Ways to Enrichment in Argentina, 1880–1900

Ways o En ichmen in A gen ina, 1880–1900 Václa Š epeš INTRODUCTION In he second hal o he nine een h cen u y, La in Ame ica unde wen an eno mous economic and social ans o ma ion. The newly es ablished na ional economies be- came membe s o he wo ld ade and hei economic o ien a ion and policy b ough hem an immense amoun o op ions. The g owing demand om Eu ope and No h Ame ica o oods u and aw ma e ials o e ed poli icians, en ep eneu s and in- es o s in La in Ame ica he oppo uni y o p ospe . This p ocess was associa ed wi h he e o s o Eu opean in es o s o es ablish p o i able connec ions be ween Eu o- pean and La in Ame ican ma ke s al hough hei ela ionship was some imes am- bi alen . Spain ees ablished i s eign o e Cuba a e he supp ession o a en-yea s uggle o independence (1868–1878). F ance in e ened in Mexico in he 1860’s o suppo Empe o Maximilian, had se e al colonies in he Wes Indies, and con olled F ench Guiana. G ea B i ain, Ne he lands and he Uni ed S a es also had asphe e o in luence in Cen al Ame ica and he Ca ibbean. Ne e heless, wha was mo e se i- ous we e he ensions caused by in es men and comme ce.1 The in e es s o he Eu opean and Ame ican me chan s and in es o s we e o - en weakened by many obs acles leading o pe iods o poli ical and economic decline and ins abili y. Poli ical s abili y was o en h ea ened by e i o ial dispu es be ween La in Ame ican s a es, such as he Wa o he T iple Alliance (1865–1870), he Wa o he Paci ic (1879–1883) and o he s. One o he mos p o i able coun ies on he Ame - ican con inen was A gen ina. The main ask o his a icle is o ou line he mos bene icial ade p oduc s and he impo ance o land in A gen ina a he u n o he 19 h and 20 h cen u ies. This pe iod was ypical o i s ex ensi e p oduc ion, massi e Eu opean in es men and ela i ely libe al economy. All hese ac o s in luenced he decisions o in es o s o pu money in o A gen ine p ojec s, soil and bonds. Al hough an inc easing amoun o in es men lowed in o ag icul u e, he li es ock, mode niza ion o anspo ne wo ks and o he p ojec s associa ed wi h he hin e land and e ile pampas, he 1 V. BULMER— THOMAS, The Economic His o y o La in Ame ica since Independence, Cam- b idge 1994, pp.46–48. OPEN ACCESS 72 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2016 cen e o all business ac i i ies and he leading comme cial, poli ical and cul u al a e y emained as Buenos Ai es, whe e Eu opean me chan s could ope a e wi hou any signi ican es ic ions. CEREALS, MEAT AND LAND— ARGENTINE BUSINESS GOLD MINES A e decades o a ying deg ees o success and ailu e, which A gen ina wen h ough om he 1850s o 1870s, he si ua ion inally s abilized and he coun y be- gan o exploi i s po en ial. Economically, A gen ina succeeded in ex ending i s p oduc ion, capi al, labo ma ke and e i o y. These successes we e achie ed by calming he poli ical si ua- ion and due o he la ge olume o o eign in es men ha enabled hese s eps o be aken. In es o s a o ed A gen ina because o i s high a e o e u n on in es men , which in some yea s exceeded 10%. Mo eo e , pa icula ly he B i ish me chan houses did no ha e acompe i i e economic ad e sa y and hey could also bene i om he iendly policy and he poli icians. The con idence o o eign in es o s in he expo capaci ies o he A gen ine economy mean ha unds lowed in o mos o he ading sec o s. Mos signi ican ly, go e nmen bonds and in as uc u e de el- opmen we e abso bed and his pa ed he way o he massi e expo s o ag icul u al p oduc s ha ollowed o e he nex decades.2 The 1880s we e iewed by A gen inians as he decade in which A gen ina inally ealized i s g ea po en ial. The popula ion in ci ies as well as in e ile ag icul u al a eas g ew. The a e age annual income be ween 1880 and 1889 inc eased en old. The ole o immig an s in he labo ma ke imp o ed and he s onge domes ic ade helped he low o bo h domes ic and impo ed goods. The mos impo an ex- po commodi ies we e hides, wool, ce eals, and mea and in he domes ic ma ke Tucuman suga and la e , wi h he de elopmen o he ailway wes wa d, wines om Mendoza.3 One o he key p io i ies o he A gen ine Go e nmen in he second hal o 19 h cen u y was he inc ease in sown a eas and ag icul u al de elopmen . This e o was closely linked o immig a ion policy and coun y consolida ion and esul ed in go e nmen –suppo ed p ojec s o he o ma ion o ag icul u al colonies in he A - gen ine in e io . The numbe o hese colonies ose; besides he go e nmen , hese we e inanced by p i a e indi iduals and companies esul ing in an e e -inc easing numbe o hem becoming mo e independen and p ospe ous. Land began o be cul- i a ed mo e widely and he o iginal as pas u es o ca le g adually became a m- land. Cul i a ion o ce eals in he e ile a eas o he cen al pampas did no equi e ahigh le el o quali ica ion, he ha es could be s o ed wi hou majo p oblems while anspo cos s we e low. The cons an g ow h in he popula ion o he ci ies in- c eased he demand o co n, which undoub edly became amajo expo commodi y o indi idual colonies. Al hough i would be wo ded as coun e in ui i e, in he ea ly 2 G. FERRARI— E. GALLO (Eds.), La A gen ina del Ochen a al Cen ena io, Buenos Ai es 1980, pp.503–505. 3 H. SABATO, His o ia de la A gen ina, 1852–1890, Buenos Ai es 2012, pp.290–291. OPEN ACCESS VácLAV ŠVEPEŠ 73 1870s A gen ina was s ill dependen on he g ain impo s om ab oad. Ne e heless, by 1872 he colonies we e able o p oduce a o al o 20,000 ons o ce eals, which ep- esen ed one-qua e o he na ional consump ion.4 O he small supplies we e expo ed in he coming yea s o Belgium and G ea B i ain, and inally in 1878 A gen ina became en i ely independen om o eign im- po s o ce eals. I was he beginning o massi e expo s, which ook place o e he nex decade, and which made A gen ina one o he g ana ies o Eu ope. One o he bes examples is he iew o whea expo s. The o icial s a is ics show ha he num- be o A gen ine whea expo s in 1880 amoun ed o abou 0.5 kg pe capi a. This alue inc eased i e hund ed imes wi hin one decade. In 1885 i was 5 kg pe capi a, in 1889 117 kg and in 1890 almos 260 kg o whea pe capi a.5 In his espec , he u ning poin was he Immig a ion Ac o 1876. The policy o he A gen ine go e nmen mean ha he immig an s who had se led in he ag i- cul u al colonies g ea ly bene i ed. The main mo i a ion o hei a i al in emo e, eme ging colonies was he gua an eed land acquisi ion whe e he land size was on he gene ous side. The law se ou he p ecise di ision o he s a es land, whe e each sec ion was u he subdi ided in o app oxima ely 400 pa cels, each wi h an a ea o 100 hec a es. These we e e ained in pa o he s a e wi h he emainde di ec ly alloca ed o immig an s and o he buye s. The law exac ly de ined how he pa cels should be u he di ided, whe e he oads and highways would be buil and o he de ails. By law, he i s 100 amilies in each sec ion had he igh o 100 hec a es o land o ee and he op ion o buy mo e es a es. These could be ob ained immedia ely a e pu chase and also by paying a inancial deposi . The law also en- abled o acqui e land o adeb ha was amo ized h ough egula annual ins all- men s (usually o e a en-yea pe iod). The e we e also limi a ions, which p o ided amaximum enu e o land o 400 hec a es pe pe son. Se le s enjoyed many o he bene i s a ising om olun a y depa u e o ou lying colonies. One o hese was he p e iously men ioned ee anspo o he des ina ion. Ano he was ensu ing inancial backup o one yea o lodging, ood, pu chase o ag icul u al ools, li e- s ock and o he basic needs whe e he alue did no exceed 1,000 pesos. Mo eo e , he paymen o he deposi could be delayed o up o h ee yea s. In addi ion, he e was an al e na i e o pay e e y hing g adually, o e i e annual ins allmen s.6 The a o able condi ions and concessions mean ha he o iginal in en ions o he A gen ine go e nmen o he de elopmen o ag icul u al colonies in di e en pa s o A gen ina s a ed o be ul illed. O icial sou ces epo ed ha in 1876 he e we e 39 ag icul u al colonies. By as soon as 1884, his numbe had doubled while hei p op- e y g ew ins an ly. F om 1873 o 1881, he alue o mo able and immo able es a es in indi idual colonies ipled o 27 million pesos.7 4 J. SCOBIE, Re olu ion on he Pampas: ASocial His o y o A gen ine Whea , 1860–1910, Aus in 1967, pp.34–35. 5 D. PLATT, La in Ame ica and B i ish T ade, London 1972, p.68; SCOBIE, pp.37–38. 6 LEY DE INMIGRACIÓN y colonización de la República A gen ina sancionada po el Cong eso Nacional de 1876, Buenos Ai es 1882, pp.29–35. 7 V. BLINN REBER, B i ish Me can ile Houses in Buenos Ai es, 1810–1880, Camb idge-London 1979, p.131. OPEN ACCESS 74 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2016 One o he key e en s ha in luenced he u u e de elopmen o A gen ine ag- icul u e and li es ock was p essu e om he go e nmen o ex end he bo de s o he coun y u he o he wes and he sou h a he expense o he e i o y whe e he indigenous popula ion s ill li ed in he e ile pampas. This was in ended o acili a e he uni ica ion o he coun y and ensu e mo e land o po en ial immi- g an s, specula o s and ade s. This ask was unde aken by Gene al Julio Roca, who in he yea s 1878 o 1879 occupied la ge pa s o oday’s cen al, no heas e n and sou he n A gen ina. This so-called Conquis a del Desie o ea ned Julio Roca he p esidency. The seconda y phenomenon associa ed wi h he conques o he pampas was he immedia e sale o he newly acqui ed land. F om 1879 he go e nmen sold mo e han 9 million hec a es o land. The mos ac i e land buye s we e he eli e, especially he businessmen, poli icians and landowne s om Buenos Ai es. In o al, hese as lands ell in o he hands o less han 400 owne s. I was he second la ges sale o s a e land in o he p i a e hands since he 1840s. The dispa i y in he owne ship o he land did no discou age he A gen ine go - e nmen and he spec e o easily ob ained money accompanied by abu geoning clien elism mean he con inua ion o an es ablished end. The go e nmen sold he newly acqui ed e i o ies o he landowne s connec ed o go e nmen o icials, which in he 1880s, led o uncon olled specula ion on land and in he subsequen decade o an economic c isis.8 Despi e he low p ice o land in A gen ina, i was some imes di icul o buy he en i e land needed o o in es in encing o pas u es. In addi ion, he buye s had he unique chance o use he s a e mo gage bonds, called cédulas. The ope a ions wi h cédulas we e in he o m o he secu i y o in es o s agains ex inc ion and lende s. This sys em was bo owed om Eu opean land mo gage banks (o iginally om Aus- ia and Spain) whe e i had wo ked e icien ly o some ime. The idea was excellen . They wan ed o b ing oge he lende s and landowne s wi h he objec i e o u al de elopmen o ag icul u al esou ces in A gen ina. Be o e he banks we e es ab- lished, loans on he secu i y o land we e no ex ended. Lende s demanded e y high a es o in e es o he pu pose o eco e ing he in es men in he sho es possible ime ame and landowne s could no a o d i . In combina ion wi h o he di icul ies, a ming on he mo gaged land was qui e isky.9 Land–Mo gage Banks emedied his si ua ion, hei en y in o business wi h land was p o i able o bo h lende s and buye s. Th oughou he 1880s, hese ope - a ions we e p o ided by he banks Banco Hipo eca io de la P o incia de Buenos Ai es (Mo gage Bank o he p o ince o Buenos Ai es, ounded in 1872) and Banco Hipo e- ca io Nacional (Na ional Mo gage Bank, ounded in 1886). The mo gage banks ied o se condi ions ha we e sa e and mo e a ac i e o landowne s and in es o s. They usually o e ed loans wi h longe ma u i ies and lowe in e es a es han o dina y banks. A he momen , he loan was app o ed, ap ede e mined amoun 8 M. JOHNS, Indus ial Capi al and Economic De elopmen in Tu n o he Cen u y A gen ina, in: Economic Geog aphy, Vol. 68, No. 2, 1992, pp.188–190. 9 J. WILLIAMS, A gen ine In e na ional T ade unde Incon e ible Pape Money, 1880–1900, Camb idge 1920, pp.73–75. OPEN ACCESS VácLAV ŠVEPEŠ 75 was spli in o annual ins allmen s ha we e amo ized. The ime pe iod o deb epaymen a ied acco ding o he size o he amoun al hough he bank always se amoun s ha could easily be epaid. The bank loan was no g an ed in cash bu in he o m o bonds (cédulas) ha could be eely ans e ed and could be aded on he s ock exchange.10 Landowne s ob ained cédulas in he alue o hal he mo gage o he land. These cédulas we e sold by he owne on he open ma ke o ob ain he gold o con e ible cu ency needed o in es . The in e es on cédula was paid by A gen ine p o incial banks in ixed amoun s o pape pesos ha did no exceed 8%. A gen ine banks used he oppo uni y o anon-con e ible cu ency o edeem deb and in his si ua ion, he pape pesos became ago e nmen bond. Landowne s could pay o hei mo - gage by o e ing he bank ei he con e ible cu ency o acédula equal o he amoun hey had bo owed. In u n, he banks inanced in e es paymen s by using con e - ible cu ency o buy pape no es o by eissuing he cédula.11 Al hough in es ablishing Banco Hipo eca io Nacional he go e nmen pu in place es ic ions o egula e he numbe o bonds, he issue o cédulas, he numbe o indi- idual loans wi h espec o he p ice o land, and asys em o penal ies o bo owe s, apid in la ion nega i ely a ec ed all o hese. Banks we e o en unde he in luence o poli ical cliques, so despi e he es ic ions, he land ansac ions and cédulas we e almos uncon olled. A gen ina became he i h la ges so e eign c edi o in he wo ld, i s o eign loans amoun ed o 140 million pounds and i caused widesp ead specula ion in land and inance, which eached apeak in he la e 1880s.12 Fo example, in Oc obe 1887 he newspape Buenos Ai es S anda d epo ed ha Banco Hipo eca io Nacional was in ol ed in land specula ion in he a ea o Ro- sa io. The land, pu chased o 30,000 pesos moneda nacional, was alued one mo e ime by an expe sen by he bank. He es ima ed i s p ice a 12 pesos moneda na- cional pe squa e me e , which was 23 imes mo e han he o iginal p ice. Sub- sequen ly, Banco Hipo eca io Nacional p o ided o aland a ea o 56,900 m² aloan o 500,000 pesos. Howe e , he p oblem laid no only in he ob ious di e ence in he land p ice, bu also in he ac ha he maximum allowable loan amoun was 250,000 pesos, and i s alue should no exceed one-hal o he land p ice. Un o u- na ely, such suspec ed inancial machina ions we e no a e. Mo eo e , he go e n- men app o ed aspecial law ha abolished es ic ions on he issue o bonds. As a esul , he go e nmen es ic ions de ac o ceased o exis . The alue o cédulas in ci cula ion was quickly deple ed, al hough he p essu e om specula o s, in es- o s, and go e nmen cliques mean ha by he end o he 1880s he limi has been exceeded se e al imes.13 A he same ime, he land was sold o landowne s and specula o s legally sanc- i ied by o he a ious laws ha came in o o ce du ing he 1880s. These laws pa - 10 A. FORD, B i ish In es men in A gen ina and Long Swings, 1880–1914, in: The Jou nal o Eco- nomic His o y, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1971, pp.658–660. 11 Ci . H. SCHWARTZ, Fo eign C edi o s and he Poli ics o De elopmen in Aus alia and A gen i- na, 1880–1913, in: In e na ional S udies Qua e ly, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1989, p.289. 12 FORD, pp.660–661. 13 WILLIAMS, pp.79–81. OPEN ACCESS 76 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2016 icula ly a ec ed he p o inces o Pampa, Río Neg o, Neuquén, Chubu , and Tie a del Fuego. As a esul , a e 1890, he se lemen o e ile pampas became almos exclusi ely ap i a e ma e in which he A gen ine go e nmen in e ened a ely. In he yea s 1876–1903 A gen ina sold o dona ed mo e han 41.7 million hec a es o land o jus 1,843 landowne s. Six y-se en o he la ges owne s spli abou six million hec a es. The majo i y o he landholde s s a ed he p ocess o cul i a - ing he newly acqui ed land. O he s ocused on he li es ock, o hey le he land allow in o de o u u e e alua ion. Fo he indigenous people, who collabo a ed wi h he A gen ine a my, hey we e only alloca ed 43,000 hec a es in emo e and in e ile zones.14 The con o e sial A gen ine land policy did no dispu e ha he mos impo an ac o s ha impac ed he ag a ian de elopmen o A gen ina we e bo h immig a ion and in es men . The s a is ics demons a e ha he concen a ion o immig an s in A gen ina ose cons an ly. In 1895, aqua e o A gen ina’s 4,000,000 inhabi an s had been bo n ab oad and wo- hi ds o he o al popula ion li ed in he coas al a eas and pampa, he a eas ha we e he mos e ile.15 The popula ion s uc u e h oughou he second hal o he 19 h cen u y was iden ical. The numbe o young men o wo k- ing age ou numbe ed women in selec ed pe iods by h ee imes. Ano he ypical ea- u e was he high pe cen age o e u ns o he na i e coun y. In he yea s 1881–1910 up o 36% o immig an s e u ned o Eu ope, mos ly o I aly and Spain.16 The A gen inian immig a ion cu e eached wo peaks: he i s a he end o he 1880s and he second be o e he Fi s Wo ld Wa . Despi e he la ge numbe o immi- g an s, A gen ina could no compe e wi h he Uni ed S a es, which was he p e e ed des ina ion. A gen ina was a o ed by he esiden s o sou he n Eu ope (especially I alians and Spania ds), whose aim was o se le in he coun y and o e ime ob ain abe e social s a us.17 Al hough he ag icul u e and li es ock main ained mos amilies and some im- mig an s e en imp o ed hei social s a us o e asho pe iod, he a es o people who wen o A gen ina di e ed widely. Some o hem did no achie e hei objec i es and los hei money. In his case, he luckie ones simply mo ed away o wen back o hei na i e coun y. Howe e , ala ge numbe o disappoin ed Eu opeans had no such op ion. Due o he ac ha hey had in es ed asubs an ial pa o hei sa ings in his ip, an immedia e e u n was no possible. Some unde p i ileged amilies e en ell in o deb in o de o inance hei jou ney o A gen ina. In hese cases, hei commi men s we e epaid by all a ailable means, including p os i u ion and pe y c imes. In A gen ina as well as sou he n B azil, U uguay and o he places in La in Ame - ica, li es ock was an impo an sou ce o li elihood. In he case o A gen ina, he p oduc ion o allow and hides accoun ed o asigni ican pa o he na ional expo s and o he in e io p o inces we e he only way o making ap o i . The mea , due o limi ed op ions, was sal ed and sold o soldie s and peons. The u ning poin was he 14 F. PIGNA, Los mi os de la his o ia A gen ina 2, Buenos Ai es 2005, pp.319–320. 15 SCOBIE, pp.27–30. 16 C. PATRIARCA— E. WOLF, La g an inmig ación, Buenos Ai es 1994, pp.32–33. 17 F. DEVOTO, His o ia de la inmig ación en la A gen ina, Buenos Ai es 2009, pp.247–248. OPEN ACCESS VácLAV ŠVEPEŠ 77 opening up o he A gen ine ma ke o o eign in es o s and companies. The second hal o he 19 h cen u y was ypical o he inc eased demand o aw ma e ials in Eu ope. Howe e , in he i s s age, he e was no inc eased demand o A gen ine mea bu o sheep wool. Sheep a ming equi ed ela i ely good soil wi h plen y o esh g ass o g az- ing and i also placed highe demands on a me s and hei employees. Al hough he alue o wool a ec ed o eign a i s, in A gen ina he ex ended Me ino and Lincoln b eeds ha e been b ed speci ically o wool. Be ween 1856 and 886, he numbe o a med sheep inc eased om 16 million o nea ly 90 million uni s and he annual expo s in he 1870s was a ound 90,000 ons o wool, which a exceeded he demand o lea he , allow, and sal ed mea .18 Ca le aising was based on along adi ion, which emained almos unchanged du ing he 19 h cen u y. Lack o labo and capi al led o he b eeding o ca le, which was less demanding han ag icul u e. In aspa sely popula ed in e io , wo nume - ically spa se social s a a de ached: he u al peons and he ich landowne s. This made he A gen ine in e io ex emely unequal. The landowne s o med he eli e, which wi hin a ew decades engaged no only in ade bu also in poli ics. This eli e, known as es ancie os, we e he ue leade s o he in e io p o inces.19 Ca le b eeding can be di ided in o se e al phases. In he beginning, i was sal ed bee , hides, and allow p oduced o ma ke s in Boli ia and Pe u. La e , he ade wi h sal ed mea began o ocus on o he o eign clien s, domina ed by B azil and Cuba. In he second hal o he 19 h cen u y, Eu ope became an impo an ma ke . A he same ime, sheep b eeding signi ican ly expanded, gene a ing huge p o i s o A gen ine me chan s. P oduc ion and e enues om expo s g ew un il he 1870s when immi- g a ion, newly es ablished ag icul u al colonies, in as uc u e de elopmen and he inabili y o anspo esh mea o Eu ope esul ed in adown u n and o ien a ion o he p oduc ion o ag icul u al c ops. F om ha poin , he expo o hides and allow became seconda y and ca le aising was again ully de eloped and la e wen hand in hand wi h he in en ion o eezing boxes and cold s o age.20 This p ocess is closely ela ed o bee p oduc ion. Up o he middle o he 1870s, despi e i s undeniable quali y, bee was used exclusi ely o he local ma ke (ex- cep ions we e expo ed canned mea ex ac s) and o en did no p ocess he whole head o he ca le, bu only selec ed pa s o ob ain skins, ho ns and he bes po ions o he mea . This s a us changed wi h he in oduc ion o e ige a ed equipmen . The in en ion by he F ench scien is Cha les Tellie was coinciden ally i s used o anspo A gen ine bee o F ance. This in en ion mean mea could be anspo ed o Eu ope in he highes quali y.21 18 H. GIBSON, The His o y and he P esen S a e o he Sheep-b eeding Indus y in he A gen ine Republic, Buenos Ai es 1893, pp.33–38. 19 R. CORTÉS CONDE, The Fi s S ages o Mode niza ion in Spanish Ame ica, New Yo k 1974, pp.122–124. 20 P. SMITH, Poli ics and Bee in A gen ina: Pa e ns o Con lic and Change, New Yo k-London 1969, pp.32–34. 21 S. HANSON, A gen ine Mea and he B i ish Ma ke : Chap e s on he His o y o he A gen ine Mea Indus y, S an o d 1938, pp.45–51. OPEN ACCESS 78 PRAGUE PAPERS ON THE HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 2/2016 The F ench was ed Tellie ’s in en ion and he mea ade was soon pene a ed by B i ish in es o s. Thei signi icance o A gen ina inc eased a e 1880, when G ea B i ain, as he la ges c edi o , ocused i s a en ion on p ima y p oduc s. I i s ocused on whea and maize bu o e he ime, mo e and mo e money was pu in o he mea ade and a he u n o he cen u y mea indus y became he mos dynamic elemen o he expo ade. This p ocess was caused by a all in he expo olume o Ame ican mea . A ha ime, he Uni ed Kingdom expanded i s business in e es o A gen ina, which became one o he main supplie s o bee . A gen ina also supplied mu on and lamb bu aced la ge compe i o s, such as U uguay and New Zealand. De elopmen s in a ming and anspo echnologies, imp o emen o pas u e, emphasis on he pedig ee and be e b eeding condi ions aised he quali y o A gen ina’s mea and led o an inc ease in demand om G ea B i ain.22 The i s A gen ine e ige a ing plan was buil in 1882, called London Ri e Pla e F esh Mea Company, L d. I s ounde was an in luen ial B i ish me chan called Geo ge D abble who immedia ely linked i o he A gen ine ma ke , which ga e ise o his luc a i e business. In Campana, ap o ince o Buenos Ai es, a eezing plan was buil ha s a ed o expo mea o G ea B i ain jus one yea la e .23 Soon a e he es ablishmen o he London Ri e Pla e F esh Mea Company, se e al o he “ igo í icos” (companies ocused on eezing and expo o mea ) we e ounded in A gen ina. The as majo i y o hese we e pu in o ope a ion using B i ish capi- al. Coope a ion wi h o he o eign me chan s was also common, as was seen in he example o La Pla a Cold S o age Company, whe e B i ish in es o s wi h o he o eign g oups inanced he cons uc ion o his massi e p ojec . On he con a y, in es - men by he A gen ine go e nmen o suppo he nascen o eign companies we e limi ed. Fo example, he p e iously men ioned La Pla a Cold S o age Company was, in he beginning, exemp ed om paying axes, which ga e i abig ad an age o e o he companies. The echnical limi a ions mean ha he i s igo í icos ocused on he expo o mu on a he han bee and eal. The majo i y o bee expo s ensu ed shipmen s o li e animals. In 1895, 21.7 million heads o ca le and mo e han 74 mil- lion o sheep we e g azed in A gen ina. The bigges b eede s we e concen a ed in he p o ince o Buenos Ai es.24 Unlike mu on, he ade o ozen o chilled bee ose annually and a he u n o he cen u y became asigni ican pa o go e nmen income. In G ea B i ain, a e - age mea consump ion doubled and impo s lou ished. The expo o ozen mea in 1900 o G ea B i ain was 76,338 ons, and by 1903 i had g own o 131,000 ons. In he same yea , he olume o expo ed bee amoun ed o 60 ons. This apid g ow h was caused by imp o ing and cheapening p oduc ion and due o he ci cums ances ha 22 R. MILLER, B i ain and La in Ame ica in he Nine een h and Twen ie h Cen u ies, London 1993, pp.149–151. 23 HANSON, pp.50–53. 24 The o he signi ican companies we e: San Nicolas Wo ks, James Nelson and Sons, L d., Com- pañía Sansinena de Ca nes Congeladas, F igo í ico La Blanca, F igo í ico A gen ino, The Smi h- ield and A gen ine Mea Co. and o he s. J. CRITCHELL— J. RAYMOND, AHis o y o he F o- zen Mea T ade, London 1912, pp.74–85; SMITH, pp.33–36. OPEN ACCESS VácLAV ŠVEPEŠ 79 A gen ina u ilized. O he coun ies, whe e he mea indus y was p o i able we e in c isis. The wa in Sou h A ica a ac ed mea impo s, majo p oblems wi h d ough s in Aus alia a ec ed he quali y o mea , and labou oubles in No h Ame ican ci ies such as Chicago and New Yo k educed expo s. Mo eo e , he changes in he global ma ke and he c isis in he wool indus y in F ance discou aged A gen ine a me s om sheep b eeding and u ned o ca le aising. As a esul , A gen ina became he leading sou ce o ozen and chilled bee o G ea B i ain.25 The A gen ine ca le indus y complemen ed ag icul u e in many ways. Du ing he 1890s he sown a ea o whea and co n doubled and a e 1905 he e was also amassi e de elopmen in he cul i a ion o al al a ha besides being asou ce o nu ien s o he soil was also he mos common eed o ca le. The accessibili y o c op a eas p o ided asophis ica ed ailway ne wo k, whose ypically annula a ay ensu ed he mos con enien connec ions be ween u al a eas and he ci ies on he coas and he capi al, Buenos Ai es.26 Fo eign in es men , gene ous policy and sui able condi ions in na u e helped A gen ina o o ien i s economy o he massi e expo o aw ma e ials. As a esul o hese and o he ac o s, ala ge numbe o Eu opean immig an s ound jobs and adequa e li ing condi ions; hose who bene i ed mos o all we e he landowne s and he es ancie os. The Es ancie os de ended hei in e es s h ough hei ep esen a i es in he go - e nmen , inancial ins i u ions and ailway companies. Howe e , one o he mos im- po an ins i u ions ha associa ed la ge landowne s, whose main o m o li elihood was ca le b eeding, cul i a ion and leasing land o smalle a me s, was he A gen- ine Ag icul u al Associa ion (Sociedad Ru al A gen ina), ounded by one o he la ges landowne s Jose Ma inez de Hoz in Buenos Ai es in 1866. Despi e low membe ship, i was a e y powe ul body associa ing weal hy landowne s.27 They played akey ole in he A gen ine economy and he Sociedad Ru al A - gen ina was no hing mo e han an exclusi e club ha numbe ed only 237 mem- be s in 1872. Among hese we e A gen inians as well as he descendan s o B i ish, Ge man, Spanish and I alian immig an s. Thei economic iews, iden i ied wi h he heo y o ma ke libe alism, e lec ed hei poli ical decisions and s ood be- hind he massi e de elopmen o ag icul u e and li es ock. Many membe s o he communi y in es ed in ag icul u e as well as indus y. Sociedad Ru al A gen ina wan ed, h ough he a o emen ioned ma ke libe alism, o ocus he A gen ine economy solely on p oduc ion wi h he g ea es po en ial— mo e p ecisely co n and mea , and in he case o indus ial p oduc s ely on impo s. Howe e , in o de o no jeopa dize he p ope y o he membe s in es ing in manu ac u ing, hey con inced poli ical leade s ha one o he ew indus ies ha hey should suppo mus be ag o-indus y. Ne e heless, close links be ween he poli ical leade s o A gen ina and he la ge landowne s was ad an ageous o he bo h sides. These 25 CRITCHELL— RAYMOND, p.76; MILLER, p.151. 26 G. DI TELLA— M. ZYMELMAN, Las e apas del desa ollo económico a gen ino, Buenos Ai es 1976, pp.38–41. 27 SOCIEDAD RURAL ARGENTINA, Anales de la Sociedad Ru al A gen ina: Re is a pas o il y ag ícola, Vol. 7, Buenos Ai es 1873, pp.12–15, 61. OPEN ACCESS