sec e a y o he pa y and Fel inelli wan ed o in e up ha e en iolen ly, bu he explosi es blew up ea ly and killed him be o e he managed o se hem up.28 Fel inelli’s dea h ga e o he g oups o he ex a -pa liamen a y Le new easons o con inue he igh s, as none o hem belie ed he o icial s o y and suspec ed he sec e se ice o mu de ing him. He became a ma y o he mo emen and a symbol o he opp ession by he s a e. Wi h his dea h many e olu iona y g oups los hei in e na ional con ac s, ha he had secu ed, and also inancial and ma e ial incomes. THE CONTINUOUS STRUGGLE The Con inuous S uggle (Lo a con inua; LC) was ounded in 1969 along wi h he jou - nal o he same name. The jou nal, which had been eleased daily since 1972, became 25 DELLA PORTA, D., Te o ismi in I alia…, p. 87. 26 The GAP e e ed o he pa isan adi ion; he conside ed his ac ions only an in e up ion o he igh s ha ended on 25 Ap il 1945. 27 GRANDI, A., op. ci ., p. 423. 28 Fel inelli was one o he ew among he le wing e o is s who p e e ed he explosi es. The bombs we e usually conside ed he weapons o he neo -Fascis s who used hem e- quen ly. Mikuláš Peš a 67 egis e ed and i o med he legal amewo k o he o ganiza ion, while mos o he membe s we e wo king o he illegal backg ound. This kind o o ganiza ional s uc- u e was popula among he F ench New -Le mo emen s and was adop ed by se e al I alian g oups. 29 The LC was led by a cha isma ic w i e and jou nalis Ad iano So i and among i s p ominen igu es was a s uden ac i is om T en o, Mau o Ros agno. A e he explosions a Piazza Fon ana in Decembe 1969 in Milano and he dea h o he ana - chis Giuseppe Pinelli, he LC p omised he e enge on he in es iga o o he case, inspec o Luigi Calab esi. He was ound sho on May 17, 1972, in on o his house; he esponsibili y was aken by Ad iano So i pe sonally.30 The LC con inued being ac i e un il 1976 — when he o ganiza ion was dissol ed a i s hi d na ional cong ess in Rimini. Some o he adicals, ne e heless, kep on igh ing in newly ounded F on line (P ima linea; PL). The LC was no impo an only o i s e o is ac i i ies; i was much mo e in lu- en ial as an ac i is mo emen in ol ed in o ganizing he s ikes and demons a ions. Howe e , i s c edi was high and when i u ned o ac ion, i ecei ed app op ia e publici y. The LC did no sha e he ha ed o he PCI wi h he mo emen s o he I al- ian New Le and suppo ed he PCI’s ambi ions o en e he go e nmen .31 WORKERS’ POWER The Wo ke s’ Powe (Po e e ope aio; PO) was o iginally based on he in ellec ual o ce; i was ounded in Sep embe 1969 and he leade s o he o ganiza ion we e he uni- e si y p o esso s, especially Toni Neg i and Ca lo Fio oni. The PO ollowed he ac i - i ies o Quade ni ossi and Classe ope aia, while Neg i and o he s we e ac i e in hose mo emen s, oo. As well as he LC, he PO also published a jou nal wi h hei mani- es os, ideas and desc ip ion o e en s om hei poin o iew. Fio oni was e y close o Giangiacomo Fel inelli, who inanced he PO’s ac i i ies and who was ying o co- o dina e hem wi h o he g oups’ ac ions. In Sep embe 1971, he con e ence o he PO ook place in Rome whe e Fio oni (being con inced by Fel inelli o do so) ini ia ed he ounding o a sub e si e sec ion o he o ganiza ion — i was named he Illegal Wo k (La o o illegale).32 I was mean o ha e wo pa s — he poli ical one, whose adminis a ion was ca ied ou by a po- li ical ac i is and s uden leade F anco Pipe no, and he mili a y pa , secu ed by a e o is Vale io Mo ucci (la e e y ac i e wi hin he Red B igades).33 The Illegal Wo k commi ed he a ack agains he house o Ma io Ma ei, he p ominen membe o he neo -Fascis MSI, in Ap il 1973. They se he building on 29 FASANELLA, G. — FRANCESCHINI, A., Che cosa sono le B iga e osse, Milano 2004, p. 50. 30 BOBBIO, L., Lo a con inua. S o ia di una o ganizzazione i oluziona ia, Roma 1979, p. 98. 31 NERI, S. (ed.), Ve so la lo a a ma a. La pol ica della iolenza nella sinis a adicale degli anni Se an a, Bologna 2012, p. 165. 32 PANSA, G., S o ie I aliane di iolenza e e o ismo, Roma–Ba i 1980, p. 24. 33 MORUCCI, V., La peggio gio en ù. Una i a nella lo a a ma a, Milano 2004, p. 51. 68 DVACÁTÉ STOLETÍ 1/2014 i e ha se iously inju ed Ma ei and killed his wo sons. Some o he in ellec uals o he PO ied o deny ha he mu de was cons uc ed unde hei amewo k bu hei decla a ions we e no us wo hy. The PO i sel was dissol ed only wo mon hs la e , in June 1973, due o long and se- ious di e ence o opinions be ween he wo majo leade s — Toni Neg i and F anco Pipe no. Some o he membe s (especially Neg i) ounded an ac i is g oup called he Wo ke s’ Au onomy (Au onomia ope aia), some pa icipa ed in o ganizing he F on Line in 1976, and o he s (Vale io Mo ucci, Ad iana Fa anda) joined he Red B igades.34 OCTOBER 22 GROUP The e olu iona y mo emen Oc obe 22 G oup (G uppo XXII O ob e) was ounded in Ligu ian capi al Genoa on Oc obe 22, 1969. Genoa was along wi h Milan and Tu- in one o he cen es o he p o es s a e 1968 and was widely known o he s ong ep esen a ion o he le -wing o ien ed ac i is s.35 The Oc obe 22 G oup was an ex- ample o a geog aphically exclusi e, bu s ill e y in luen ial mo emen . No o he sig- ni ican e o is o ganiza ions ope a ed in Genoa in he pe iod o exis ence o his g oup, nei he did hey ope a e in any o he I alian ci y. The o ganiza ion was con- s i u ed be o e he inciden a Piazza Fon ana in Decembe 1969, bu he explosions undoub edly escala ed he p epa a ions o he bloody a acks ha we e o ollow.36 Rega dless o i s limi a ions, he Oc obe 22 G oup main ained he con ac s wi h he o he o ganiza ions, especially he Red B igades and Fel inelli’s GAP.37 I was led by Ma io Rossi and among he o he leade s he e we e Giuseppe Ba aglia and Au- gus o Viel. A e se e al e o is a acks, hey e ec ua ed hei mos amous ac ion in Ma ch 1971 — he mu de o he secu i y gua d Alessand o Flo is, who was ca - ying a walle ull o money.38 The Oc obe 22 G oup planned his ope a ion in o de o inance he o ganiza ion — he aim was no he mu de i sel , only he obbe y. Ne e heless, his homicide became he beginning o hei end. Soon a e wa ds, he main pe sonali ies o he mo emen we e a es ed and condemned o p ison. The 34 TOLOMELLI, M., Te o ismo e socie à. Il publico diba i o in I alia e in Ge mania negli anni Se - an a, Bologna 2006, p. 71. 35 Genoa was o he communis s a symbol since he Second Wo ld Wa as i was in ol ed in he Resis ance eno mously. In 1960, he s onges p o es s agains he Tamb oni go e n- men ook place in Genoa, on he occasion o he six h cong ess o MSI which should ha e aken place in his ci y. O ganizing he cong ess o a neo -Fascis pa y in Genoa was aken as an insul . 36 GALLI, G., S o ia del pa i o a ma o 1968–1982, Milano 1982, pp. 5–20. 37 Fel inelli once helped Augus o Viel — a e he mu de o Alessand o Flo is and a es o Ma io Rossi, Fel inelli ook him o P ague and hid him. Howe e , acco ding o Fel inel- li’s biog aphe Aldo G andi his was no e y p obable; mo e likely he only kep him in his house and sen he pos ca ds om P ague in his name. GRANDI, A., op. ci ., p. 472. 38 SPIEZIE, A. e al., 30 anni di BR. Le B iga e Rosse nei accon i di Ansonio And eassi, Giuliano Fe - a a, Se e ino San iapichi. La c onologia dei a i e la lis a delle i ime, Roma 2001, p. 35. Mikuláš Peš a 69 main p osecu o Ma io Sossi became one o he mos ha ed igu es among he ex a- -pa liamen a y opposi ion and he was kidnapped by he Red b igades wo yea s la e as an ac o engeance o he Oc obe 22 G oup. POLITICAL METROPOLITAN COLLECTIVE A e Rena o Cu cio and his wi e Ma ghe i a Cagol mo ed o Milan, hey joined he al e na i e unions CUB in Pi elli. Cu cio soon me a poli ical ac i is Co ado Simioni, who wo ked in he s uden -wo ke s’ collec i e and in i ed Cu cio o he lec u es. Toge he , hey en ed an old hea e in ia Cu a one whe e hey in i ed all he pe - sonali ies o he e olu iona y mo emen s om Milan — hus he Poli ical Me o- poli an Collec i e (Colle i o poli ico me opoli ano; CPM) was ounded. The access o he CPM was no limi ed — anybody who wan ed o join could simply do so wi hou any con ols.39 The CPM was e y he e ogeneous. The e we e ep esen a i es o he unions, such as Ra ale De Mo i o Cu cio om Pi elli, Co ado Simioni om Mondado i and Ma io Mo e i om Si -Siemens.40 F om T en o, he e we e he s uden leade s o he 1968 p o es s named Duccio Be io and Vanni Mulina is, as well as he ep esen a i es o he Ca holic o ganiza ions Young labo e s and Young s uden s (Gio ani s uden i and Gio ani la o a o i) F anco T oiano, Gio gio Seme ia and Mau izio Fe a i. Rena o Cu cio and Co ado Simioni we e appoin ed leade s o he mo emen . Cu cio was a b illian speake , e y popula among he CPM’s membe s. Simioni e- mained in he shadows — he was quie and in elligen , wi h many con ac s among he Black Pan he s in he USA o he F ench e olu iona y g oups Vi e la e olu ion o Gauche p ole a ienne. Simioni also wo ked on his own p ojec s, especially he g oup o he le -wing adicals, who escala ed he iolence a he demons a ions, bu ned he ca s e c. They we e called he Red aun s (Zie osse) because o he s ong ep e- sen a ion o women wi hin he g oup. Ano he Simioni’s sec e g oup was called he Supe clan, he abb e ia ion o he wo d supe clandes ini. While CPM ook pa mainly in he discussions and mani es a ions, he Supe clan should ha e se ed as an e ec- i e g oup.41 The Supe clan’s bigges ope a ion was he bomb a ack a he Uni ed Sa es’ em- bassy in A hens on 2nd Sep embe 1970, du ing which, non heless, died me ely he wo e o is s hemsel es. This e en b ough disco d in o he CPM, o nei he Cu - 39 CURCIO, R., A iso ape o. In e is a di Ma io Scialoja, Milano 1993, pp. 48–50. 40 Ma io Mo e i was one o he leade s o he S udy G oups (G uppi di s udio) in Si - -Siemens and also ounde o he Commune a Piazza S upa ich whe e he ied o es ab- lish he comple ely cen ally -o ganized li e. He la e became he leade and he key igu e o he Red B igades. MORETTI, M., B iga e osse: una s o ia i aliana. In e is a di Ca la Mos- ca e Rossana Rossanda, Milano 1994, pp. 11–14. 41 I alian jou nalis Gio gio Bocca named he Supe clan „maybe he mos exempla y case o a di used i esponsibili y in he New Le in hese imes.” BOCCA, G., Noi e o is i. 12 anni di lo a a ma a icos ui i e discussi con i p o agonis i, Milano 1985, p. 38.