Exemplary stories

Exempla y s o ies1 Vé onique Campion-Vincen Abs ac The a icle analyses phenomenon o he “exempla y s o ies”— apoc yphal anecdo es o en old a pa ies as ealis ic s o ies which supposedly eally happened, bu which a e in ac a ian s o socially qui e widesp ead, some imes e en in e na ional olklo ic na a i es. Also labelled as u - ban/con empo a y legends, his ype o na a i es is discussed in wide heo e ical and disciplin- a y con ex , including hei i ine a ions in he mode n mass media (especially newspape s) and popula li e a u e. Finally, social and cul u al unc ions and meanings o hese apoc yphal s o- ies a e p esen ed. Keywo ds exempla y s o ies, u ban legends, con empo a y legends, umo s, anecdo es, ai di e s, con empo- a y olklo e, o al cul u e The e is agame ha helps o pass ime a pa ies, oo o en mono onous: one mus be on he look-ou and no e, amongs he anecdo es na a ed, he “exempla y s o- ies”. One becomes apidly aspecialis o he subjec ; one is hen ale ed by he ell- e ’s assu ance, by he ac ha he s o y is p esen ed as ha ing happened o a iend o a iend o ye o people he na a o canno name h ough disc e ion, by he oo pe ec cha ac e is ics o he anecdo e, and especially by i s punchline, so elegan ha — as he wedding cakes o he p o essional cooks— “i looks oo good o be ue”. Wi hou being di ec ly linked o p ecise e en s umo s, ha gene ally conce n ambiguous o p oblem- idden sec o s o social li e, un a ound own. They a e gene - ally anecdo es, old as ue, a ibu ed o he na a o o o people close o him. They a e lis ened o in a iable ways: a one ex eme like jokes— anecdo es o which e - e yone knows ha hey a e no ue bu ha a e being old because hey sum up and schema ize in wo eplicas complex and jumbled si ua ions— a he o he ex eme as legends, s o ies o which all lis ene s (in he days when legends we e old) o ge ha hey a e p obably no ue. Ishall call his ype o ales exempla y s o ies since hey poin o an implici mo al. Exempla y s o ies a e pa ables, mo e o less anspa en . Like he My hologies (1970) desc ibed by Roland Ba hes in his analyses o he media hey ell mo e han i seems a i s . One en e s auni e se o in e mingled episodes in which ue mean- ing appea s h ough e asions. O en conce ning p oblem sec o s, exempla y s o ies symbolize and sum up ambiguous si ua ions, o which hey implici ly p opose an in e p e a ion, om which hey “na u ally” d aw amo al. A ew examples? 1 Au ho ’s ansla ion (1987, e ised in 2018) o “Les his oi es exemplai es”, published in Con epoin 22–23, 1976: 217–232. OPEN ACCESS 16 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2018 Exempla y s o ies, he anecdo es elling how poo people (Alge ians o coal min- e s om No he n F ance) a i ing om hei hu s o shacks in o he new lodgings hey ha e been conceded by anai e adminis a ion (unwa y o hei eal needs and desi ous o change hem in spi e o hemsel es, says he implici mo al) do no know wha o do wi h he ba h ubs hey see o he i s ime and ill hem wi h couscous o coal. Iha e hea d hose anecdo es, old by bou geois o No he n F ance in he ea ly 1950s, hen by F enchmen li ing in Alge ia “pieds noi s” in 1954. Exempla y s o ies, hose cock-and-bull s o ies exposing sec e ne wo ks o whi e sla e- ade. Powe ul a icke s a e e e ywhe e, acon inuous dis us is impe a i e, jus judge o you sel : Apoo old lady who acha i able young gi l isi s egula ly asks he o ca y ale e o ace ain add ess (and no o send i by pos o sa e he s amp’s money). On he way, he young o e - us ul Sama i an mee s he a he o whom she shows he en elope. This clai oyan man ealizes ha he en elope is emp y and he s o y ishy; he he e o e ac- companies his daugh e o he said add ess. As soon as he bell has been ung ag abbing hand comes ou , eady o g ab he innocen . (Hea d in No he n F ance in he 1950s) An e ening a he hea e : a espec able ma u e couple o e s o ayoung gi l queuing o cheap op galle ies asea in hei box: he iend who should ha e joined hem canno come and he sea is o e ed ee. De oid o mis us she accep s… And does no decline he d ugged swee s ha a e o e ed o he a he beginning o he play. Asleep, he innocen ic im is ca ied away in he dese ed co ido s by he diabolic couple when a iend a - i es mi aculously and sa es he in ex emis. (Hea d in No he n F ance in he 1950s) In aclo hing shop (shoes, glo es, linge ie o simply women’s clo hing) pa ons a e pu o sleep, ei he by he con ac wi h shoes o glo es o by aswee and ca ied away h ough sec e exi s hidden in he i ing- ooms owa ds sub e anean ne wo ks leading o Bue- nos Ai es (un il he 1940s) o o A ab palaces o oil emi s (s ill popula ). (This las ype o anecdo es has p oli e a ed in O léans in 1969, he shopkeepe s accused being hen Jewish. Howe e , Iha e hea d i se e al imes in he 1950s in No he n F ance, abou shopkeepe s om Lille o Roubaix who we e no hen p esen ed as Jewish) The aim o his pape is o p esen some hough s on exempla y s o ies, o emphasize hei di e seness and o y o explain he su i al, a i s sigh s upe ying, o hose ales who seem o be no hing bu absu di y, silliness, spi e ulness. EXEMPLARY STORIES AND NEWSPAPERS We e hey only ansmi ed o ally, exempla y s o ies would know amo e modes de- elopmen . Howe e , hey a e equen ly elayed and enla ged in mass li e a u e and OPEN ACCESS VéRONIqUE CAmPION-VINCENT 17 he p ess, popula p ess mos ly. The newspape is ami o . I accoun s o ac s and e en s, bu e lec s also ou hough s, d eams, desi es, belie s, my hs. Exempla y s o- ies a e o en di used in good ai h by jou nalis s who hones ly hink hey eally hap- pened. The expe ienced eade ecognizes hus anecdo es— unny o agic— ha he sees o eappea a egula in e als, some imes in sligh ly a ian o ms. Thus he unny anecdo e (published in he popula daily F ance-Soi in Ma ch 1973) elling how aTel-A i housewi e, coming home in he a e noon, sees apai o naked masculine legs s icking om unde he ba h ub in he ba h oom. Con inced hose legs belong o he husband, she da es an audacious ca ess. Su p ised, he plumbe ( o i was him, called by he husband, wi e unsuspec ing) s a s, bangs his head in o he ba h ub and passes away. Panicked, he housewi e calls an ambulance. The s e che bea e s laugh so ha d, when hey hea he s o y, ha hey le all he poo unconscious man… whose leg is hen b oken. Who doesn’ eel he knows his s o y al eady, especially i s con- clusion oo pe ec o be ue? I’ e hea d i o ally, in 1976, old by ajou nalis special- izing in human in e es s o ies, wi h a ki en which he husband was ying o ca ch unde he ba h ub and who ( he husband being und essed as he nigh was ho ) had un olun a ily e ec ed he bold ca ess. The s e che bea e s and hei leg-b eaking hila i y emained unchanged. E e ybody knows he s o y o “ he s olen g andmo he ” ha , as achild, Ihea d a ibu ed o a ich amily o No he n F ance, ci y o Roubaix. I was du ing he Ge - man occupa ion and he sepa a ion o F ance be ween an occupied and a ee zone. Ha ing d i en o aholiday in he ee zone, he amily suddenly sees he g and- mo he pass away wi h ahea a ack. Panicking a he idea o ed ape, hey decide o b ing he back su ep i iously and hide he body in he unk. Those emo ions ha e made hem hung y: hey s op o apicnic in he woods, ge away om he ca and on hei e u n ind i s olen. No mo e g andmo he , no mo e body, no mo e inhe i ance. This s o y was in he i ies he heme o aF ench mo ie L’a moi e olan e (The Fly- ing Cupboa d, di ec o Ca lo Rim) and pu sues ab illan ca ee , In F ance-Soi , in i e yea s, wo e sions o he anecdo e ha e been published as ue. One shall no e he absence o names, he Swiss sou ce o he i s e sion, he emba assed in oduc i e i s lines o he second e sion: Thie es ha e aken away he body o he campe s’ g andmo he How shall we b ing g andmo he home? The answe gi en o his ques ion by acouple o young Swiss campe s was o b ing abou he dismaying ad en u e old by he Ge man language daily Emmen hale Bla , p in ed in Lagnau, Be n can on. G andmo he was dead. She had joined he g anddaugh e and he husband on he Medi e anean Spanish coas . E e yone was sleeping unde he en . One day, hough, he old lady had no awakened. She had succumbed o ahea a ack. Wha was o be done? To decla e he dea h o Spanish au ho i ies? Bu om he e o Swi ze land, wi h wo bo de s o c oss, innume able o mali ies and big expenses we e o be an icipa ed. The young Swiss chose he simples solu ion o w ap he g andmo he ’s body in he en and secu e he “w ap” on he ca ’s oo . The c ossing o he i s bo de o e ed no di icul y bu , nigh coming, aho el had o be ound, he en being unusable on accoun o g andmo he . The ca s ayed on apa k- OPEN ACCESS 18 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2018 ing lo . In he mo ning, igh ening disco e y: all he camping gea , g andmo he in- cluded, had disappea ed. The young couple did no da e o ale he police. They wai ed o be back in Swi ze land o ell hei mis o une. Resea ches we e s a ed igh away bu he e is li le hope o ind he old lady’s body. (F ance-Soi , 10 h Sep embe 1970) Nan’s body was on he ca bo h a e s olen. F om in o ma ions supplied by he inhabi an s o he Mou illon neighbo hood, ci y o Toulon, he dis ic a o ney, M.Rou ain has asked he na ional police o in es iga e a e y s ange case: ag andmo he ’s body would ha e been s olen wi h he ca on which i had been ied up, w apped in ama ess, o b ing he back home. Bu he police has no ye succeeded o iden i y he p o agonis s o his s ange s o y. G andmo he has been s olen, o a he g andmo he ’s body. On Xmas mo ning. On Dec 24 h, he e o e, g andmo he ’s child en aca ioning in he moun ains and g andmo he (aged 90) being in us o he g anddaugh e , he g anddaugh e ’s iancé came a home: — We’ll celeb a e a my pa en s’. I’ll d op by o pick you up on his e ening. — You don’ hink o i ! Who will look a e g andma? — B ing he along! The idea was judged excellen . The g andmo he came in he young man’s ca and he e ening was g ea un. G andmo he ook pa in he gene al gaie y, d inking and eas ing wi hin he limi s (o abou ) allowed by he g ea age. Howe e , a e midnigh , she was i ed. — She can’ be d i en back now, said he g anddaugh e . — Doesn’ ma e , you’ll bo h sleep he e. E e ybody wen o bed. In he mo ning, g andmo he did no wake up. G andmo he was dead. — Wha will dad and mom say? c ied he young gi l. The iancé, acool-headed man o e ed: — We’ll d i e he back, pu he o bed and you’ll only ha e o phone o you pa en s: “G andmo he is dead, come back.” Alas, igo mo is is no ain exp ession. G andmo he could no longe en e he ca . The esou ce ul iancé decided: — Le ’ sw ap he in o ama ess and ie he on he oo - ack. No soone said han done; a ew minu es la e he s ange con oy eached Le Mou illon. — Quick, le ’s unload g andmo he , begged he young gi l. — Le ’s be ca e ul and i s make su e no one is in he way, objec ed he companion, he sh ewd young man indeed. No one was. Bu when hey came downs ai s he ca , and he ma ess, and g and- mo he had disappea ed. Since hen, no news. (F ance-Soi , 14 h Janua y 1965) The ale Ishall now ell is amo e ecen example o an exempla y s o y s ill in ull e olu ion. I has been published in 1972, by awell-known columnis who seems o OPEN ACCESS VéRONIqUE CAmPION-VINCENT 19 ha e been ooled. In his weekly column “Au il de la semaine” (E en s o he week), he edi o ialis om Le Monde, he e e ence daily o in ellec ual F ance, Pie e Viansson-Pon é commen ed he ac s o he week and mo alized abou hem. The main ac s o ha week we e he ial o he Clai aux kille s2 and he B uay case.3 A e commen ing on hose wo c iminal e en s, he columnis ells us an anecdo e: An elegan dinne in Neuilly, posh subu b o Pa is. One o he in i ed couples has le o he e ening i s wo child en alone a home: he boy, who is en, will wa ch o e his li le sis e who is ou . Le him open o no one, go o bed a nine he has p omised— and (in case any hing happens) he phone numbe o daddy’s and mummy’s iends is w i en by he phone. A en he phone ings: i ’s he li le boy. Hal laughing, hal c ying, e y exci ed: “Daddy, abu gla came. I’ e killed him”. The a he hinks o a ale, is amazed, ies o calm down, bu ala ming de ails come up: “Yes, i ’s ue. Wi h you gun, in you desk d awe . Abig man, wi h amask on his ace. He is he e, in he d awing- oom, on he ca pe ”. A las , he a he wo ies: “I’m coming igh away”. The hie is indeed he e, on he d awing- oom ca pe , in as eam o blood, dead as adoo -nail. When he had ung insis en ly, he li le boy had come behind he doo , hesi a ed, awai ed o awhile. Cu iosi y had been s onge . As soon as en e ed, he in ude had shaken him: “Whe e does mummy pu he money? And daddy?” T embling, bu esolu e he li le boy had shown him he d awing- oom’s sec e a y: “Mummy, i ’s he e. Daddy, in his o ice. Iwill ake i o you”. While he bu gla ummaged abou he sec e a y’s d awe s, he had aken ou o he o ice he 6.35 ha his a he had been ca eless enough o show him and, as in agame, as on TV, had loaded i , come back on ip oe and sho a he igu e leaning o e he sec e a y. The man had allen. Then he li le boy had elephoned. I is no all. The police a i es. The body is u ned up, i s ace disco e ed. Ac y: i was he son ( 22 yea s old) o he iends a whose house he pa en s we e dining. This hap- pened a ew weeks ago. The e was no complain , he ac ion o jus ice was s opped, he case 2 The Clai aux kille s we e wo con ic s, sen enced o long- e m, who had ied o escape om he jail, sli ing open he p ison nu se’s h oa wi h a kni e a e ha ing kep he as hos age o se e al hou s. Bo h we e condemned o dea h and execu ed, hough only one had commi ed he mu de . 3 In Ap il 1972, a young mine ’s daugh e had been ound dead and aped on a acan lo close o he pa en s’ poo enemen home, close also o he ga den o Monique Mayeu , ich shop owne , mis ess o a celiba e and shy o yish no a y ( his ypically F ench p o- incial cha ac e is a leading ci izen, membe o he social eli e) who equen ed p os i- u es and lied abou his comings and goings ha day. The e we e no de ini e cha ges, bu a small le is judge, le Juge Pascal, sensed he good s o y, kep alking o he p ess abou ho id bou geois mo als, accused and jailed he no a y. In his poo mining own, i was li le poo ic im s big bad ich kille and he s o y became big news all acc oss F ance. The case was la e aken ou o he le ish judge’s hands, he no a y eed a e six weeks in jail (and he la e won lawsui s agains he newspape s and magazines who had p e- sen ed him as he kille ), a young iend o he ic im’s amily con essed he mu de o he police, and hen e ac ed. The case has ne e been ied and he ici im’s amily, con- inced o he no a y’s guil egula ly and unsucces ully iled pe i ions o i s e ision o se e al yea s. OPEN ACCESS 20 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2018 has been closed. The amily spoke o an acciden and, o close iends, o asuicide. The li le boy is spending splendid holidays wi h his sis e . This news i em has igu ed p ominen ly in he p ess. I is news o oday, cynical and cool as his e a (…) This sinis e and ue s o y, whe e childhood is no innocen and he adul s a e all guil y, canno make us p oud o his socie y ha is ou s. (Le Monde, 2nd–3 d July 1972) A i s glance he anecdo e seemed imagina y, bu i s appea ance in espec ed col- umns aised p oblems. F om he appea ance o his imagina y anecdo e ha e sp ung he in es iga ion and e lec ions p esen ed in his pape . The in es iga ion Iha e con- duc ed wi h “au ho ized sou ces” ha could be ound: he p ess and he police. Fi s I’ e asked ques ions o jou nalis s. Howe e , shyness p e en ed me om app oaching he i em’s au ho , Pie e Viansson-Pon é, mainly poli ical ch onicle , au ho o se - e al books on he Fi h Republic’s policy. Ijus couldn’ igu e how o ell o his im- po an igu e: “Well, I hink you’ e been ooled”. No one ook he anecdo e se iously: i s sou ce was pu e hea say and no o he newspape picked up he s o y.4 One yea la e , awell-known Pa isian p ess co esponden o Aus alian o igin, Sam Whi e, published in he column “My Pa is” ha he was w i ing o an epheme al magazine apape denouncing he anecdo e: Iwould ha e been happy o be able o belie e his s o y old by Le Monde bu o asmall ac ha shook my ai h: o ell he u h, ha s o y, Ihad al eady hea d i in my you h, in Aus alia. A ha ime, in ha coun y, i had an an i-Ca holic u n and denounced he o midable powe o he Ca holic Chu ch in Melbou ne, amainly p o es an ci y. ln he Aus alian e sion, he un o una e a he was ap omising membe o he Labou pa y and i was D Mannix, o midable a chbishop o Melbou ne, who had used his in luence in his a ou , o hush up he scandal. (Pa is-Pa is, June 1973) The in es iga ion in newspape s and magazines was nega i e. Ano he au ho ized sou ce is he police: c iminal news a e announced o co obo a ed by he police. In Pa is hen, o aspecial body o jou nalis s acc edi ed wi h he police p é ec u e and called he “p é ec u ie s”. F om pe sonal o al in e iews wi h p é ec u ie s, Iga h- e ed ha his “mu de ” was ne e announced by he police. Ihad aphone in e iew wi h he public ela ions a aché o he Pa is police, M Lespinasse. He was ce ain he anecdo e was un ue: he police had ne e been called on he scene. A e he a - icle, nume ous c oss-checks— wi h doc o s, clinics, hospi als had been made by he police, anxious o exone a e i sel om he a icle’s implici accusa ion o ha - ing hushed up ascandal ou o conside a ion o a ich and powe ul amily. All hose c oss-checks had p o ed nega i e: “and abody simply doesn’ disappea like ha ”. The police sou ce was nega i e oo. One can’ p o e no hing happened, bu i ’s highly p obable. 4 Excep o he Cana d Enchainé, sa i ical poli ical weekly ha old he s o y b ie ly on he 5 h July 1972, wo days a e publica ion, in i s echo column. OPEN ACCESS VéRONIqUE CAmPION-VINCENT 21 A e “au ho ized sou ces”, he e we e “o he sou ces”. Iha e beha ed somewha obsessionally, elling he anecdo e o e e yone Ime . Iin oduced my s o y by ela - ing i s exempla y s o ies whose alsi y is well-known, such as mine s’ ba h ubs ull o coal, o whi e sla e- ade anecdo es. An in es iga ion on an exempla y s o y while i is sp eading is e y unse ling; a p ac ically e e y encoun e , I ecei ed he answe “bu ha s o y is ue. I’ e been old i by …” Checks made a my insis ence ha e always shown he ale’s sou ce o be “a iend o a iend”. The exempla y s o y has many a ian s: he age o he young kille could be 12, 14, 8 (10 in he sou ce a icle). Some imes he bu gla was only wounded, some imes he was dead, he anecdo e is always e y p ecise in he sp eade ’s memo y bu no , how- e e , da ed o localized (always “good” loca ions, hough: Neuilly, Passy, Boulogne). All social se s pa icipa e in he di usion and people who would ne e ha e dined oge he knew pa icipan s o his dinne . In my unsys ema ic in es iga ion Iha e me mo e han wen y iends o pa icipan s in ha banque . All ages oo: he s o y is mos ly old by 40–50 yea s-old, bu one o he elle s hea d i om adolescen s who had old him hey knew he mu de e . Nobody seemed o emembe he a icle. A e some changes, his ale became asc ip . ATV mo ie inspi ed by i was shown in Feb ua y 1974. Iin e iewed he sc ip -w i e ; no elis And ée Chedid, who old me she’d hea d he s o y “a adinne -pa y” (o cou se). In he TV adap a ion he young bu gla was only wounded, and he s o y cen e ed on he ela ionship ha was c ea ed, du ing la e common holidays, be ween bu gla and shoo e . This anecdo e lends i sel so “na u ally” o mo alis ic de elopmen s— mo als ge wo se and wo se nowadays, c ime lu ks and may sp ing up in he bes amilies— han one wonde s i i has no been buil on pu pose, c ea o s and di use s being equally unconscious o his ac . Bo n om he p ess, o a leas w ough la ge by i , he anecdo e o he elegan dinne and young delinquen has become ali e a y heme, a e aca ee in wo d o mou h. Newspape s also ela e exempla y s o ies wi hou being hei dupe, bu o de- nounce hem. They mos ly denounce anecdo es o a acis cha ac e . Thus, in 1969, he p ess has denounced he explosion o whi e sla e- ade umo s ha ook place in O léans. I s in e en ion was p o oked by he acis aspec o hose umo s and s a ed by he complain s iled by he Jewish shopkeepe s ic ims o hose ales. Likewise, he exempla y s o y o “ he a bone”, aimed a exo ic es au an s, ci cu- la ed in 1972 in F ance, in 1973 in Ge many. I was analyzed and denounced by Pie e Viansson-Pon ê in his Le Monde column “Au il de la semaine” (E en s o he week): Las yea , in he sp ing ime, he umo wen acc oss F ance in a ew weeks, om No h o Sou h, om S asbou g o B es . Oh, i was by no means an “impo an ” s o y. The anecdo e was always he same and, o cou se, he elle a i med, in good ai h, o ha e hea d i om someone who knew pe sonally he ic im o he misad en u e. Apa ien , su e ing on he mo ning ollowing adinne in a es au an , goes o his den is who pulls ou o his jaw as ange li le bi o bone. So s ange ha he conscien- ious den is has i examined immedia ely alabo a o y, who concludes ha i is de ini ely a agmen … o a bone. The den is elephones his pa ien immedia ely. Acomplain is iled. The police sea ch he inc imina ed es au an and inds in he ki chen a e ige a- OPEN ACCESS 22 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2018 o ull o dismembe ed a s. Sou h o he Loi e, whe e s o ies a e easily emb oide ed, he un o una e dine had nea ly choked on he whole bone, s uck acc oss his h oa , he had been ca ied o hospi al and he police had ound a a - a m in he es au an ’s ca e. In F ance, las yea , he es au an s hus denounced we e always Vie namese and/ o Chinese. Then he same campaign appea ed in Swi ze land. (…) Now, in Wes e n Ge - many, o eign es au an s, mos ly Medi e anean o exo ic lou ishing in he las yea s, ha e suddenly been dese ed by hei clien ele. (…) Commendable e o s ha e been made o igh wha appea s o be collec i e hys e ia. (…) Bu he e is no hing o be done. Vox populi answe s o e e y hing. (…) A one yea ’s in e al, in F ance and hen in Ge many, he same absu d s o y has sp ead like i e, b inging immedia e, conc e e, measu able consequences, p o oking ab u al change in he habi s and beha io o hund eds o housands o people, clien s dese he denounced es au an s. I is he e ha he anecdo e akes i s size han i can sca e, ha i gi es cause o hough . (…) One can wonde i , in he case o he a bone, amongs all he nausea ing bubbles i b ings o he su ace o he swamp, he e is no — beyond nai e y, silliness, g eed, male olence— he old xenophobic eeling, applied in F ance o awell-de ined ca ego y o o eigne s judged in usi e and p esumed mys e ious, in Ge many o all hose Medi- e anean and Asia ic sub-men, dedica ed o he se ice o he A yan who, yes e day… Le ’s no go oo a . I he able seems exempla y i is i s because o he da k poe y han he happy ci ies o he wen ie h cen u y bege sec e ly. I is also because he s eng h o his umo , a he ime o TV, adio, popula p ess, should be asubjec o medi a ion, no only o sociologis s bu also o mass-media specialis s and ende hem mo e modes . I is a las by he unsuspec ed o o go en pi alls, he a chaic enches ha unde mine collec i e consciousness unde he c us o ou com o and sel -assu ance and suddenly e eal hemsel es o ou s upo , unde ou s eps, wi hin ou sel es. (Le Monde 10–11 h June 1973) INTERPRETATIONS OF RUMORS BY SOCIAL SCIENCES How can we in e p e hose s o ies? They a e e iden ly aca ego y o umo s and umo s ha e been he objec o many s udies. Ve y di e en specialis s ha e been conce ned wi h hem: “His o ians and ju is s, conce ned wi h he eliabili y o he es imony; psychologis s conce ned wi h pe cep ion and ecall; psychia is s con- ce ned wi h he exp ession o ep essed impulses in communica i e ac s; and soci- ologis s and psychosociologis s conce ned wi h g oup p oblem-sol ing, public opin- ion and eac ions o disas e s” (In e na ional Encyclopedia o he Social Sciences, 1968, 13, RUMOR: 576–80). Ishall no y, in his pape , o accoun o all he heo ies exposed by hose spe- cialis s. Howe e , Ishall no e b ie ly he poin s o iew o he main disciplines upon he cen al p oblem o umo con en o ma ion. The social psychologis s’ poin o iew is qui e igid. They ha e wan ed o igh he ala mis umo s han ci cula ed du ing he wa in he USA and ha e he e o e pola ized upon hei inaccu acies. In se ies o expe imen al s udies, hey concei e OPEN ACCESS VéRONIqUE CAmPION-VINCENT 23 o umo as amessage gi en a he s a and s udy he de o ma ions b ough abou by he chain o o al ansmission. Model o his kind o s udies, Allpo & Pos man’s book The Psychology o Rumo (1947) poin s h ee ypes o de o ma ions: he ales a e e ined (and some ea u es a e kep and enla ged), a e le elled (sho ened, impo e - ished) a e assimila ed (d awing nea e o he cogni i e habi s, s e eo ypes, expec a- ions o he elle s). Those o mal, common sense indings appea ali le sho hese days. Ano he social psychologis , Fes inge , has gi en up all conside a ion o inac- cu acy o s udy in his Theo y o Cogni i e Dissonance (1957), he mechanisms ha b ing ape son o accep an uncheckable in o ma ion ( his is Fes inge ’s de ini ion o in o - ma ion ca ied by umo s). Will be accep ed, o made-up, he news ha ein o ce he opinions and belie s o he indi idual and co espond o his s a e o mind. Howe e , he links ha uni e opinions and belie s o he s o ies ca ied by he umo s emain di icul o p ecise. Fu he mo e, one does no see wha b ings one o wan o com- munica e, ansmi , sp ead he eassu ing in o ma ion. Pu ing he accen on ac i e elabo a ion p ocesses a he han on passi e di u- sion p ocesses, psychoanaly ic s udies (i is nea ly always he same ex ha is ci ed, as udy o Jung (1922) upon he di usion o a umo in aschoolgi ls’ g oup) ha e unde lined he impo ance o phan asms, desi es, anxie ies and hos ili ies ha ind an indi ec exp ession in he ansmission o umo s. Fo sociologis s, he umo s should no be conside ed as amessage de o med by a aul y ansmission bu as he esul s o social in e ac ion p ocesses. Finding hem- sel es in ambiguous si ua ions, o in si ua ions upon which hey do no ha e enough in o ma ion o be able o in e p e hem, men and women pool hei esou ces o make easonable es ima ions, uni e hei in o ma ion, in e p e hem acco ding o hei p esupposi ions and... build up umo s. Shibu ani’s Imp o ised News (1966) which p esen s his heo y de ines umo as: “A o m o ecu en communica ion in which men in an ambiguous si ua ion y o build asigni ican in e p e a ion o i by pooling hei in ellec ual esou ces”. The social in e ac ion heo y accoun s ce ainly mo e exac ly han he oo s a ic app oaches o social psychologis s o he majo i y o umo p ocesses linked o an unusual e en , o ac isis si ua ion. Howe e , i does no apply well o exempla y s o- ies, whose links wi h e en s a e e y loose. Wha “pooling o in ellec ual esou ces” can explain he a bone, he ba h ub ull o coal, he elegan dinne and young de- linquen ? And o wha “ambiguous si ua ion” espond hese s o ies who li e along sub e anean and slow li e and o which, when hey explode, nobody knows why i ’s he e a he han he e, oday soone han omo ow? The umo s o he ype “exempla y s o ies” ha e been s udied in he collec i e book di ec ed by Edga Mo in La Rumeu d’O léans (1969) which analyzed he explo- sion o whi e sla e- ade s o ies denouncing Jewish shopkeepe s ha ook place in O léans in 1969 and ha Iha e men ioned ea lie . This book s udied in dep h he mo- i es o he c ea ion and p oli e a ion o his phan asma ic ale in aF ench p o incial own and unde lined he impo ance o a chaic d eams and my hs in mode n imagi- na y. One ound in his book anew app oach o he p oblem o con en o ma ion o exempla y s o ies’ ype o umo s, lying beyond he psychoanaly ical app oach ( oo cen e ed on he indi idual) and he social in e ac ion app oach ( oo cen e ed on OPEN ACCESS 30 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2018 (Ve silo ) This s o y... i ’s wha he e is o mos ignobly pa io ic in ales o his kind. Bu how could Is op him? You’ e seen, he was swooning wi h pleasu e “and he hing eached he au ho i ies” hen his whole soul was singing “ eached he au ho i ies”. In hose pi i ul ci cles hose anecdo es a e necessa y. They ha e alo o hem, especially because o hei in empe ance. They ha e lea ned no hing, do no know any hing exac ly. Well, ou side ca d-games and hei jobs, he wan o alk abou some hing human, poe i- cal. (…) Talking nonsense, he sa is ies his lo e o his ellow-being: he wan ed o please us. His pa io ic eeling is sa is ied oo: o example hey also ha e his anecdo e elling ha Za ialo (well-known Russian indus ialis ) was o e ed 1 million by he English i he would ag eee no o b and his own p oduc s. (The adolescen ) God, Iknow his anecdo e. (Ve silo ) And who doesn’ ? While elling you his ale, he knows, oo, ha you ha e ce ainly hea d i al eady bu he ells i ne e heless, olun a ily ancying ha you don’ know i . (…) All hose anecdo es a e he limi o bad as e. Bu you mus know ha his ype o bad as e is mo e widely and mo e deeply sp ead han we hink. The desi e o ly- ing o please one’s ellow being, you will mee e en in he bes ci cles o we all su e o his in empe ance o eeling. Bu in ou ci cles, he s o ies a e di e en : wha is being old abou Ame ica, o example, and abou poli icians! Ibelong mysel , Imus admi , o ha ype o men and ha e su e ed om i all my li e. My iend, allow men o lie o you ali le: i is innocen . Le hem e en lie alo . Fi s you will p o e you delicacy and, in exchange, one will le you lie oo: wo huge ad an ages. One mus lo e one’s ellow being. Con olled my homania is mo e equen han is hough gene ally. I is o en lim- i ed o ap ecise ield. Thus, when con e sa ion conce ns he supe na u al, a ional people make s ange disclosu es, a i m wei d hings. A ouching case is ha o my cha ming old aun who hen ela es wi h con incing con ic ion ex ao dina y anec- do es o spells, ghos s, cha ms which she a ibu es o iends o which she gi es he names. Howe e , he ama eu o an as ic ales ecognizes easily he bes sho s o- ies o Claude Seminole, Jean Ray, She idan Le Fanu, e c… Gene al socie al ac o s explain he ise o con olled my homania: us a ions g ow as socie ies become mo e complex, mo e anonymous, mo e bu eauc a ized and as adi ional alues collapse. MEANING OF EXEMPLARY STORIES Like he my h, he p o e b, he able o he pa able, he exempla y s o y includes wo le els o meaning. The e is wha is being said, he anecdo e explici ly old, ha can be compa ed o he s a emen o he p o e b, o he ale o he my h o o he pa able, o he s o y o he able. And wha is no being said bu cons i u es he eal message o he s o y, such as he hidden meaning o he p o e b o o he my h, implici in hese wo ypes as well as in he exempla y s o y, o such as he un eiling o he pa able o he mo al o he able, who a e explici .As well as hose o he o ms o double mean- ing, he exempla y s o y is awo d ha ca ies weigh , ha imposes s ongly i s im- plici conclusion. OPEN ACCESS VéRONIqUE CAmPION-VINCENT 31 Behind an anecdo e’s alibi, exempla y s o ies allow o exp ess ep essions: hey will equen ly bea upon hemes ha co espond o p oblems e used o ep essed by collec i e consciousness. Two le els o ep ession can be iden i ied. Fi s he eel- ings, desi es, anxie ies, ea s o which he e is no clea consciousness: he ea o mode ni y o example. Second he eelings one iden i ies bu whose exp ession is censo ed by he g oup: in he old days, he wo ld o sex; oday acis eelings, ex- p essed in exempla y s o ies h ough anecdo es ha jus i y hose eelings in a ound- abou way. Wha a e he hidden u hs p oclaimed by he exempla y s o ies, wha a e he mo als o hose legenda y pa ables? Conse a i e and chau inis ic hemes abound in hem: dis us , hos ili y, ha ed owa ds o eigne s and change ind hemsel es “na - u ally” jus i ied. Anxie y is easy o de ec : wo y in on o accele a ed changes, ea o he new, he unknown; he whole lea es an imp ession o uneasiness, o anguish. Mos o en he e is no “a” mo al, bu acomplex se o implici hough s. behind ex- empla y s o ies. Con adic o y eelings a e exp essed by hem. Such is he case o he whi e sla e- ade anecdo es who pe mi o “say” a he same ime one’ s e usal o mode n e olu ion, ha o eminine ashion especially, and one’s igh ened a ac ion owa ds he deligh ul dange s o he abysses o ice. Exempla y s o ies celeb a e he wonde s o chance and des iny: he decei ed a- he killing his “ hie -son” o “wa -p isone ” mis aken by chance: Coming home wi hou wa ning a e ou yea s as p isone o he Ge mans, he inds he house emp y and an in an in ac addle. O e come wi h u y he h ows he baby by he window. A i ing soon a e he agedy, his wi e explains she was minding oday he baby o aneighbo . (The s o y, ha an h ough F ance in 1944–1945 “ old” he ange o hose who had been in such asi ua ion o good and “ad ised” hem o be mode a e) The success o an exempla y s o y gene ally implies ha i co e s ala ge ange: ex- p ession o ep essed eelings, a ac i e o dis essing; e i al o hemes de eloped by jou nalis ic my hology and mass-cul u e; up u e o no ms o o aboos wi h many esonances. The “bes ” a e hose who pa ake mo e o less o all hose dimen- sions. LITERATURE Auclai , G. 1970. Le Mana quo idien. S uc u e e onc ion de la ch onique des ai s di e s. Pa is: Édi ion An h opos. Ba hes, R. 1970. My hologies. Pa is: Seuil. Du Camp, M. 1893. Pa is, ses o igines, ses onc ions, sa ie dans la seconde moi ié du XIXeme siècle (Vol. 3, 13). Pa is: Hache e. Fes inge , L. 1957. A heo y o cogni i e dissonance. S an o d: S an o d Uni e si y P ess. Fes inge , L., Riecken, H.H., Schach e , S.1956. When p ophecy ails. Minneapolis: Uni e si y o Minneso a P ess. Feb e, L. 1962. “La Te eu ” in Pou une his oi e à pa en iè e. Pa is: Se pen. Jung, C.J. 1922. “Acon ibu ion o he psychology o umo ” in Collec ed Pape s on Analy ical Psychology. London: Baillié e, Tindall and Cox. OPEN ACCESS 32 STUDIA ETHNOLOGICA PRAGENSIA 2/2018 Lienha d , P.A. 1975. “The In e p e a ion o Rumou ”. Pp.105–131 in J.M.Bea ie, R.G.Lienha d (eds.) S udies in Social An h opology. Essays in Memo y o E.E.E ans- P i cha d by His Fo me Colleagues. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. Mo in, E. 1969. La Rumeu d’O léans. Pa is: Seuil. Paulhan, J. 1954. “Le bonheu dans l’escla age”. P e ace o His oi e d’O. Pa is: Tchou. Seguin, J.P.1959. Nou elles à sensa ion, cana ds du XIXeme siècle. Pa is: Colin. Shibu ani, T. 1966. Imp o ised news. Asociological s udy o umo . New Yo k: I ing on Publishing. Van Gennep, A. 1912. La o ma ion des légendes. Pa is: Flamma ion. Vé onique Campion-Vincen is F ench an h opologis and olklo is , o me esea che a he CNRS and he Maison des sciences de l’Homme, specialized in he sociological app oach o umo s and u ban legends. She is he au ho o O gan The Legends (2005), La socié é pa ano; héo ie du com- plo , menaces e ince i udes (2007), 100% umeu s ! codes caches, obje s pieges, alimen s con amines… La e i e su 50 legendes u baines ex a agan es (2014, wi h Jean B uno Rena d), and many o he books and schola ly publica ions. OPEN ACCESS