In the Name of Unions and Nation. The Development of Welsh Labour Historiography in the 1950s — 1990s

In he Name o Unions and Na ion. The De elopmen o Welsh Labou His o iog aphy in he 1950s— 1990s jakub S řelec KEYWORDS: Labou His o y— Welsh His o y— His o iog aphy— New Social His o y This pape aims o explo e he eme gence o Welsh labou his o iog aphy in he pe- iod a e he Second Wo ld Wa and o examine he pos mode n challenges aced by Welsh labou his o iog aphy since he 1980s. In his ex , I ega d ‘labou his o y’ as adiscipline o social his o y ha ocuses mainly on he wo king class o classes and hei ela ion o o he social g oups and poli ics.1 ‘Welsh labou his o y’, howe e , is ea ed as an independen b anch o labou his o y ha is in e es ed in he Welsh coun y and pa icula ly in he his o y o mining egions and unions.2 This pape se s he de elopmen o Welsh labou his o iog aphy in o he b oade con ex o social his o y. Asigni ican pa o his analysis consis s in acompa ison be ween he wo ks o Welsh labou his o ians and hei B i ish colleagues. Apa om his desc ip i e aim, his pape aises mo e analy ical ques ions, such as: how did Welsh labou his o ians espond o he ‘new social his o y’ ep esen ed by he B i ish Ma xis s? To wha ex en was Welsh labou his o iog aphy in luenced by he eme gence o pos mode nism and how did i mee hose challenges? To answe hese ques ions, he i s pa o his pape concen a es on acompa ison be ween he wo k “The Rebecca Rio s” by Welsh labou his o ian Da id Williams, which ocuses on u al ebellions in nine een h-cen u y Wales, and he books “P imi i e Rebels” and “The C owd in His o y” by B i ish Ma xis s E ic Hobsbawm and Geo ge Rudé. Fu he - mo e, he pape deals wi h he ounda ion o he Welsh labou his o y jou nal ‘Lla u ’ in 1970. A he end o he i s pa , he pape discusses he book “The Fed’”(1980) by Hywel F ancis and Da id Smi h, which s udies he bigges Welsh mining ade-union o ganiza ion. The second pa o his pape examines he way in he Welsh labou pa adigm, ep esen ed o ins ance by he book “The Fed”, deal wi h he linguis ic and cul u al changes p opaga ed by pos mode nism. Finally, Ia gue ha some as- pec s o Welsh labou his o y me i u he de elopmen , bu also ha he eme ging 1 Ki k Ne ille, Challenges, C isis and Renewal? Themes in he Labou His o y o B i ain 1960–2010, Labou His o y Re iew, 75/2, 2010, p.163. 2 The ques ion o Welsh iden i y was discussed by Gwyn Williams. Fo mo e de ails see: Gwyn Williams, ‘When Was Wales?’ AHis o y o he Welsh, London 1979. OPEN ACCESS jakub S řELEc 63 pos mode n iews and ideas would ha e been a alid con ibu ion o he conse a i e pa adigm o Welsh labou his o iog aphy. AWELSH RESPONSE TO BRITISH MARXISTS? WELSH LABOUR HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE 1950S— 1980S A e he Second Wo ld Wa , he B i ish go e nmen ’s o e iding conce n was he es- ablishmen o awel a e s a e. This led o se e al social and poli ical de elopmen s, such as he na ionaliza ion o mines, he ounda ion o he NHS, and he inc easing in luence o ade unions. Fu he mo e, Keynes’ economic policy ga ne ed inc eas- ing suppo om poli icians and Ma xism became mo e and mo e popula amongs schola s. This shi in policy was no only ypical o he Uni ed Kingdom bu also o mos Eu opean coun ies. Mo eo e , hese changes in he B i ish social and poli ical en i onmen c ea ed ademand, which labou his o y was able o mee . A he begin- ning o he 1960s new uni e si ies we e ounded in he Uni ed Kingdom ha o e ed plen y o oppo uni ies o young his o ians. Welsh his o ian Andy C oll desc ibed his pe iod as ollows: ‘I was an exci ing ime, in which o be alabou his o ian.’3 This inspi ing en i onmen p oduced many impo an wo ks o Welsh and B i ish labou his o iog aphy. Da id Williams, aWelsh his o ian a Abe ys wy h Uni e si y, published his book “The Rebecca Rio s” (1955) ou yea s be o e Hobsbawm’s “P imi i e Rebels”. He was in e es ed in he u al io s known as “Rebecca io s” ha e up ed be ween he yea s 1839 and 1843 in Wes Wales (in he coun ies o Pemb okeshi e, Ca diganshi e and Ca ma henshi e). The p o es e s we e poo a me s who did no ag ee wi h he ax policy o he s a e and in pa icula , wi h he oll-ga es sys em. The oads in Wales we e adminis e ed by special us s which collec ed money o hei main enance. The e o e, he oll-ga es became a a ge o p o es e s o whom hey embodied he un ai axa ion o he s a e. To he a me s he oll-ga es ep esen ed amajo inan- cial bu den, because hey always had o pay when, o ins ance, hey wen o sell hei goods in he ma ke . The p o es ing g oups, who a acked he oll-ga es, called hemsel es “Rebecca’s Daugh e s”. The o igin o hei name is said o be a e se in he Bible.4 A he beginning o he io s, he a acks on he oll-ga es ook place du ing he nigh , wi h men d essed up like women and be o e des oying aga e he leade o he g oup, ep esen ing Rebecca, app oached he ga e and asked in Welsh “My child en, his ga e has no business o be he e, has i ?”5 The c owd esponded and wen o des oy he oll-ga e. Soon, he Rebecca io s became pa o Welsh olklo e. In 3 Andy C oll, ‘People’s Rememb ance s’ in aPos -Mode n Age: Con empla ing he Non-C i- sis o Welsh Labou His o y, Lla ou : he Jou nal o he Socie y o he S udy o Welsh La- bou His o y, 8/1, 2000, p.6. 4 “And hey blessed Rebekah and said un o he , Thou a ou sis e , be hou he mo he o housands o millions, and le hy seed possess he ga e o hose which ha e hem’!” On- line: h p://biblehub.com/genesis/24-60.h m (30.9.2017) 5 Da id Williams, The Rebecca Rio s, Ca di 1986, p.191. OPEN ACCESS 64 WISOHIM/ESHP 26 Wales, he e was a e y s ong noncon o mis adi ion and Rebecca and he daugh- e s we e, o many Welshmen, acha ac e is ic exp ession o hei cul u e. Da id Williams s uc u es his book as ollows: Fi s , he concen a es on an analy- sis o he local s a e adminis a ion and he gen y, hen he ocuses on he social s uc- u e o u al socie y and on he local economy. In his book, Da id Williams s esses ha mos o he his o ical accoun s in e p e ed he Rebecca io s only because o an un ai axa ion sys em and he high olls. Howe e , Williams a gues ha he oo s o he io s a e a he mo e deeply mani es ed in he change o u al socie y. His a gu- men is based on wo majo phenomena ha occu ed in he nine een h cen u y in Wales: he apid g ow h o popula ion and he c ea ion o public opinion. Acco ding o Williams, he socie y in he wes e n pa s o Wales, whe e he io s ook place, was isola ed, unde de eloped and dependen on ag icul u al means o p oduc ion. The e o e, he io s should no be in e p e ed as an up ising o u al p ole a ians bu a he as a ebellion o ‘small a me s’. Addi ionally, he poin s ou ha he egions whe e he io s s a ed, expe ienced eno mous popula ion g ow h a he beginning o he nine een h cen u y. Hence, he eason o he e up ion o he io s lies exac ly in he combina ion o an unde de eloped economy ha did no p oduce su icien e enues and he apid inc ease in popula ion. Williams summa ises his hough s: ‘The ea ly nine een h cen u y saw ab eakdown in he social s uc u e o u al Wales, wi h i s ou moded sys ems o go e nmen and adminis a ion, when he p essu e o ag ea ly inc eased popula ion upon abackwa d economy p oduced dis u bances.‘6 Apa om he analysis o he social and economic s uc u e, Williams was in e - es ed in he analysis o he g owing public opinion. He assumed ha he io ing a m- e s we e no illi e a e. Acco ding o him, he c ea ion o nega i e public opinions in newspape s had an in luence on he unsa is ied a me s who la e became io ing g oups.7 Finally, he s essed he isola ed geog aphical posi ion o he wes e n pa s o Wales. Tha is why he g ow h o popula ion could no be compensa ed by he u - banisa ion. He assumed ha i he ailway eached hese emo e egions o Wales en yea s ea lie , he io s would maybe no ha e happened a all.8 Wi h his book, Williams in oduced he ebellions in he emo e Welsh egions and he ans o ma- ion o u al socie ies in o indus ial socie ies as anew opic in Welsh labou his o i- og aphy, and hus b oke wi h he adi ion o ocusing on he his o y o he mining egions and unions. Mo eo e , Williams was less ‘ma e ialis ic’ in his explana ions and a he examined he in luence o public opinion. In he 1960s, an in luen ial g oup o B i ish Ma xis his o ians ep esen ed by E ic Hobsbawm and Geo ge Rudé eme ged in B i ain.9 These so-called ‘new social his o ians’ sough o e ise he w i ing o he ‘ o al’ social his o y o he wo king 6 Da id Williams, The Rebecca Rio s, Ca di 1986, p. iii. 7 Ibidem, p.118. 8 Ibidem, p.158. 9 B i ish Ma xis his o ians we e ep esen ed by mo e schola s such as Edwa d P.Thomp- son, howe e , Iam in e es ed in he wo ks o Rudé and Hobsbawm who ocus in hei books on he same opics as Da id Williams. The compa ison is hen mo e accu a e. OPEN ACCESS jakub S řELEc 65 class.10 In 1959, E ic Hobsbawm’s pionee ing wo k “P imi i e ebels” was published, in which he ocuses on a a ie y o ebellions, con lic s and s uggles in he u al pa s o nine een h and wen ie h-cen u y Eu ope.11 E ic Hobsbawm was in e es ed in he ‘p imi i e’ o ‘a chaic’ o ms o social agi a ion, such as he “bandi y o he Robin Hood ype, u al sec e socie ies, a ious peasan e olu iona y mo emen s o he millena ian so , p e-indus ial u ban mobs and hei io s, some labou eligious sec s and he use o i ual in ea ly labou and e olu iona y o ganiza ions.”12 By using he e ms ‘p imi i e;’ o ‘a chaic’ he e e s o people whose iden i ies we e s ill based on ibal bonds. Acco ding o Hobsbawm, he his o y o social mo emen s can be di- ided in o wo main b anches: he i s one is in e es ed in he ancien sla e e ol s and p e-indus ial e a io s which we e mainly in e p e ed as isola ed and unimpo - an episodes in his o y. The second b anch is ocused on he mode n social mo e- men s which a e in e p e ed wi hin he amewo k o he socialis na a i e, and is he e o e in e es ed in he his o y o Luddism, Jacobinism o U opian Socialism.13 Howe e , he aim o Hobsbawm’s book was di e en : his goal was o ocus on g oups o people who did no i in o ei he o hese ca ego ies. Hobsbawm concen a es on anonymous people who we e mos ly illi e a e and unknown. He de ines hem as ‘p e- poli ical’ pe sons because hey we e no able o use poli ical language o exp ess hei demands. This is he eason why hei mo emen s we e no well o ganized, ma ginal, and igno ed by schola s. In addi ion o Hobsbawm’s “P imi i e Rebels”, o he in luen ial wo k o B i ish Ma xis s was “The C owd in His o y” w i en by Geo ge Rudé (1964). As he i le indica es, Geo ge Rudé’s wo k ocuses on he his o y o ac owd ha he de ines as a‘ ace- o- ace’ o ‘di ec con ac ’ g oup.14 Howe e , in his esea ch he did no include all ypes o people’s ga he ings. Rudé delibe a ely excluded he ollowing g oups om his s udy: c owds mee ing pu ely on ce emonial occasions, c owds a ending an academic o eligious e en , c owds a spo s s adiums, and any kind o c owds o ganized o apoli ical pu pose.15 The inno a i e po en ial o Rudé’s s udy lies in his app oach. Acco ding o him, labou his o ians so a ha e been igno ing he ole o c owds in his o y o desc ibing hem as an ‘ang y mob’ wi hou pu pose o mean- ing. This is why he d ew inspi a ion om Ame ican sociologis s who we e al eady in e es ed in acial mino i ies and io s. Rudé did no examine c owds as an abs ac and i ele an phenomenon bu a he ocused on he goals, beha iou and i uals o 10 Andy C oll, ‘People’s Rememb ance s in aPos -Mode n Age: Con empla ing he Non-C i- sis o Welsh Labou His o y, Lla ou : he Jou nal o he Socie y o he S udy o Welsh La- bou His o y, 8/1, 2000, p.6. 11 E ic Hobsbawm, P imi i e Rebels. S udies in A chaic Fo ms o Social Mo emen in he 19 h and 20 h Cen u ies, Manches e 1959. 12 Ibidem, p.1. 13 E ic Hobsbawm, P imi i e Rebels. S udies in A chaic Fo ms o Social Mo emen in he 19 h and 20 h Cen u ies, Manches e 1959, p.2. 14 Ge oge Rudé, The C owd in His o y. AS udy o Popula Dis u bances in F ance and Eng- land, 1730–1840, London 1985, p.1. 15 Ibidem, p.4. OPEN ACCESS 66 WISOHIM/ESHP 26 c owds.16 The e o e, he asks he ollowing ques ions in his esea ch: “How la ge was he c owd, how did i ac , who (i any) we e i s p omo e s, who composed i , and who led i ? Who we e he a ge s o he ic ims o he c owd’s ac i i ies? Wha we e he aims, mo i es, and ideas unde lying hese ac i i ies? Wha we e he consequences o he e en , and wha has been i s his o ical signi icance?”17 As al eady indica ed in he las pa ag aphs, he e a e some di e ences be ween he books “The Rebecca Rio s” by Da id Williams and “P imi i e Rebels” by E ic Hobsbawm. Fo one, he Rebecca p o es e s we e no simila o he ou laws in “P imi- i e Rebels”. Al hough Hobsbawm and Williams bo h ocus on how people s uggled wi h he ans o ma ion o hei socie y unde he wa e o mode niza ion, hey di e in hei esea ch on objec s which a e om di e en social g oups. The p o agonis s o “The Rebecca Rio s” we e small a me s and landowne s, which was no he case o Hobsbawm’s “P imi i e Rebels”. F om he me hodological poin o iew, he e a e some di e ences as well. Williams’ a gumen was mainly based on an analysis o he social and economic s uc u es o Wes Wales. Hobsbawm, howe e , was mo e in- e es ed in he de elopmen o he concep o ‘social bandi y’ and i s di e en ypes (e.g. he Ma ia). Mo eo e , Hobsbawm examined he ole o i uals in he social mo e- men s ha he s udied.18 By con as , Williams’ s udy on Rebecca’s Daugh e s lacks an analysis o he i uals and ‘ca ni al- ime’ beha iou , al hough i seems easonable o include i due o he uncommon na u e o he io s. Addi ionally, Hobsbawm based his book on acompa ison be ween di e en egions and pe iods, which was ypical o he B i ish ‘new social his o y’. In one chap e o “The C owd in His o y” Rudé e en looks a he Rebecca io s. Fo he pu poses o compa ison wi h Williams, Rudé highligh s di e en aspec s o he io s: Fi s ly, he a gues ha he c ucial ole in he Rebecca io s was played by noncon o mis ideas. He a gues ha he noncon o mis adi ion was e y in luen ial in he Rebecca mo emen because i exp essed “ he deep malaise o he a ming and labou ing popula ion”.19 Secondly, Rudé de o es asigni ican pa o his ex o an analysis o he beha iou o he mob, i s i uals, and easons o i s success o ailu e. This app oach, based on an examina ion o he cul u al aspec s o io ing, was he main di e ence be ween Williams’ and Rudé’s wo ks on he Rebecca io s. As Iha e poin ed ou , he s a ing poin o William’s analysis was an examina ion o he social and economic s uc u es, al hough, he did no go as a as o analyse he io s, A he beginning o he 1970s, Welsh labou his o ians had enough sel -con idence and decided o es ablish ‘Socie y o he S udy o Welsh Labou His o y’.20 Twen y yea s a e he ounda ion o he B i ish academic jou nal ‘Pas and P esen ’, in he 16 Ibidem, p.9. 17 Ibidem, p.11. 18 E ic Hobsbawm, P imi i e Rebels. S udies in A chaic Fo ms o Social Mo emen in he 19 h and 20 h Cen u ies, New Yo k 1965, pp.150–175. 19 Ge oge Rudé, The C owd in His o y. AS udy o Popula Dis u bances in F ance and Eng- land, 1730–1840, London 1985, p.156. 20 Neil E ans and Coleg Ha lech, W i ing he Social His o y o Wales?, Social His o y, 17/3, 1992, pp.481–482. OPEN ACCESS jakub S řELEc 67 yea 1972, he Socie y published he i s issue o he new Welsh labou jou nal ‘Lla- u ’ (Labou ), which included ‘The Chai man’s Add ess’ w i en by Ieuan Gwynedd Jones ha summa ises he main aims o he jou nal.21 Acco ding o him, he gen- e al aims o he jou nal we e “ o nou ish and sus ain he s udy o Labou His o y in Wales” and “ o encou age he p ese a ion o hose his o ical sou ces wi hou which such as udy would be a wo s impossible and a bes emascula ed and hin.”22 I is ema kable how he Socie y p oceeded o ul il hese asks. The goal was o c ea e ajou nal ha would se e as adiscussion o um whe e in o ma ion and ideas could be exchanged. The ounde s o he jou nal s essed ha ‘Lla u ’ should be a ailable no only o expe s bu also o a a ie y o people ( om s uden s and local his o y socie ies o ade-union g oups). In he in oduc ion, Ieuan G.Jones emphasizes his idea: “The e a e whole a eas o communi y expe ience abou which he academic his- o ian, com o ably cocooned and p o ec ed wi hin his p o ession, can know no hing. In-dep h s udies o he pas o his coun y can only succeed as acoope a i e e o in ol ing he enligh ened ama eu as well as he ained academic.”23 Fu he mo e, he ex emphasizes he in ol emen o he communi y wi h his o ical esea ch: “This kind o c ea i e coope a ion has always been an essen ial and ypical ing edien in he cul u e o Wales.”24 The goal was o e-es ablish aWelsh labou his o y based on he s ong ela ionship be ween he academic and non-academic sphe e. In his concep , he Welsh labou his o ians we e iewed as ‘public se an s’ whose main goal was o p ese e and de elop Welsh cul u e. Thus, Welsh labou his o iog aphy held an impo an posi ion wi hin he Welsh mas e na a i e. Howe e , one aspec o his concep is ques ionable. Should Welsh labou his o ians ‘nou ish’, ‘p ese e’ o ‘encou age’ Welsh cul u e, o was he e also enough space o amo e c i ical s and ha would challenge he na ional na a i e? The concep o Welsh labou his o y, in oduced in ‘Lla u ’, did no eme ge sud- denly bu con inued in he s ong Welsh adi ion emphasizing he impo ance o he communi y. This adi ion was mainly based on he in luence o noncon o mi y in Welsh socie y om he eigh een h o he wen ie h cen u y. The close links be ween he academic communi y and he non-p o essionals we e one o he p incipal as- pec s o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy. Mo eo e , his legacy o he ounde s has con inued o his day. Al hough he jou nal has been enamed ‘Lla u , he Jou nal o Welsh People’s His o y’ he aims ha e emained simila : o p omo e he his o y o he common people wi h open membe ship o e e yone.25 The ideas pu o wa d in ‘Lla u ’ shaped he u he de elopmen o he Welsh labou his o y. Fo ins ance, his in luence can also be iden i ied in he book “The Fed” (1980) by Hywel F ancis and Da id Smi h, which summa izes he his o y o he big- ges Welsh mining union, The Sou h Wales Mine s Fede a ion’ (known as ‘The Fed’). F ancis and Smi h claimed ha hei book will mainly se e non-academic pu poses: 21 Lla u he Jou nal o he Socie y o he S udy o Welsh Labou His o y, p.2. 22 Ibidem, p.2. 23 Ibidem, p.2. 24 Lla u he Jou nal o he Socie y o he S udy o Welsh Labou His o y, p.2. 25 Online: h ps://www.lla u .o g/abou -us/ (03.10.2017). OPEN ACCESS 68 WISOHIM/ESHP 26 “We would like o hink ha his his o y, […], will s and as a eco d o s uggle ha may ac as alink o hose younge membe s and hei amilies wi h hei own pas .”26 Ano he in en ion o hei book was o p ese e he his o y o he union o u u e gene a ions. Acco ding o he au ho s, he s uggles o ade unions we e he ‘g ea c ea i e ac s o wo king people’.27 In he in oduc ion, he au ho s also decla e ha hey wan o w i e ‘a ade union his o y’ abou ‘ he p incipal ins i u ions used and de ised by he Sou h Wales mine s wi hin, and o , hei socie y’.28 Thus, he au ho s con inued he long-s anding adi ion o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy co e ing he his o y o he ade unions. Acco ding o F ancis and Smi h, o w i e abou he union was he same as o w i e abou Welsh socie y: “[…] ou chosen union was, as we show, in ima ely associa ed wi h i s socie y so ha o w i e ahis o y o he one wi hou he o he would be o di o ce Adam om E e by academic dec ee.”29 As we can see, he au ho s a gue ha labou his o y should mainly be ega ded as he his- o y o ade unionism which— sligh ly exagge a ed— was also o hem ahis o y o he (whole) socie y. Howe e , F ancis and Smi h only use he e m ‘people’ o e e o membe s o he union. This is he disad an age o hei app oach. F ancis and Smi h a e only in e es ed in he ade unions, and he eby exclude a a ie y o expe iences o wo king class people, be i in amily li e o leisu e ime. In he book “The Fed” by F ancis and Smi h we can see all he main aspec s o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy: he connec ion be ween he academic and lay milieu as well as he ocus on he his o y o he (mining) union o ganiza ion and i s s uggles. One inno a i e aspec o F ancis and Smi h’s app oach o he Welsh ade union his- o y is hei ocus on he ole o he ank-and- ile membe s and hei expe iences a he han on leade ship o bu eauc acy. Mo eo e , F ancis and Smi h, who we e inspi ed by he ‘his o y om below’, had close links o he Fede a ion. This explains why he book was published by his union. Poli ical engagemen o he Welsh labou his o ians was no unusual. Howe e , i emains unclea whe he he publica ion o his book was no also he ‘swan song’ o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy adi ion. O e he nex decades, he unions los mos o hei powe due o he e o ms ca ied ou by he Tha che go e nmen . Bo h, Welsh and B i ish labou his o y, we e in he shadow o he cul u al and linguis u n. Asecond edi ion o he book “The Fed” om 1998, in which he au ho s ei e a e mos o hei o iginal a gumen s, clea ly dem- ons a es ha he me hodological basis o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy is a he conse a i e and esis an o changes. To sum up he main ideas o his chap e : The de elopmen o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy in he second hal o he wen ie h cen u y was a he linea and g adual. On he o he hand, Welsh his o ians we e no comple ely isola ed om he me hodological de elopmen o he labou his o y. The Welsh labou his o iog aphy 26 Hywel F ancis and Da id Smi h. The Fed: The His o y o Sou h Wales Mine s in he Twen- ie h Cen u y, Ca di 1980, x . 27 Ibidem, x . 28 Ibidem, x . 29 Hywel F ancis and Da id Smi h. The Fed: The His o y o Sou h Wales Mine s in he Twen- ie h Cen u y, Ca di 1980, x i. OPEN ACCESS jakub S řELEc 69 eac ed o he pa adigma ic change om classic social his o y o a‘new social his- o y’ wi hin he amewo k o i s adi ion. The wo k o Da id Williams, “The Rebecca Rio s”, was inno a i e in many ega ds; howe e , he compa ison be ween he wo ks o Welsh and B i ish labou his o ians showed ha he Welsh labou his o ians o - en lacked b oade pe spec i es, me hodological cla i y and in e es in he cul u al aspec s o he wo king class. The labou his o y o Wales was gaining in popula i y du ing he 1970s and 1980s which led o he ounda ion o he Welsh labou his o y jou nal ‘Lla u ’. In my opinion, he me hodological concep in oduced in his jou nal was aspeci ic eac ion o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy o he pa adigm shi o a‘new social his o y’. The jou nal no only emphasized ha he Welsh labou his o y should b ing oge he he academic and non-academic sphe es, bu also ha i should s i e o p ese e he Welsh cul u e h ough he publica ion o his o ical wo ks and h ough he ac i i ies o his o ians in hei communi ies. In 1980, Hywel F ancis and Da id Smi h published hei book “The Fed” which combines all hese aspec s o he Welsh labou his o iog aphy. In he 1980s, howe e , he unions we e ma ginalized unde he Tha che go e nmen and labou his o y was labelled an ou da ed disci- pline. The e o e, in he nex chap e , Iwill ocus on wha he Welsh labou his o iog- aphy did o mee hose challenges. WELSH LABOUR HISTORIOGRAPHY IN UNCERTAIN TIMES OF POSTMODERNISM His o iog aphy has unde gone anumbe o me hodological changes in he las hi d o he wen ie h cen u y. His o ians s a ed o be in e es ed in new app oaches in- spi ed by an h opology and linguis ics. As a esul o his de elopmen , his o ians be- gan o wo k wi h new his o ical ca ego ies: Ins ead o solely ocusing on class o na- ion, hey used concep s such as language, na a ion o ep esen a ion which became he co e o his o ical esea ch. To a o d an insigh in o his de elopmen , in his sec- ion Iwill b ie ly summa ize h ee ends which had he main impac on he w i ing o his o y. The i s end, which became soon e y in luen ial, was in oduced in he book “The In e p e a ion o Cul u e” by Ame ican an h opologis Cli o d Gee z.30 Gee z de eloped anew concep o cul u e in which he de ines cul u e as a‘web o signi icance’ su ounding e e y human being.31 E e y ges u e o u e ance ca ies also asymbolic con en ha exp esses he whole cul u e. To analyse hose exp es- sions, he in en ed ame hod o ‘ hick desc ip ion’ ha should con on and unco e meanings o analysed objec s. In he 1990s, his o ical an h opology in luenced by he concep o cul u e de eloped by Gee z gained in popula i y among his o ians.32 I in- oduced new opics such as he his o y o sexuali y, ebellions, wi chc a , and popu- la cul u e, which a he same ime opened up new esea ch possibili ies. The second 30 Cli o d Gee z, The In e p e a ion o Cul u es: Selec ed Essays, New Yo k 1973. 31 Ibidem, p.89. 32 Fo mo e de ails see: Richa d on Dülmen, His o ische An h opologie. En wicklung, P ob- leme, Au gaben, Köln 2000. OPEN ACCESS 70 WISOHIM/ESHP 26 end ha had amajo in luence was he publica ion o he wo k “Me ahis o y” w i - en by Ame ican li e a y his o ian Hayden Whi e. In his book he a gues ha his o i- cal ex s sha e simila i ies wi h he li e a y gen e a he han wi h scien i ic wo ks.33 In “Me ahis o y” Whi e analyses his o ical wo ks by in luen ial schola s (e.g. Toc- que ille, Michele ) o show ha he w i ing o his o y is based on he s a egies and ways o explana ions used in li e a y w i ing, li e a y opes (e.g. me apho , me on- ymy) and li e a y gen e (e.g. omance, agedy). Thus, Whi e s esses he na a i e cha ac e o his o y and a gues ha all his o ical accoun s ollow ace ain li e a y mode o w i ing. The hi d, and las , impo an end ha had an in luence on his o- iog aphy was he impac o linguis ics. The so-called ‘linguis ic u n’ was based on he wo k “Cou se in Gene al Linguis ic” by F ench schola Fe dinand de Saussu e.34 In hese ealms, language was ea ed as ade e minan o human hough s and as ac ea o o social eali y. In his o iog aphy, hose de elopmen s lead o ashi in e- sea ch in e es . Fo ins ance, his o ians s a ed o ocus on he analysis o discou se and he ole o language in people’s beha iou . As aconsequence o he g owing popula i y o he cul u al and linguis ic ap- p oaches, social and labou his o y we e acing ha d imes being pe cei ed as some- hing old- ashioned and ou da ed. B i ish social his o ians we e discussing his new posi ion o labou his o y. In an a icle om 1995, Pa ick Joyce clea ly desc ibed he si ua ion: ‘B i ish labou his o y is now almos mo ibund.’35 The jou nal ‘Labou His- o y Re iew’ om sp ing 1995 came o asimila conclusion, in which he au ho s em- phasized ha labou his o y su e s om i s ins i u ional o ien a ion, eu ocen ism, and heo e ical nai e y. This ‘Neande hal’, meaning labou his o y o ha ime, was hen unde mined by he suppo e s o pos mode nism.36 In he a icle ‘Challenge, C isis and Renewal?’, Labou his o ian Ne ille Ki k emphasizes ha he main p ob- lem o labou his o y is i s ‘conse a i e insula i y’ and ‘academism’.37 Howe e , he did no ag ee ha he B i ish labou his o y would no be able o enew i sel . Acco d- ing o him, he B i ish labou his o y should combine i s ‘commi ed’ B i ish empi i- cal adi ion wi h amo e ac i e engagemen wi h he new and mode n app oaches.38 Mo eo e , he s esses ha he B i ish labou his o y should be able o include in i s esea ch mo e compa a i e and ansna ional pe spec i es. Geo Eley, ano he in lu- en ial B i ish social his o ian, a gues ha he social his o y me hodology does no ex- clude cul u al and linguis ic app oaches.39 On he con a y, he e is no need o choose be ween he ‘social’ o ‘cul u al’ his o y because bo h disciplines can complemen 33 Hayden Whi e, Me ahis o y: The His o ical Imagina ion in Nine een h-Cen u y Eu ope, Bal imo e 1973. 34 Fe dinand de Saussu e, Cou se in Gene al Linguis ics, 1916. 35 Pa ick Joyce, The End o Social His o y?, Social His o y, 20/1, 1995, p.76. 36 Labou His o y Re iew, 60/1, p.2. 37 Ne ille Ki k, Challenge, C isis and Renewal? Themes in he Labou His o y o B i ain, 1960–2010, Labou His o y Re iew, 75/2, 2010, p.163. 38 Ibidem, p.163. 39 Geo Eley, ‘Dilemmas and Challenges o Social His o y since he 1960s: Wha Comes a - e he Cul u al Tu n?’, Sou h A ican His o ical Jou nal, 60/3, 2008, p.313. OPEN ACCESS